ALL-RUSSIAN CORRESPONDENCE INSTITUTE OF FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC
COURSE WORK
In the discipline "National History"
on the topic "Old Russian state (IX-beginningXIIcenturies)»
Moscow – 2010
Introduction
1. Formation of the Old Russian state
1.1 The era of the first Kyiv princes
1.2 "Golden Age" of Kievan Rus
2. Destruction of the political unity of the Kyiv state
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The emergence of a state is a long process, reflecting the fundamental needs of social development. Statehood grows out of society’s natural desire to streamline the increasingly complex relationships within it. Since its inception, state power has always solved not only military, but also judicial problems related to the resolution of intertribal disputes. The armed settlement of such conflicts became increasingly burdensome for society. Thus, gradually there was an awareness of the general usefulness of power, standing above private and tribal interests.
Among the Eastern Slavs, the state arose when property and social differentiation was not yet deep. Therefore, state power initially did not lay claim to serious participation in the economic life of society. Its bearers, princes and warriors, stood out from society on a professional basis.
The purpose of the course work is to consider the prerequisites for the formation of the ancient Russian state and analyze the political collapse of the Kyiv state.
1. Formation of the Old Russian state
The state in Rus' arose as a result of the political unification of two centers of the Eastern Slavs, Novgorod and Kyiv. One can speak with certainty about such a merger only after 862. But long before the arrival of Rurik’s warriors in Kyiv, a semi-independent proto-state formation existed here, nominally subordinate to the Khazars. The Dnieper Slavs had elements of statehood: they paid tribute tax in exchange for security and trading privileges, they were subject to supra-tribal rules of law and power structures. Historians admit that pre-Askold state in Kyiv and power of Rurik arose independently of each other and almost simultaneously. When they merged, the economic and political advantage was on the side of Kyiv. It was the center of the most developed tribe of the Eastern Slavs - the Polyans, who also voluntarily submitted to the newcomers from the north. Kyiv was an old hub for trade and economic relations between eastern and western countries. Finally, the road to Constantinople opened from Kyiv.
Rus' was no exception in the vast world of the Slavs, which in the 8th-10th centuries. affected the process of state formation. In the 70s of the 7th century. There was a political unification of the Slavs on the Danube, which laid the foundation for the Bulgarian state. Serbia arose in the 8th century. In the first half of the 9th century. On the left tributary of the Danube, the Morava River, the Great Moravian Union of Czech, Slovak and Moravian tribes was formed, which lasted only half a century before the Hungarian invasion. The Czech state was formed on part of its territory in the upper reaches of the Elbe River (Slavic Laba). In the middle of the 10th century. In the basins of the Vistula and Warta rivers, a union of tribes arose, which became the core of the Polish state. Croatia also appeared in the same century.
The process of state formation among the Slavs went in two ways: either by subordination to one tribal union (Great Moravia, Rus', Czech Republic, Poland), or within one union of principalities (Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia). And only the Bulgarian state took shape by uniting the Slavic union of tribal principalities with a foreign ethnic community - the Proto-Bulgarians, a people of Turkic origin. A common feature for all Slavic states, with the exception of the areas south of the Danube, conquered by the Slavs from Byzantium, was that they took shape in a zone that was not part of the distribution area of ancient civilization. Therefore, the entire structure of life and relationships was formed among the Slavs slowly, with a large degree of originality, as they say “ non-synthetically».
For Rus', what was primarily important was the specificity of its geopolitical situation: the pressure of the steppe nomadic peoples, the aggressive aspirations of neighboring developed European states, relatively weak cultural contacts with them, and limited access to maritime trade routes. Gradually Rus' turned into " defense society" The mobility of social life, associated with frequent movements of people, invasions of nomads, colonization of distant outskirts, predetermined the predominance of those coming from above vertical political connections. If in medieval Europe state power was weak and society itself had to solve its problems, then in Rus', on the contrary, the state gradually turned into the supreme legislator of public life. Here, the process of differentiation along social and professional lines was weaker than in Western Europe, and commodity-money relations developed more slowly. Horizontal socio-political connections could not take root here for another important reason. Military expenditures of the state with limited human and material resources placed a heavy burden on the population. It was in Rus' that the concept of “ladle” took shape, because the rate of exploitation of working people often reached 50%. The nature of the area also affected the area, which did not allow for an extensive communications system. The development of territory in a zone of risky agriculture taught Russian people to be content with elementary technologies and developed in them a “directly natural mental outlook.” Under these conditions, a legal consciousness was slowly formed, which initially rejected the idea that the application of labor to land could serve as the basis of ownership of it and the products of its processing.
So, state power in Rus' acted from the very beginning as a powerful organizing force, not accustomed to meeting serious resistance to its undertakings from society. This predetermined her predilection for direct actions of arbitrariness and violence. The factor of foreign origin of the ruling stratum also had an impact here. And although the Varangians mixed ethnically with the Slavs, the initially existing division into rulers and ruled was not only consolidated, but even deepened during dynastic clashes. Immigrants from Scandinavia played an active role in the formation of the country's isolationist-minded ruling stratum, although they did not constitute its majority. The sovereign in Rus' was not accustomed to needing legal support for his activities, so the idea of law and order did not become a generally significant value. The view of the country as a grand ducal patrimony did not allow the concept of property to take root even among a narrow circle of people close to the prince
1.1 The era of the first Kyiv princes
We can talk about the existence of the Old Russian state from the moment of the capture of Kyiv by Oleg in 882. Before that, it would be more fair to say that the Eastern Slavs had the beginnings of statehood. The first period of development of the early feudal state of Kievan Rus covers the time from Oleg to Svyatoslav, about a century - from the 80s of the 9th century. before the beginning of the sovereign rule of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, until 980. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, “with their sword the first Kyiv princes outlined a fairly wide circle of lands, the political center of which was Kyiv.”
At this stage, Rus' was united only mechanically, with the help of military force. She had no stable boundaries. The power of the Kyiv prince rested on the edge of the sword, luck, personal strength and intelligence of the “first among equals.” In the chronicle legend about the calling of the Varangians, his functions were defined as follows: “to rule and judge by right.” The Kiev prince was the military leader, the supreme judge, the addressee and distributor of tribute. From the 9th century he bore a double title: " kagan"("supreme leader" among the Turkic peoples) and "prince". Its adoption symbolized the independence of Rus' from Khazaria and emphasized the supremacy of the Kyiv prince over the princes of large tribal unions who called themselves “bright” and “great”.
The basis of the political system of Kievan Rus was the dualism of princely and veche power. Veche- the people's assembly - limited the princely power to elements of public self-government. People's elders - " city elders" - were full participants in the princely Duma. The competence of the veche included the election and calling of the prince, the conclusion of peace and the declaration of war, the drawing up of an agreement (series) with the prince, control over the princely administration and legal proceedings. However, the composition of the veche, the procedure for convening it, the course of meetings and the methods for developing veche resolutions - everything was left to chance. In fact, the veche could play a constructive role only in emergency situations. In normal times, its functions were performed by the prince, who, along with the veche and independently of it, had the right of legislative initiative. The absence of a definite order of relations between the veche and the prince opened up space for their frequent clashes and deprived state life of stability.
Along with the veche, the people's militia continued to be important - howls- another relic of ancestral antiquity. It was formed by large trading cities that had a military structure. Each of these cities formed a separate regiment, called a thousand and divided into hundreds and tens. The thousand was commanded by one chosen by the city, and then appointed by the prince thousand. Hundreds and dozens were commanded by elected officials sotskie And ten's. Elected commanders formed the military administration of the city and its region. The chronicle calls the entire senior staff “city elders.” The armed cities actively participated in the prince's military enterprises along with his squad.
Another government body of the Kyiv state is princely (squad) thought- did not occupy an independent place in the political structure. Its significance was entirely determined by the position of the squadron layer. The warriors lived in the prince's court, feasted with the prince, shared with him military booty and tribute. The prince held council on all issues.
Princely squad divided by older And younger. The first consisted of princely men, or boyars, the second - from children's, or youths. “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. Dahl gives three etymologies of the word “boyar”: from “battles”, “beat”, “voevoda”; from “bolyare”, “cheering about someone”, “caring”; from “more”, “bigger”. The boyars helped the princes in matters of government and commanded the princely regiments in wartime. The oldest collective name for the junior squad is “ Greedy"(from the Scandinavian grid - "yard servant") - was later replaced by the words "yard" and "servants" (hence subsequently - " nobility" Gridi, or youths, children, children, served in the prince's court and participated in military campaigns under the command of the boyars, receiving a salary from the prince. Together with the “city elders,” they formed the ruling military class of early feudal society. At the initial stage of the development of the state, a significant part of it remained alien, was called Russia and was sharply different from the Slavic common people.
The legal and ideological consciousness of Rus' was still nourished by the norms of tribal foundations. The law was in oral form. Continued to act blood feud. Byzantine writer of the 10th century. Leo the Deacon, in his story about Svyatoslav’s Bulgarian campaign, says that the Russians in his time used to resolve mutual disputes “with blood and murder.” Some rules of customary law were included in the treaties between Rus' and Byzantium in 911 and 944. According to them, for a blow with a sword or other weapon inflicted by a Russian on a Greek or a Russian Greek, a monetary penalty was due “according to Russian law.” It is difficult to distinguish its constituent elements: Varangian and Slavic. Thus, they swore by the Slavic gods to maintain peace. At the same time, the Varangians introduced a number of their administrative and legal concepts into management and law; yabetnik (bailiff), tiun (manager of the princely estate), grid (servant), vira (monetary fine for murder).
In chronicle sources there are traces of indications that long before the “Russian Truth”, as well as for a long time after it, right up to the 17th century, there existed in Rus' field practice- a special kind of judicial duel. The Arab writer Ibn-Dast painted a picture of such a duel in the first half of the 10th century. “According to him, if someone has a case against another, he calls him to court before the prince, before whom both parties argue. The matter is decided by the prince's verdict. If both sides are dissatisfied with this verdict, the final decision is left to the weapon: whose sword is sharper, he wins. During the fight, relatives of both sides are present, armed. Whoever wins in battle wins the case.”
The norms of customary law were rooted in the religious ideas of paganism. Their bearers were the Magi - free-practicing priests-magicians, champions of the veche traditions of antiquity, and the ideological support of the princely opposition. It was from their midst that the leaders of major popular uprisings came. The Magi inspired tribal separatism. The position of paganism especially strengthened under Svyatoslav.
The activities of the first Kyiv princes covered three important areas: 1) the unification of East Slavic tribes under the rule of Kyiv; 2) protecting borders from attacks by steppe nomads; 3) acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and protection of the routes leading to them. The work of gathering the Eastern Slavs under the rule of Kyiv was started, according to chronicle evidence, by Oleg. In 883 the Drevlyans were conquered, in 884 - the Northerners, in 885 - the Radimichi. The Vyatichi fought for their independence the longest. Only in 964-966. Svyatoslav freed them from Khazar tribute and included the lands of the Upper Volga and Oka basins into his state. The subordination of the unions of tribal principalities to the Kyiv princes was carried out at this stage through the payment of tribute. The autonomy of such associations has not yet been violated.
At the initial stage, the state did not have stable borders. The territory of Rus''s own lands was framed by a wide non-Slavic periphery of Finno-Ugric, Baltic-speaking and Turkic tribes. Many of them paid tribute to Kyiv. The peoples of the northern and eastern outskirts of Rus' did not know stable statehood, which facilitated their entry into the state of the Eastern Slavs. On the southern outskirts of Rus', things were somewhat different. Here he spread his possessions Khazar Khaganate. For some time, its tributaries were the Eastern Slavs, the peoples of the Volga region and the North Caucasus. Defeat by Svyatoslav's troops in 965-966. The central cities of the Kaganate opened the south and east to the Russians. At the same time, they were freed from Khazar tribute Volga-Kama Bulgars, who from that time began the process of state consolidation, and with it the military-political confrontation of Rus'. The victory over the Khazars allowed Svyatoslav to conquer the North Caucasian tribes around the same years Yasov(ancestral Ossetians) and subjugate the Azov region with the city of Tmutorokan to their power.” From the Russian settlements on the Taman Peninsula, the Tmutorokan principality was soon formed, where rogue princes began to flock in search of military assistance against Kyiv.
Victories over the Khazars, Bulgars, and Yases were of great importance for Rus', but the Pecheneg raids were constant. Askold and Dir, according to the Primary Chronicle, also went “to the Pechenesi” in 867. Oleg, as soon as he established himself in Kyiv, began to build cities around it in order to protect against the attacks of the steppe inhabitants. However, the absence of a border defensive system allowed the Pechenegs to penetrate far into Rus'. Their first dated invasion was 915. Then Prince Igor managed to conclude an agreement with Pechenegs. But he did not secure Russian territory for long. The steppe inhabitants approached Kyiv itself. The most dangerous was the siege of the capital in 968, when, in the absence of Prince Svyatoslav, the Pechenegs almost captured his family, and only his early return from Danube Bulgaria saved the capital from complete defeat.
The protection of trade caravans from the Pechenegs was another major concern of the Kyiv princes and their squads. A detailed description of the Constantinople trade trips of the Rus is found in Constantine Porphyrogenitus. A caravan of princely, merchant and boyar boats gathered below Kyiv near Vitichevo in June after the completion of the collection of tribute and set off. The most dangerous obstacle was the Dnieper rapids, where ships had to be dragged. Then an armed detachment of warriors landed ashore and moved out into the steppe to guard the caravan. After passing the rapids, the Rus made thanksgiving sacrifices to their gods, then descended into the Dnieper estuary, rested for several days on the island of St. Eleutheria (Berezani), where the ship's gear was corrected in preparation for sea voyage. Further, keeping to the shore, they headed towards the mouth of the Danube, all the time pursued by the Pechenegs. And only from the mouth of the Danube was the path to Byzantium safe.
The most important overseas markets for Rus' were Byzantium and the Western Caspian region. Here the interests of the Slavs intersected with the interests of the Greeks and Arabs, so trade relations with these regions developed only as a result of the military campaigns of the Rus. The very first campaign against Constantinople took place on June 18, 860. It is described by the Patriarch of Constantinople Photius, who explained the disaster that befell the Greeks as God's punishment for sins and disobedience. As a result of the campaign, a peace agreement on trade was signed on terms favorable to the Russians. Its text has not reached us.
This initiative was consolidated with varying degrees of success by all subsequent Kyiv princes up to Yaroslav the Wise. In 866, an unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople was made Askold And Dir. In 907, Oleg undertook his famous campaign on two thousand ships, ordering the nailing of a shield on the gates of Constantinople, “showing victory.” The result was the conclusion of a profitable trade agreement Rus' with Byzantium in 911. After Igor’s unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople in 941, during which a Russian flotilla of 10 thousand ships was burned by “Greek fire,” a new trade agreement was signed (944). Repeating many articles of Oleg’s treaty, he nevertheless deprived Russian merchants duty free rights- the main achievement of Oleg’s foreign policy.
Svyatoslav was more closely connected with Byzantium than other Kyiv princes. At the request of the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros Phocas, he conquered Danube Bulgaria. Svyatoslav moved the princely headquarters to the city of Pereyaslavlets on the Danube. In 971, the throne of Byzantium was seized by John I Tzimiskes, a supporter of Byzantine expansion in Bulgaria, and radically changed the policy of Constantinople towards Kyiv. According to the chronicle, having gathered an army against Svyatoslav that was numerically superior to the Russians, the emperor forced them to take battle. The Russian squad fought heroically and suffered heavy losses. Svyatoslav’s appeal to his squad before the battle became famous: “We have nowhere to go, willy-nilly or unwillingly we have to stand against the enemy; So let us not disgrace the Russian land, but let us lie down here with our bones: “We are dead because we have no shame”; if we run, then there will be nowhere to escape from shame; Let us stand strong, I will go ahead of you, and if my head falls, then look after yourself.” In 972, Svyatoslav concluded an agreement with Byzantium, according to which he had to leave his Danube possessions, North-Eastern Bulgaria became part of the Byzantine Empire.
In the Caspian countries, where at the beginning of the 10th century. Russians began to penetrate, political dominance was in the hands of the Arabs. The news of the first Russian invasions came to us thanks to the Arab historian Masudi: “This people is powerful, they have a large physique, great courage, they do not know flight, not one of them runs away until they kill or are killed.” The first significant campaign in Transcaucasia was undertaken in 943-944. Russian troops reached the Kura River and invaded Azerbaijan, even captured the city of Berdaa (Partiv) and, having captured the booty, left on ships.
1.2 "Golden Age" of Kievan Rus
The heyday of the Kyiv state occurred during the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich (980-1015) And Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). At the end of the 10th century. its territory was formed in the first half of the 11th century. The formalization of the administrative structure of the state and its ruling class was completed.
The process of uniting the East Slavic tribes under the hands of Kyiv was completed after the inclusion of the western lands into the state, which were called Galician Rus' And Volyn(982). The name “Rus” and “Russian Land” spread to the entire territory subject to Kyiv. Its borders extended from Lake Ladoga to the mouths of the Rosi River (the right tributary of the Dnieper) and the Psly River (the left tributary of the Dnieper). From east to west it went from the mouth of the Klyazma (the left tributary of the Oka) to the headwaters of the Western Bug. The country of the ancient Croats, Galicia, was in the 10th-11th centuries a disputed region between Poland and Russia and passed into one or the other hands. The lower reaches of the Oka, Dnieper, Southern Bug, and Dniestr rivers were outside the power of Kyiv, constituting its eastern and southern borders. Rus' and a remote region - Tmutorokan - were kept behind it. Communication with her was maintained along the left tributaries of the Dnieper and the rivers of the Azov basin.
At the beginning of the 11th century. was finally liquidated autonomy of Slavic unions of tribal principalities. Local reigns were abolished, and in their place were appointed prince-deputies from among the persons of the Kyiv dynasty. In order to neutralize the separatist sentiments of the local nobility, new princely cities were built instead of the old tribal centers: Vladimir-Volynsky, Turov, Yaroslavl. The territories ruled by prince-deputies were called volosts(from the word “to own”). The basis for determining their borders was the old tribal lands: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Seversk, Galician, Volyn, Turov-Pinsk, Polotsk, Smolensk, Murom-Ryazan, Rostov-Suzdal and Novgorod. In the largest centers, Vladimir planted his sons: in Novgorod (land of the Slovenes) - Vysheslav, later Yaroslav, Polotsk (Krivichi) - Izyaslav, in Turov (Dregovichi) - Svyatopolk, in the land of the Drevlyans - Svyatoslav, in Vladimir-Volynsky (Volynians) - Vsevolod, in Smolensk (Krivichi) - Stanislav, in Rostov (land of the Finnish Meri tribe) - Yaroslav, later Boris, in Murom (Finnish-speaking Muroma) - Gleb, in Tmutorokan - Mstislav.
The specifics of the political system of Kievan Rus were the next order of promotion of princes on the tables, determined by the ancestral accounts of the members of the enlarged Rurik family. Power over Russia was considered the collective property of the clan, and the use of shares of this property was determined by the degree of clan seniority of the prince. He sat on one table or another temporarily, pending a change in the order of seniority in the family. The oldest members occupied more profitable, but also more dangerous southern reigns. With each change in the personnel of the princely family, there was a general movement of all the princes across the tables, according to the new degrees of seniority. The final point of this next ascent was the Principality of Kiev, which was given to the prince, who was “in the father’s place” for all other members of the clan. The political dominance of Kyiv was largely determined by its economic importance. Dominating the middle and lower reaches of the Dnieper, Kyiv was a hub of trade relations with the Black Sea markets, which were of utmost importance for the well-being of the state.
Local public administration was organized on the basis feeding. The prince-governors were now entrusted with the collection of tribute. They sent two thirds of it to Kyiv, the remaining part received the right to distribute among themselves and druzhina administration. The role of the druzhina class increased in public administration. From among the warriors, the princes appointed governors to large cities ( posadniks), leaders of military detachments ( governor), senior officials ( thousand and hundred), land tax collectors ( tributaries), court officials ( Virnikov, Yabetniks, swordsmen, emtsev, driveways), trade tax collectors ( Mytnikov), minor officials ( birichi, Metelnikov), managers of princely estates ( tiunov).
At the beginning of the 11th century. In Rus', the process of establishing the ruling stratum was completed. It consisted of the zemstvo aristocracy, city elders and princely service aristocracy, warriors and administrators of the princes. By order of Vladimir, boyars, gridi, sotskys, tens and all deliberate men were supposed to come to his Sunday feasts in Kyiv. The princely squad acted at the head Russian merchants, which separated from its composition. The druzhina nobility has already become glorified and Russified to a large extent. And although in the 11th century. The princes continued to recruit the Varangians into service; those of them who did not later go to other countries quickly assimilated.
Thus, the equality of the pre-state era was gradually eliminated. Nobles appeared in Rus': “best”, “sculpted”, “great”, “get old” men. These were the descendants of clan elders, tribal leaders, supreme warriors-boyars, “princely men” now constituted a group of “zemstvo boyars” who had the highest status.
The formation of private land ownership was the material basis of social stratification. This process especially intensified in the 10th-11th centuries, when changes occurred in the agricultural system.
Shifting and slash-and-burn forms of agriculture gave way to arable in the form of first a two-field and then a three-field. Agriculture became the main branch of the economy. Interest arose in securing the land under the ownership of one owner. The tribal nobility turned communal lands into private holdings. This process was called “land stripping.” This is how it arose fiefdom(otchina) - land ownership, which was the full property of a noble family. It could be disposed of and passed on by inheritance.
In addition to the tribal nobility, the princely warriors, the “best people” who emerged from the communities, the local nobility, and the top of the conquered tribes became feudal lords. In addition to secular landowners, church ones also appeared. Church land ownership expanded due to princely grants and contributions “for the sake of the soul,” i.e. wills of church property. Princely land ownership grew both due to the seizure of communal lands and the annexation of wastelands and unoccupied lands. Thus, the estate could be princely, boyar and church. The patrimonial owners enjoyed three types of privileges: 1) own land; 2) exploit the labor of the population living on it; 3) carry out legal proceedings against him.
Originally arose land dependence. People who lost their land had to serve various duties in favor of the feudal lord for the use of land plots, which now became the property of the feudal lords. The second form of dependence is personal. A person, falling into it, was attached to the land on which he lived, and could no longer leave his owner.
To designate the entire ancient Russian society, people, world, there was a concept People. The entire rural population that opposed the feudal lords was called stinkers. Later they began to use it in the meaning of “rabble”, “man”.
Smerdas were divided into community members and those dependent on feudal lords. Their situation was different. Community smerds paid taxes and served duties in favor of the state. Those who were in land and personal dependence on the landowners had to work off ( corvee) or pay in kind and cash quitrent.
But the communal smerds, despite the difference in their income, belonged to the lower, disadvantaged population and were the environment from which the categories of the dependent population were formed. The transformation of free community members into feudal-dependent people was carried out: 1) as a result of the seizure of communal lands by feudal lords; 2) by distributing lands to warriors by the prince; 3) during the enslavement of smerds in lean years. This is how they appeared procurement And ryadovichi- people temporarily obliged to the feudal lord who fell into economic and legal dependence on him until the repayment of the taken purchase (loan) or the expiration of the contract (series). If they ran away from their master without fulfilling their duty, they were turned into slavery. During the period of early feudalism, such methods of dependence spread relatively slowly. Therefore, the group of personally free farmers remained significant, especially in remote areas of the country.
In the 11th century There were 60 cities in Rus'. This is a lot by medieval standards.
The old cities, about 20, which are mentioned in the Primary Chronicle, were tribal centers and major trading points on the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” New cities arose as centers of crafts and administration. They were born from craft estates around monasteries, princely and boyar estates. Often the Kiev prince ordered the city to be moved from its old location to a new one. This was especially true of ancient tribal centers - hotbeds of local separatism. The main category of townspeople were artisans, merchants And moneylenders. Noble and rich people had their residences in cities, so the urban population was also divided into privileged " white people", free from tax duties to the state, and " black people", who bore the main burden of the tax.
The slave system in the Old Russian state not formed due to a number of circumstances.
1. Among the Eastern Slavs, the decomposition of tribal relations coincided with the era of the collapse of ancient slavery.
2. The population density on the East European Plain was significantly lower than in Southern Europe - the hotbed of classical slavery, and amounted to one to three people per square kilometer, while in Western and Southern Europe in the early Middle Ages - up to 30 people.
The vastness of the territory and low population density, harsh climatic conditions that did not allow one to survive alone, determined the dispersion of production and the stability of the community organization of rural producers. At the same time, elements of slave-holding relations took place among the Eastern Slavs, as among all ancient peoples. Slaves in Rus' were primarily a commodity. The main source of their replenishment was captivity, but also, to a limited extent, debt, self-sale, birth from a slave, and failure to fulfill the conditions of a series. They were not widely used on the farm. According to their legal status, they were associated with the lowest category of the dependent population of Ancient Rus' - serfs. From their number was formed yard servants who performed agricultural and handicraft work. Some slaves were in the position of servants or educators of the master's children. All of them received their allowance in kind. The highest position among them was occupied tiuns- various types of estate managers. Slaves who were redeemed from captivity, as well as bankrupt merchants and priests who did not learn to read and write, fell into the category of the poor and disenfranchised outcasts or orphans.
Under the first Kyiv princes, taxes took the form polyudya. They were called that because they gathered from all people by visiting the territory subject to the Kyiv prince and his retinue every year from November to April.
Tribute had a natural shape. It included food, furs, honey, wax, etc. The size, timing and place of its collection were not strictly fixed and were determined arbitrarily not only by the prince, but also by his warriors.
After the death of Prince Igor, his widow Princess Olga implemented a tax reform in 945. She installed lessons- tribute norms, churchyards- places and times of its collection. The tax that was brought to the churchyards received the name cart. The streamlining of tribute collection was expressed in the introduction of a taxation unit. She was either smoke(family), or Ralo(farm).
As feudal relations developed, tribute turned into submit levied by the governors in favor of the state, in some cases and in feudal rent- in others. With the strengthening of the state, fees and duties, mainly trade and judicial, increased significantly: “customs feed”, “volostelin feed”, “sales”, “vires”.
The adoption of Christianity was closely connected with the process of establishing a state in Rus'. The strengthening of the central power of the Kyiv princes and the formation of a single ruling layer required a new ideology. Local pagan cults and their servants, the Magi, adherents of veche traditions of governance, became dangerous rivals of the Rurikovichs, bearers of separatist sentiments. Adoption Byzantine version of Christianity (Orthodoxy) was predetermined by the situation that had developed by the end of the 10th century. type of state and society in Rus'. The complex of imperial greatness infected those who accepted Orthodoxy from Byzantium, in which state thinking dominated the national consciousness. Idea " sacred Caesarism“could not have been more consistent with the interests of the isolationist-minded ruling elite of Russian society.
The very act of accepting Christianity was associated with the vicissitudes of political relations between Rus' and Byzantium. Vladimir, at the request of the Byzantine emperors Vasily II and Constantine, defeated the rebellious commander Varda Phokas and demanded in return that he fulfill his promise to give their sister, Princess Anna, for him. However, the emperors refused. Then Vladimir captured the center of the Crimean possessions of Byzantium, the city of Korsun, and thereby forced the emperors to send Anna to him. Only after such a clear demonstration of his political independence and strength, Vladimir was baptized in 988 and married Princess Anna. Many noble warriors, imitating the prince, converted to Christianity.
Upon returning to Kyiv, Vladimir began baptizing the residents of the capital, and then his other subjects. The people of Kiev converted to the “Greek faith,” according to Metropolitan Hilarion, “everyone is baptized not with love, but with fear of the commanded one.” Residents of the southern and western borders of Rus', who often communicated with people of other faiths and lived in a multilingual environment, reacted equally calmly to baptism. In the north and east of Rus', religious innovations met resistance. The Novgorodians rebelled against Bishop Joachim, who was sent to the city in 991. To conquer them, a military expedition from Kyiv led by Dobrynya and Putyata was required. Residents of Murom refused to let Vladimir's son, Prince Gleb, into the city, declaring their adherence to the customs of their ancestors. In the Novgorod, Murom and Rostov lands, by the time of baptism, elements of a pagan organization had already taken shape, and a priestly stratum of magicians had emerged and become isolated. In southern cities and rural areas, pagan beliefs existed rather as unformed superstitions. The Christian religion was also seen as a threat to the political autonomy of the northern and eastern lands - their subordination to the will of the Kyiv prince was based on tradition and was not as limitless as in the south and west.
The recognition of Rus' as a Christian state changed the level of its relations with European countries and peoples. The introduction of the diverse world of Rus' to the values of Christianity contributed to the unification of the inhabitants of different lands into a cultural and political community. Missionary activity among Finnish-speaking and Turkic tribes not only drew them into the orbit of the Christian world, but also softened the inevitably painful processes of the formation of a multinational state.
Together with Christianity, Byzantine political ideas and relations came to Rus'. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, the Greek clergy transferred to the Kyiv prince the Byzantine concept of a sovereign appointed by God not only for external protection, but also to maintain internal harmony in society: “you have been appointed by God to be executed by the evil, and by the good to receive mercy.” Vladimir sought to subordinate his practical actions in the public sphere to this ideal. At first, he even refused to apply criminal penalties, forgiving robbers. He made regular meals at the prince's court, where all the hungry could come.
Relations between secular (princely) and church authorities were initially built on the basis of a close union, which became a tradition of Russian history. Consent procedure (“ symphonies") of two branches of government assumed that each of them would maintain independence in its own area. The intervention of church hierarchs in state and political affairs took place only in emergency cases and was usually carried out at the request of princes or the population. The chronicles contain several evidence of the intervention of the highest clergy in princely feuds in order to reconcile the warring parties. This type of relationship was considered normal and existed until the era of Peter I. It was fundamentally different from the Western European one, in which the power of the Pope was placed above secular power in matters not only of the church, but also of the world.
According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, Christian ideals “penetrated deeply into the legal and moral structure of society.” The Church rebelled against the custom of blood feud. Church teachings forbade masters from torturing and killing slaves. Such actions were not considered a crime according to state law, but according to church law they were called sin and were subject to church punishment ( penance). In Rus', in connection with this, a custom arose: before death, the owner released the slaves according to a spiritual will or bequeathed them to the church “according to his soul.” Such people usually turned into semi-free farmers attached to church land. The Church introduced into ancient Russian society a new concept of family as a lifelong union of husband and wife, only consecrated by a church wedding, and prohibited polygamy.
Christianity changed people's consciousness and contributed to the birth of new areas of culture.
Christianity set before man the task of personal self-improvement. His bodily world was recognized as sinful and in need of transformation. Human cultural activity has acquired features of anonymity. The artist began to consider himself only a conductor of the image of truth, and not its creator. Along with Christianity, stone temple architecture, icon painting, church hymns, and Christian literature came to Rus'. Their own original literary genres arose: chronicles, teachings, lives of saints, stories. Among the ancient Russian literary masterpieces, “ Life of Boris and Gleb», « A Word on Law and Grace», « Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh" Outstanding examples of architecture were three St. Sophia Cathedrals: in Kyiv, Polotsk and Novgorod. The first monasteries appeared, among which stood out Kiev-Pechersk And Ilyinsky underground monastery in Chernigov.
The religious consciousness of the Kievan era took the form dual faith, Christian-pagan religious-cultural syncretism. This was especially clearly manifested in the ease with which the ancient Russian people entered the Christian annual liturgical circle. It turned out to be exactly superimposed on the sacred calendar of the ancient Slavs. The archaic heritage was deposited in the melodic structure of chants and fresco ornaments of churches.
The legal system of the state was formalized in writing during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. The chronicle connects this fact with the events of 1016, when the civil strife between the sons of Vladimir, Yaroslav and Svyatopolk was in full swing. After Yaroslav occupied Kyiv, releasing the Novgorodians loyal to him home, he gave them the “Charter” and “Truth” with the words: “According to this, walk and keep it, just as I wrote it off to you.” This is how “ Yaroslav's truth" - the oldest part of "Russian Truth" - the first national normative collection. Added later " Pravda Yaroslavich", she compiled the so-called Brief Edition " Russian Truth».
Its most developed part was the system of punishments, the nature of which proves that in the 11th century. Some norms of the tribal system were still alive. “Yaroslav’s Truth” allowed for blood feud, but limited it by precisely defining the circle of close relatives who had the right to take revenge: father, son, brother, nephew. “Pravda Yaroslavichy”, instead of blood feud prohibited by that time, introduced a fine for murder ( virus), which was divided depending on the social status of the killed within very wide limits: from 80 to 5 hryvnia.
"Russian Truth" was born in the environment of church jurisdiction. It was not an independent law book, but a collection of articles supplementing the “Helmsman’s Book” and compiled under the influence of monuments of church-Byzantine law. As an example of ancient Russian codification, “Russian Truth” did not approve new legal norms, but only put in order the rules established by legal custom and legislation. It was not a product of the princely legislative power, although it received binding effect as a legislative code in that part of Russian society over which church jurisdiction in non-church matters extended.
Until the middle of the 11th century. Princely courts, due to the strength of ancient customs, could completely do without a written code of laws. However, the rooting of the Christian Church in Russian society, the novelty of legal concepts and relations introduced by it, necessitated a written presentation of the existing judicial order, which corresponded to the changed state of affairs. This explains why Russkaya Pravda ignores legal duel, widely practiced in ancient Russian legal proceedings, and does not know death penalty. The most serious crimes, such as murder and red-handed theft, were tried by the church court with the participation of a princely judge, who, in all likelihood, handed down the death sentence. In addition, the Christian normative monument could not accept the idea of execution due to its incompatibility with the Gospel view of man.
So, “Russian Truth” did not fully and correctly reflect the legal order of Ancient Rus'. She simply kept silent about what she considered necessary to eliminate from judicial practice and what the church court did not accept: judicial combat and private violence. On the other hand, it supplemented the existing law, formulating such legal cases and relations to which this law did not provide direct answers: articles on inheritance and servitude. “Therefore, Russian Truth,” wrote V.O. Klyuchevsky, - can be considered a fairly true, but not a complete reflection of the legal order of her time. It did not introduce a new law to replace the existing one; but not all parts of the existing law are reproduced in it, but the reproduced parts are replenished and developed, processed and presented as clearly as perhaps the princely judge of that time would not have been able to do this. Russian Truth is a good, but broken mirror of Russian law of the 11th-12th centuries.”
The first Christian princes, Vladimir and Yaroslav, acted as sovereign rulers. They put an end to the practice of remote military-robbery expeditions to Byzantium and the Caspian Sea, and the war with steppe nomads on the border was replaced by systematic border defense and regular military colonization of dangerous outskirts. Vladimir was still connected by military-political relations with Byzantium. But already under Yaroslav the Wise, the last Russian campaign against Constantinople was carried out under the leadership of one of the prince’s sons, which ended in the defeat of the Russian squad. Yaroslav preferred to strengthen the international ties of Rus' by concluding dynastic marriages.
The relations between Rus' and its closest neighbor Poland, which was formed in the middle of the 10th century, developed in a special way. The first clash between the Russians and Poles took place at the very beginning of Vladimir’s reign, in 981-982. Then the prince conquered from them the city of Przemysl on the San River and the so-called “ Cherven cities» in the basin of the right tributary of the Vistula River Vepri. At the beginning of the 11th century. During the war with Germany, the Polish king Boleslav I the Brave captured the Czech Republic and made three campaigns against Kyiv (1013, 1015, 1018). Moreover, Svyatopolk the Accursed, son of Vladimir, who fought for the Kiev table with his brother Yaroslav, twice brought the Poles to Rus'. During this strife, “Chervonnaya Rus” was lost again. And only having strengthened his position on the Kiev throne, Yaroslav, in alliance with his brother Mstislav, managed to conquer the Lyash land and return Galicia in 1031. Yaroslav resettled the captured Poles on the border territory along the Ros River. The first stable long-term alliance between Russia and Poland was concluded in 1039-1047.
Campaigns to the lands bordering Russia played a major role in the military-political activities of Vladimir and Yaroslav. Thus, Vladimir once again pacified the Volga Bulgars and concluded a trade alliance with them in 1006. Yaroslav in 1029 went “to Yasy” (Ossetians), and in 1030 he made campaigns against Yatvingians(Lithuanians) and the Baltic lands chudi. This is how the chronicles were called by the Estonian tribes who lived along the Onega and Northern Dvina rivers. To the west of Lake Peipus, he built the city of Yuriev (Yuri is the Christian name of Yaroslav the Wise), the northern outpost of Rus' (later called Dorpat by the Germans and Tartu by the Estonians). The lands between the Pechora River and the Ural Range, inhabited Ugrami(Khant and Mansi Finnish-speaking tribes) were subjected to active colonization of Novgorod during this period. The Russian advance was not always peaceful. So, in 1032 the Yugras beat the Novgorodians. It entered into tributary relations with Novgorod in 1042. yam- a Baltic-Finnish tribe that has lived since ancient times in the territory of inland Finland.
In 1036, in the last significant battle, the Russians defeated the Pechenegs, some of whom then went to the Danube in Hungary, and the other part settled in border lands. Here, even under Vladimir, the construction of border towns began to protect against nomads. The construction of guard fortresses was carried out along the rivers bordering the steppe: Desna, Seima, Sula, Rosi, Trubezh, Stugna. The population conscripted from the northern regions began to live in fortified towns as garrisons. In addition, in the Sula area, winding multi-mile earthen ramparts with wide and deep ditches were erected. The city of Pereyaslavl on the Trubezh River and Yuryev Porossky were considered border centers. The latter was erected by Yaroslav the Wise on the Ros River. Porosye has become a densely populated country since the time of Yaroslav. A mixed population lived here. Next to the Poles captives whom Yaroslav put here, Russian immigrants settled and peaceful nomads: Berendeys, Torks and even Pechenegs who joined Rus' to fight the Polovtsians. The Russians, unlike the wild steppe inhabitants, called them “their filthy ones.”
2. Destruction of the political unity of the Kyiv state
In the second half of the 11th century. The collapse of the Kyiv state began. This time cannot yet be completely considered a period of feudal fragmentation. It would be more correct to call it the stage of acute princely civil strife that preceded the final destruction of the political unity of Rus', which occurred only in the second third of the 12th century.
Leaving " row"(testament) to his sons, Yaroslav the Wise acted according to tradition. He seated them in different cities, and gave the Kiev throne to the eldest. So, Izyaslav received Kyiv, Svyatoslav - Chernigov, Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl, Igor - Vladimir-Volynsky, and Vyacheslav - Smolensk. Yaroslav's eldest son Vladimir died during his father's lifetime, so Vladimir's son, Rostislav, was not given an inheritance (an outcast). Yaroslav arranged the possessions of his sons in stripes in the hope of overcoming the possibility of future fragmentation of the country and creating conditions for the collective rule of the princes. Having divided the lands, Yaroslav bequeathed to the children “not to cross the limit, brother, nor to drive them away,” and to honor the elder “ in father's place».
The younger Yaroslavichs - Vyacheslav and Igor - soon died, and the administration of Russia began to be carried out by triumvirate Yaroslav's eldest sons - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. At first, he acted quite consistently and successfully. The elder Yaroslavichs fought with a united front against the cousin of the rogue prince Rostislav Vladimirovich, who captured Tmutorokan, and the cousin of Vseslav Bryachislavovich of Polotsk, who tried to take possession of Novgorod and Pskov. They also made an important change to the legislation to abolish blood feud and replace it with “vira” in favor of the prince and “golovnichestvo” in favor of the relatives of the victims.
However, the triumvirate did not last long. The prologue to its collapse was the events of 1068. The Polovtsians defeated the Yaroslavichs on the Alta River (near Pereyaslavl in Kyiv). The people of Kiev demanded weapons from Izyaslav for self-defense. The prince's refusal marked the beginning of the Kiev uprising. Izyaslav fled to Poland, and the townspeople proclaimed Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, having first freed him from the “cut,” an underground prison where he had been imprisoned by the Yaroslavichs. Vseslav held Kyiv for seven months and was expelled by Izyaslav, who returned to Kyiv with his cousin, the Polish king Boleslav II the Bold, who helped him bring the Kievites to obedience.
In 1073, strife broke out between the Yaroslavichs, and the triumvirate fell apart. After the death of Izyaslav in 1078 and the death of Svyatoslav in 1075, the third son of Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod, became the great prince of Kyiv. His rather long reign (until 1093) was the most turbulent. IN " which", i.e. disputes over possessions, the grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise became involved. Order and justice finally fell into disrepair. Polovtsian raids intensified as never before. Kyiv « table” until 1113 was occupied by Izyaslav’s son Svyatopolk II, the eldest of the grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise, although the people of Kiev called Vsevolod’s son, Vladimir Monomakh. Svyatopolk was unpopular among the people. He preferred to maintain his authority by force. Unscrupulous in his means of enrichment, he speculated in salt and bread and patronized Jewish moneylenders. The death of Svyatopolk was marked by a powerful popular uprising in Kyiv, which brought Vladimir Monomakh to power.
So, the nature of civil strife in the second half of the 11th century. qualitatively different from the previous ones. If earlier the struggle between brother claimants ended in victory and autocracy of one, then the clash between the sons and grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise led to different results - the formation of separate princely domains. Each prince now sought to retain for himself " fatherhood", i.e. his father's land. Since the authority of simple force prevailed, the Kyiv princes preferred to own only key cities, seating their sons and allies in them. The need to expand the Kyiv borders was met with the opposite desire of the other princes not only to defend their homelands, but also to increase their size. Since different princes could successively occupy the “table” in the same city, the paternal rights of their children were intertwined. The situation was aggravated by the issue of rogue princes who sought to strengthen the reigns of their fathers. Representatives of the outcasts in this struggle were the Chernigov princes, the sons of Svyatoslav Yaroslavovich and the sons of Rostislav Vladimirovich, the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, whose father, Yaroslav's eldest son, Vladimir, died during his father's lifetime, not having time to receive his share of the inheritance. The claims of the rogue princes collided with the legitimate claims of the princes, based on the rules of successive ascension in seniority. These relationships of seniority themselves began to get confused in the second and third generations of the Yaroslavichs. For example, an insoluble question arose: who has the advantage of seniority - the youngest uncle or the oldest nephew, the son of an older brother? The dispute between the princes was resolved " God's judgment"- armed strife. She, in turn, undermined the authority of the clan tradition, put force above law, and forced her to see the source of princely power in violent actions. The strife taught the princes not to hesitate in their choice of means. Thus, at the call of the Russian princes themselves, new steppe nomads - the Polovtsians - took part in the internecine struggle.
So, in the second half of the 11th century. the old political order of the successive ascension of princes to the “tables” in accordance with degrees of seniority was gradually replaced by a new, patrimonial one, due to the growing complexity of family accounts. Separate princely lines were isolated within the family domains, inherited in a descending line. However, the new principle did not yet apply to the possession of the Kyiv grand-ducal table, which continued to be considered the collective possession of the Rurikovichs and was dealt with, as a rule, in order of priority.
The principle of hereditary ownership of tables was decisive, but not the only one. The volosts could be distributed according to agreements between the princes - the princes “arranged with their brothers about the volosts.” Sometimes the will of a strong prince transferred the throne to his son or brother. Thus, Vladimir Monomakh “placed his son Mstislav on his own in Kyiv.” It often happened that the population of the older volost towns decided at the veche the question of inviting the prince (“go, prince, we don’t want you”) or expelling him (“go, prince, go away, we don’t want you”), without paying attention to family scores princes. Finally, the practice of “getting” tables “with one’s own head” was widespread, i.e. by armed means.
In the absence of a strong central government in conditions of political instability since the end of the 11th century. began to play a big role congresses of princes. The contractual principle in inter-princely relations turned into the most important political foundation of the era of feudal fragmentation and existed in Rus' until the Moscow state. The first princely congress took place in 1097 in Lyubech (on the Dnieper) “to establish peace” at the suggestion of Vladimir Monomakh. The princes said: “Why are we destroying the Russian land, stirring up trouble ourselves, while the Polovtsians are fragmenting our land and are glad that we are fighting each other. Let us from now on have one heart and together protect the Russian land. Let everyone own his fatherland (let everyone keep his fatherland).” The Lyubech Congress of Princes recognized the separation of lands as hereditary princely possessions and thereby consolidated the political fragmentation of Rus'. It was no longer considered a single possession of the princely family of Rurikovich, but was represented as a collection of separate “patterns”, hereditary possessions of the branches of the princely house. The congress decided to own Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich Kiev, Vladimir Monomakh - Pereyaslavl, Svyatoslavich - Chernigov, David Igorevich - Vladimir-Volynsky.
The decisions of the Lubech Congress, so important for the political well-being of Rus', were soon violated. This required a new congress of princes. It took place in 1100 in Vitichev. The reason for it was the blinding of Vasilko Rostislavovich, the Trebovol prince, the son of Rostislav Vladimirovich. His possessions were claimed by David Igorevich, who, together with Svyatopolk, lured Vasilko to Kyiv and gouged out his eyes. The princely assembly accused David of being the first to “throw the knife” between the princes, and as punishment they took Vladimir-Volynsky away from him.
In 1103, a congress of princes Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich with their squads took place at Lake Dolobsky near Kiev before a campaign against the Polovtsians. Vladimir proposed to undertake a joint campaign in the Polovtsian steppe in the spring. Svyatopolk’s squad objected that the campaign would interfere with the plowing of the smerds: “We want to destroy the smerds by their role.” To this Vladimir Monomakh replied: “It’s strange to me that you feel sorry for the horse, and do not feel sorry for the stinker himself. After all, a Polovtsian will come, kill the scumbag with an arrow, and seize his wife, children and property. Wouldn’t it be a pity then for the stink itself?” The campaign undertaken in the spring ended in the defeat of the Polovtsy and for some time protected Rus' from their invasions.
Cumans(Kipchaks, Cumans) - a Turkic-speaking people who appeared in the southern Russian steppes in the middle of the 11th century. Rus' fought them for almost 150 years, from 1061 to 1210. During this time, Russian chronicles counted 46 large Polovtsian invasions, not counting those that were the result of the invitation of the Polovtsians by the Russian princes themselves. The Polovtsians struck fear into the Russian land with the surprise of attacks and the cruelty of pogroms. “In an instant,” an eyewitness reported, “the Polovtsian was close, and then he was no longer there. He rushes like a whirlwind, as if wanting to overtake a fast bird. Before anyone could see him, he was already out of sight.” The Polovtsians knew how to sneak up on Kyiv itself unnoticed. In 1096, Khan Bonyak “the mangy” almost entered the capital, broke into the Pechersky Monastery when the monks were sleeping after Matins, robbed and burned it. The steppe inhabitants broke through the fortified lines of the south, invaded the Pereyaslavl principality and, with a successful combination of circumstances, approached Kyiv. Not only individual cities, but also entire regions were empty. This was especially true Porosya and Pereyaslavl region. Thus, the center of Porosye, the city of Yuryev, was completely depopulated, all the inhabitants of which left for Kyiv in 1095. The Polovtsians burned the empty city, and Prince Svyatopolk built a new city for refugees on the Dnieper, Svyatopolk. The southern part of the Pereyaslav Principality ( Ambassador) again turned into a wild steppe.
As a result of the attacks, agriculture was destroyed, cities were destroyed, and Russian people were taken into slavery. The Polovtsians sold them to different countries. The slave markets of Southern Europe, Western Asia and North Africa were full of Russian captives. The chronicler does not spare gloomy colors when describing the situation of the Russian captives: “Sad, exhausted, blackened with dust, with faces pale from hunger, thirst and various hardships, they walked through unfamiliar places barefoot and barely covered with rags, and their legs were pricked by thorns. With tears they said to each other: I am from such and such a city, and the others: I am from such and such a village. So they questioned each other with tears, sighed and raised their eyes to heaven...”
The most dangerous attacks for Rus' were the attacks of the late 11th century, which were aggravated by the acute internecine struggle of the princes. Only Vladimir Monomakh managed to weaken their onslaught for a while. He was the initiator of the creation of the anti-Polovtsian commonwealth of Russian princes. In 1092-1094, under his leadership, there was an organized war with the Polovtsians. Polovtsian invasions temporarily ceased after defeats by Russian princes in 1103-1116. In his “Instruction” to his sons, Vladimir Monomakh testified that during the battles with the Polovtsians, he captured more than 100 of their princes. In the second half of the 12th century. Polovtsian invasions of Rus' resumed. The story about the campaign against the Polovtsians by Novgorod-Seversk Prince Igor in 1185 became the basis of the plot of the great work of ancient Russian literature, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The Polovtsians were finally defeated at the beginning of the 13th century. Mongol-Tatars. Some of them went to Hungary.
First third of the 12th century. entered the history of the Kyiv state as a period of political stabilization, which was the exclusive merit of the outstanding figure of Ancient Rus', the Kyiv prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1113-1125). During his reign, the rebellious princes and boyars were pacified. He forced most of the Russian princes to obey him. In the main cities - Novgorod, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk and Suzdal - he kept his sons. The Volyn land was under his direct influence. Vladimir imperiously intervened in the affairs of the Principality of Polotsk. In his policy, Vladimir sought to form a union of princes under the leadership of Kyiv for the joint defense of Rus' from external enemies and, above all, the Polovtsians. The strength and popularity of the prince caused popular unrest and civil strife between the princes to subside. He carried out successful campaigns against the Polovtsians, temporarily protecting Rus' from them. He built fortresses, cities, churches. In 1116, the city of Vladimir on Klyazma, named in his honor, was founded. It was considered as a fortress to protect the Rostov-Suzdal land from the southeast.
Vladimir Monomakh marked his reign with the most important measures in the field of social legislation. The law adopted under him established the maximum interest rate on loans and prevented the conversion into complete slavery of semi-dependent people who worked off their debt from the lender. Thus, as a result of additions and revisions to the Brief Edition of “Russian Pravda”, its Long edition. It included in its composition the “Charter (law) of Vladimir Monomakh”, which related to the collection of interest ( res) on loans, and procurement legislation, which softened their position and gave them the right to complain to the prince about grievances on the part of their master. New laws were adopted under the influence of the events of 1113 - the Kyiv uprising against Jewish moneylenders and the selfish administration of the city - the thousand Putyata and the Sotskys.
During the reign of Vladimir Monomakh, culture flourished. The first Russian chronicle was compiled “ The Tale of Bygone Years", which included " Lesson for children"Vladimir Monomakh is a vivid socio-political document of his era. “Instruction” paints an image of a virtuous prince in the spirit of the religious requirements of his time. He says to himself that “he didn’t let the bad guy and the wretched widow offend the strong.” The prince made 83 major campaigns during his life. His favorite pastime was hunting. Describing his fighting and hunting life, Monomakh instructed his sons by personal example: “And he fell a lot from his horse,” he says about himself, “he broke his head twice, and he injured his arms and legs in his youth, not sparing his life, not sparing his head.” "
Son of Vladimir Monomakh Mstislav I (1125-1132) tried to continue his father’s work in terms of maintaining the political unity of the Russian lands under the leadership of Kyiv. Like his father, he waged war with the Polovtsians, made successful campaigns against Lithuania, and finally eliminated the independence of the Principality of Polotsk. His reign was complicated by the great famine of 1128, which captured the Novgorod, Suzdal, Smolensk, Polotsk and Pskov lands. After his death, the strife resumed with renewed vigor.
So, Vladimir Monomakh and Mstislav I managed to stop the collapse of the Kyiv state only for a short time. The reason for it was not the policy of the Kyiv princes, but the new conditions that arose as a result of the development of feudal centers locally. The unified Kiev state was becoming a thing of the past. It had a great influence on the subsequent history of all the peoples who inhabited it. It is not for nothing that K. Marx compared its significance for the peoples of Eastern Europe with the significance of the empire of Charlemagne for the peoples of Western Europe. Just as Charles’s empire preceded the formation of present-day France, Germany and Italy, so the state of Rurikovich led to the formation of Muscovy, Poland, Lithuania and the Baltic countries. Kievan Rus was the largest power in Europe. It had close dynastic ties with many states. The level of its socio-political development generally corresponded to the pan-European one. European civilization is urban. Rus' also developed in this direction; Scandinavian sources called it Gardarika - the country of cities. The broad dynastic, economic, political, and cultural ties of Rus' make it possible to rank it entirely among European civilization. “Russian Truth” testifies to the high level of legal consciousness of Rus' and its close connection with Byzantine lawmaking.
Along with the presence of common trends with Europe, Ancient Rus' also demonstrated the originality of development features. Compared to Europe, the processes of social-class differentiation were less pronounced. The patrimony did not play a leading role in the economy of Ancient Rus' and rested primarily on the labor of slaves and semi-free people. State power was built on a contractual basis between princes and lands represented by their bodies of people's self-government - the veche. The nobility did not yet have the strength to subordinate this institution to their power. But the veche was already losing its dominant role, although it still existed as a political institution for a very long time. Despite the abundance of cities in Rus', their character differed from Western European ones. There, cities developed as centers of crafts, trade, and culture. In Rus' they played the same role, but above all they were centers of political consolidation, to which the districts gravitated. Urban democracy was limited. Women and slaves were excluded from its midst. Under the influence of the danger from nomads, a tradition of universal arming of the people - the people's militia - developed.
Thus, the features of the development of Ancient Rus' at this stage are quite comparable with the European type of development.
Conclusion
In the history of the Eurasian peoples, the impetus for the formation of states was given by Great Migration IV-VI centuries The Eastern Slavs, involved in the migration of nomadic peoples, settled across the East European Plain. The disruption of ancestral ties and the need to resist a hostile environment led to the formation of not ethnic, but military-territorial unions of tribes. This was a pre-state form of power, which received its maximum development among our ancestors in the 7th - first half of the 9th century.
At the initial stage of political disintegration, Kievan Rus did not develop a strictly defined procedure for the distribution of volosts among the princes. The principle of clan seniority, although declared, was rarely observed in reality. The most striking incident occurred in 1093. After the death of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich, the people of Kiev invited his son Vladimir Monomakh to join them. But he, not wanting to clash with his cousin Svyatopolk, said: “If I take my father’s table, then I will have to wage war with Svyatopolk, because his father occupied this table even earlier.” Honorary title of the Grand Duke of Kyiv " in father's place"did not have by the beginning of the 12th century. real political content, especially since the Kyiv princes were not always truly senior in the family.
List of used literature
1. Kireev P.R. Domestic history of the state. – M., 2001
2. Nurullaev A. A. Domestic history. Sat. stat. – M., 2000
3. http://ru.wikipedia.org - Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
4. Lectures on the discipline “Domestic history of the state” 2010
ALL-RUSSIAN CORRESPONDENCE INSTITUTE OF FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC COURSE WORK In the discipline “Domestic History” on the topic “Ancient Russian State (IX-early XII centuries)”Abstract on the academic discipline "History of Russia"
on the topic: "Education of the Old Russian State"
Plan
1. Introduction
2. Formation of the Old Russian state
3. Origin of the word "Rus"
4. The first Russian princes
5. Conclusion
6. References
1. Introduction.
Usually, the history of the origin and prosperity of the state is inextricably linked with the history of the development of society. The history of the formation of Rus' is no exception. In the 9th century. Slavic society reached a level of economic development that at that time pushed the Slavs to create a legal field that would be able to resolve conflicts within society arising from property inequality. The state is such a legal field. It has the power, boundaries and laws that were so necessary for Slavic society at that time.
Slavic tribes lived near Lake Ilmen; they had common traditions, a common language, a similar way of life and developed trade relations, but at that time they were not able to agree and come to a common decision about who would still lead the government of the Novgorod land, imperfections affected legal system, or rather the lack thereof. Which, most likely, led to the calling of the Varangians to the Novgorod land, who, in turn, obviously knew the mechanisms of government. Subsequently, the unification of the Novgorod and Kyiv lands took place. This is how the great and powerful state of Rus' arose. By studying the history of our state, we unwittingly study the history of the Russian people, and vice versa, by studying the history of the Russian people, we study the history of our state. Therefore, the topic: “Formation of the Old Russian State” cannot but interest a resident of our country.
2. Formation of the Old Russian state.
Society is most often pushed to strive to create any state by internal and external factors. The internal factors contributing to the formation of the Old Russian state include: a common language, developed agriculture, developed craft activities, a high culture of using natural resources, developed trade relations within society. External factors include: the ability to protect one’s territory and its population, the ability to defend one’s economic and political interests in relations with other states.
In the 8th century, the life of most Slavic tribal unions began to differ greatly compared to previous centuries. Particularly developed tribes were the tribes located in the Middle Dnieper region. It was there that agriculture and cattle breeding were improved, numerous crafts were born and developed, the majority of the population was located and iron ore was mined. Due to the fact that tools were very developed, an individual family no longer needed the help of the community in cultivating the land or running the household. This led to a disruption of family ties between people. Relations between people became neighborly. Those families in which the economy was better organized became richer. The rich began to rise above the poor.
At the end of the 8th century. at the beginning of the 9th century. Slavic society reached a level of development at which it became possible for the emergence of tribal principalities, which looked like this: at the head of a tribe or union of tribes was a prince, and around him a militarized squad and clan nobility were concentrated. This elevation of some over others arose as a result of property inequality. Thus, among the Slavs by the 9th century. there were several such principalities, which included many different tribes with common customs, traditions, a common language, way of life and mutually beneficial trade. By that time, two largest principalities could be distinguished: one was located near Lake Ilmen, the other in the Middle Dnieper region. In the future, Novgorod and Kyiv will become the main cities of these principalities. The Novgorod principality was a union of Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes. This union included such tribes as the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud and Merya. The main tribe in the Middle Dnieper region was the Polyan tribe.
Despite the fact that many tribes of the Novgorod principality had common roots and traditions, the tribes competed with each other and could not agree among themselves. And if we are guided by the “Tale of Bygone Years” written in the 12th century. chronicler Nester, then in 862 the Novgorodians turned to the Varangians with a request that they come to rule the Novgorod land and establish harmony between the tribes. This appeal was addressed to the Varangian Rurik and his brothers, Truvor and Sineus. The Varangians, known for their militant nature and desire to control trade routes, agreed. After which Rurik began to rule in Novgorod, Truvor in Izborsk, Sineus in Beloozero. Subsequently, the entire Novgorod land was subject to Rurik.
The Kiev and Novgorod principalities were constantly at enmity. Each of the principalities sought to take trade routes under its influence. When Rurik died, Oleg, the successor to the throne, realizing the economically advantageous location of Kyiv between East and West, having gathered a large army, moved to Kyiv and took it under siege. By cunning, Oleg lured the princes then ruling in Kyiv, Askold and Dir, out of the city, and killed them. And together with his mighty army and Rurik’s young son, Igor, he entered the city. And in 882 the Slavic state of Rus' was formed, the main city of which was Kyiv.
3. Origin of the word “Rus”.
Among researchers, there are many versions of the origin of the word “Rus”, and some of them completely contradict each other. The first mentions of this word date back to the second half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Gothic historians, describing the tribes living between the Dnieper and the Dniester, called them Rosomans, which meant fair-haired, fair-haired people. The Arabs, in turn, called these tribes Rus. There is also a version that the word “Rus” came to us along with the Varangians, who at one time were called “ruotsi” by the Finnish tribes, who knew the Varangians before the Slavs. Then the Slavs transformed this word into “Rus” and with the arrival of the Varangians they began to apply it to their people.
The version associated with the arrival of the Varangians is more plausible, especially since it is confirmed in the “Tale of Bygone Years”. When in 862 the Novgorod tribes called the Varangians to rule over them, the chronicle tells of their decision as follows: “Let us look for a prince who would rule us and judge us by right. And they went overseas to the Varangians, to Rus'.” Further, the author narrates that “those Varangians were called Russia.” “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no decoration in it. Come reign and rule over us.” Despite this, the controversy surrounding the word “Rus” does not subside, since the chronicle was written in the 12th century, and the word “Rus” appeared much earlier.
Also, disputes among researchers still do not subside regarding the origin of the Varangians. Some, adherents of the Norman theory, argue that the Varangians belonged either to the Normans or to the Scandinavians, in general, to the bearers of Western culture. And they mainly draw their attention to the fact that supposedly Slavic society at that time was not capable of creating a state without someone’s help. Other researchers of this issue argue that the Varangians were not Scandinavians and had their own state association, which was located at that time on the southern shores of the Baltic Sea.
The debate surrounding the origin and significance of the Varangians in the emergence of the Old Russian state, of course, will continue further, but it is obvious that Slavic society at that time had all the prerequisites for the formation of a state.
4. The first Russian princes.
After the death of Rurik in 879, Oleg took power in the Novgorod land into his own hands. History does not know exactly who he was related to Rurik, but one thing is clear, he was Rurik’s closest ally and was well versed in military affairs. It was Oleg who in 882, having gathered a large army consisting of Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi and Finno-Ugric peoples, accompanied by a Varangian squad, conquered Kyiv and created the great state of Rus'.
Oleg's authority among the people and the warlike Varangian squads was very great, which allowed him to wage numerous wars and firmly hold all power in his hands. After Oleg established himself in Kyiv as the first prince in Rus', he imposed tribute on the entire territory under his control. Subsequently, they concluded an agreement with the Varangians, the essence of which was that Rus' annually paid tribute to the Varangians, and they, in turn, pledged not to attack the Russian state. Thus, the northwestern borders of Rus' were covered, which allowed Oleg to move to the East. He captured and imposed tribute on such East Slavic tribes as the Drevlyans, Northerners, and Radimichi.
At the end of the 9th century, at the beginning of the 10th century. Rus' was attacked by the Hungarians, as a result of which Oleg’s army suffered a major defeat, and he himself was blocked in Kyiv. The Hungarians tried to besiege the city, but this attempt was unsuccessful. And then a peace treaty was concluded between the Hungarians and the Russians, which lasted for about two centuries. Having defended the independence of Rus' from the Hungarians, Oleg further strengthened his position in power and proclaimed himself the prince of all princes.
In the 10th century, Oleg, understanding the important economic importance of routes to the East and the Balkan Peninsula and trying to gain military-strategic important territories - the mouth of the Dnieper, the mouth of the Danube, the Kerch Strait, undertook campaigns towards Khazaria and the Byzantine Empire.
In 907, the Russian army, led by Oleg, moved towards Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. During the campaign against Byzantium, a huge Russian army swept away everything in its path, churches were robbed and burned, local residents were captured and enslaved, and significant wealth of the local population was appropriated. Seeing the power of the Russian army, the Greeks got scared and offered to make peace. According to the peace treaty, the Greeks were obliged to annually pay tribute to Rus' and pay monetary indemnity. The Greeks were also obliged to give Russian merchants the opportunity to trade freely in the local markets of Byzantium without paying duties.
In 911, as a result of lengthy negotiations between Russia and Byzantium, an expanded agreement was concluded, which included the responsibility of both parties in the event of failure to fulfill their economic, political and legal obligations. Also, as a result of negotiations between Russia and Byzantium, a military alliance was formed. The consequence of this was the provision of military assistance to each other.
After Oleg's death in 912, power passed by inheritance into the hands of Igor, the son of Rurik. During the time of Igor, due to the uprising of the Drevlyans and the raids of the Pechenegs, the integrity of the state was under threat, but the prince managed not only to suppress the uprising of the Drevlyans and fight off the Pechenegs, but also to expand the borders in the south of the country.
The expansion of the borders of Rus' in the southern direction caused indignation among Byzantium, which led to another military conflict between the two countries. In 941, Igor and his impressive army went to Constantinople. On the approaches to the city, the Russian fleet was met with the strongest resistance from the enemy. The Greeks used a flammable mixture, which they poured on the Russian boats, as a result of which the Russian fleet was defeated. When taking Constantinople, the Greeks again used a flammable mixture and doused the walls with it, which prevented them from capturing the city. And the idea of taking Constantinople immediately disappeared. But the Russian army did not stop and marched along the coast with fire and sword. During this campaign, a large number of Greeks were captured, many cities and monasteries were captured. But the quickly mobilized Greek army, as a result of long, bloody battles, nevertheless expelled the Russian army from its territory.
In 944, Igor, having gathered a new army, again attacked Byzantium. But this time the Russian army was supported by Hungary, which together with Russia was in a military alliance, according to which the Hungarians were obliged to provide support in military affairs to the allied state. Seeing the united troops of Russians and Hungarians at the walls of Constantinople, the Greeks, without waiting for the city to attack, sent embassy representatives to meet with Igor. As a result of negotiations between Russia and Byzantium, previous agreements were confirmed, according to which the Greeks still had to pay tribute to Rus' annually. Byzantium also paid a monetary indemnity and was forced to recognize Rus''s ownership of new territories at the mouth of the Dnieper and on the Taman Peninsula. And as a result of the improvement of the Russian-Byzantine military alliance, the Greeks, in the event of a military conflict, had to provide military support to Rus', as well as the Russians to Byzantium.
Thanks to Igor's campaign against Byzantium and the agreements reached with them, the Russian state increased even more in size. Under Igor, tribute from the territories under his control, which was used to support the prince and his immediate circle, began to become increasingly important. The collection of tribute at that time looked like this: the prince and his military squad traveled around the territories belonging to him and collected tribute from each house. This form of collection was called polyudye. During one of these gatherings in 945, Igor was killed by the Drevlyans.
At that time, in Kyiv, along with Igor’s young son, Svyatoslav, his wife Olga remained, who, later, with the support of the governor, brutally took revenge on the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband. Many cities of the Drevlyans were burned, and the remaining inhabitants were subjected to heavy tribute, some were handed over into slavery to the Kyiv warriors. At the same time, Olga established a fixed amount of tribute in Rus' and established special places where exactly it was to be taken.
Having brought order within the country, Olga took up foreign policy. Realizing that Byzantium is a very profitable economic partner and an important cultural center for Rus', the princess decided to establish closer relations with the Greeks. And in 957, having gathered a large embassy, Olga went to Constantinople. There she was greeted as a highly respected guest. A magnificent reception was organized in her honor. Olga understood that without accepting Christianity it would be impossible for her to establish close relations with Byzantium. Therefore, Olga decided to be baptized. Olga's baptism ceremony took place in the Church of Hagia Sophia. Where she, having been baptized, took the Byzantine name Elena. Thus, Rus' became even closer to the Byzantine Empire.
Arriving home, Olga tried to persuade Svyatoslav to accept Christianity, but he flatly refused. At the end of her life, the princess asked to be buried according to Christian rites.
After Olga's death, power was inherited by Svyatoslav. Already at that time he was thinking about great military campaigns. Svyatoslav undertook a series of military campaigns to the east. There he subjugated the Vyatichi, then, passing through the Oka-Volga forests, captured Volga Bulgaria, and then in 965 defeated the Khazar Khaganate. Thus, the eastern borders of Rus' were significantly expanded.
At this time, in the Balkans, Byzantium was at war with Bulgaria. Relying on the previously concluded military alliance, she requested help from Rus'. Svyatoslav, pursuing his personal interests, agreed to help the Greeks.
In 967 Svyatoslav attacked Bulgaria and conquered it. The Kiev prince decided to stay on the Danube, which he directly declared to the Greeks. This news frightened Byzantium, and with the help of their ambassadors they set the Pechenegs against Kyiv so that Svyatoslav would return to the capital. Svyatoslav was forced to return to Kyiv to help the local army. But in 969 he reappeared on the Danube. And having secured the support of the Hungarians, Bulgarians, and Pechenegs, Svyatoslav defeated the Greeks, who were indignant at that time at his appearance on the Danube. But the Byzantine Empire, which at that time had a huge supply of troops, quickly regained its strength and in 971 surrounded Svyatoslav and his squad in the Dorostol fortress. The Russian army made attempts to break through the encirclement, but they were unsuccessful and then Svyatoslav was forced to sign a peace agreement with Byzantium. In accordance with which he had to leave the conquered territories in the Balkans, and Byzantium, in turn, was obliged to ensure unhindered passage through the territory of Bulgaria. While returning to Kyiv, passing through the territory of the Pechenegs, Svyatoslav and his squad were surrounded and killed by the Pechenegs. Thus, the great Russian state was left without a powerful commander and prince Svyatoslav, which led to the first strife for power in Rus' among his sons.
5. Conclusion.
In my opinion, in my essay I managed to cover the topic quite broadly: “The formation of the Old Russian state.” I described the internal and external factors contributing to the formation of the state. The very process of the emergence of Rus' was described. The abstract also indicates important dates and characters, without which the existence of the Russian state would be unthinkable. At the end of the essay, I described the events associated with the first Russian princes, which show that over time Rus' did not fade away, but, on the contrary, only strengthened its influence in the world.
In my opinion, the Slavic society at that time was quite economically developed, but it did not know the necessary, at that time, mechanisms for managing such a society. Because of this, the Varangians, who had qualities conducive to the formation of a state, were invited to Russian soil. Their role can be debated endlessly, but their very presence speaks for itself.
6. List of references.
1. History of Russia: textbook / Sh. M. Munchaev, V. M. Ustinov. - 5th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Norma: INFRA-M, 2011. - 752 p.
2. History of Russia from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century: textbook / I. Ya. Froyanov. - S-P.: Layout, 1998. - 228 p.
3. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: textbook / A. N. Sakharov, A. N. Bokhanov, V. A. Shestakov; edited by A. N. Sakharov. - Moscow: Prospekt, 2012. - 768 p.
4. History of Russia from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century: a textbook for students humanizes. specialist. / R. A. Arslanov, V. V. Kerov, M. N. Moseikina, T. M. Smirnova; edited by V.V. Kerova. - M.: Higher. school, 2001. - 784 p.
5. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century: textbook. For 10th grade. general education institutions / N. I. Pavlenko, I. L. Andreev; edited by N. I. Pavlenko. - 2nd ed., stereotype. - M.: Bustard, 2002. - 336 pp.: ill., 8 l. color on
Slide 2
Prerequisites for the creation of the Old Russian state
State formation is a long process. The state arises as a result of the decomposition of the tribal system. The prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs occurred over several centuries.
Slide 3
In the 9th century, trade was of great importance in the life of the Slavs. The trade route from the Baltic and Northern Europe to Byzantium (“the path from the Varangians to the Greeks”) ran through the lands of the Slavs.
People appeared who purchased furs, honey, wax from the Slavs and exported them to the markets of Byzantium and Khazaria (merchants).
Slide 4
Trade was very profitable, but also very dangerous. The lower reaches of the Dnieper River were under the control of the nomadic Pecheneg people. They robbed passing merchant ships and sold the captured people into slavery.
Slide 5
Along the trade routes, settlements arose, gradually growing into cities (Kyiv - near the Polyans, Chernigov - among the northerners, Smolensk and Polotsk - among the Krivichi, Novgorod - among the Ilmen Slovenes).
Slide 6
Merchants traded in the cities, and artisans moved here. The cities subjugated the surrounding territories. People from various tribes settled in the cities. New orders, uniform for all, were established in the cities.
Slide 7
The emergence of princely power
Historians have different points of view about the emergence of princely power among the Slavs. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Normans raided European countries. They invaded the northwestern territory of the Eastern Slavs and imposed tribute on the Chud and Meryu (Finno-Ugric) tribes, as well as the Krivichi and Ilmen Slovenes.
Slide 8
Some Slavic cities, for a small fee, began to invite armed detachments of Russians led by princes (konungs) for their defense. among the Slavs. The Slavs called their mercenary warriors Varangians. Kings began to be invited to resolve inter-tribal disputes.
Slide 9
Formation of government centers
The chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” reports that in 862 the Slavs and Finno-Ugrians expelled the Varangians, but discord and clashes began among them, and enemy attacks resumed. Then the representatives of the tribes at the meeting decided to invite the Varangians they knew to reign.
Slide 10
The calling of Rurik, from which the beginning of the statehood of the Eastern Slavs is traditionally counted, in historiography received the name “Calling of the Varangians.” Rurik laid the foundation for the Rurik dynasty, which ruled until the end of the 16th century.
Slide 11
The noble warriors of Rurik, Askold and Dir, went with their warriors on a raid on Constantinople, but along the way they stopped at Kyiv and, having captured it, remained to reign there.
Slide 12
The glades paid tribute to the Khazars. Askold and Dir freed the glades from this tribute. Askold took the title of Khakan. The Varangians entered into a fight with the Drevlyans, Pechenegs, and Bulgars.
Slide 13
In the 9th century, two large East Slavic associations emerged, ruled by invited princes. Novgorod was located in the north, Kyiv in the south.
Slide 14
Formation of the Old Russian State
After the death of Rurik in 879, his relative Oleg became the prince of Novgorod. In 882, having gathered a large army, he went on a campaign to the south. Along the way, the Krivichi were subjugated. After that, he went down the Dnieper to Kyiv, where Askold and Dir reigned. Oleg lured them to his boats.
Slide 15
After annexing Kyiv, Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans to his power, and having defeated the Khazars, he annexed the territories of the Northerners and Radimichi. A large East Slavic state of RUS was formed. Historians call this state the Old Russian State.
Slide 16
At the head of Rus' was the great prince of Kiev. His power rested on the warriors, with whom the prince consulted on the most important matters and divided tribute and military booty.
Slide 17
From November to April, the prince and his retinue traveled around the subject lands and collected the prepared tribute. This form of collecting tribute was called POLYUDYE. All tribes that recognized the power of the Kyiv prince entered into an agreement with him and agreed to pay tribute in furs, bread and others.
Slide 18
In case of war, all tribes were required to raise militia. The all-Russian militia was commanded by a voivode. In the cities, all major issues were decided by the veche. Some tribes retained the power of their princes. Local princes were ready to use any opportunity to free themselves from the power of Kyiv.
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causes: economic development of the East Slavic territories, their involvement in international transit trade (Kievan Rus was formed on the “route from the Varangians to the Greeks” - a trade water-land route that functioned in the 8th-11th centuries and connected the basins of the Baltic and Black Seas), the need for protection from external enemies, property and social stratification of society.Prerequisites formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs: the transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one, the formation of intertribal alliances, the development of trades, crafts and trade, the need for unification to repel an external threat.
The tribal reigns of the Slavs had signs of emerging statehood. Tribal principalities often united into large super-unions, revealing features of early statehood. One of these associations was union of tribes led by Kiy(known from the end of the 5th century). At the end of the VI-VII centuries. existed, according to Byzantine and Arabic sources, "Power of the Volynians" , which was an ally of Byzantium.
The Novgorod chronicle reports about the elder Gostomysl , who headed in the 9th century. Slavic unification around Novgorod. Eastern sources suggest the existence on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state three large associations Slavic tribes: Cuiaba, Slavia and Artania. Cuyaba (or Kuyava), apparently, was located around Kyiv. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of Lake Ilmen, its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania is determined differently by different researchers (Ryazan, Chernigov).
In the 18th century have developed theories of formation of the Old Russian state . According to Norman theory the state of Rus' was created by Norman (Varangian, Russian name for the Scandinavian peoples) princes who came at the invitation of the Eastern Slavs (authors G. Bayer, G. Miller, A. Shletser). Supporters anti-Norman theory believed that the determining factor in the process of formation of any state is objective internal conditions, without which it is impossible to create it by any external forces (author M.V. Lomonosov).
Norman theory
The Russian chronicler of the early 12th century, trying to explain the origin of the Old Russian state, in accordance with medieval tradition, included in the chronicle a legend about the calling of three Varangian brothers as princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. Many historians believe that the Varangians were Norman (Scandinavian) warriors who were hired for service and swore an oath of allegiance to the ruler. A number of historians, on the contrary, consider the Varangians to be a Russian tribe that lived on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea and on the island of Rügen.
According to this legend, on the eve of the formation of Kievan Rus, the northern tribes of the Slavs and their neighbors (Ilmen Slovenes, Chud, Vse) paid tribute to the Varangians, and the southern tribes (Polyans and their neighbors) were dependent on the Khazars. In 859, the Novgorodians “expelled the Varangians overseas,” which led to civil strife. Under these conditions, the Novgorodians who gathered for the council sent for the Varangian princes: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order - Author) in it. Come reign and rule over us.” Power over Novgorod and the surrounding Slavic lands passed into the hands of the Varangian princes, the eldest of whom Rurik laid, as the chronicler believed, the beginning of the princely dynasty. After the death of Rurik, another Varangian prince, Oleg(there is information that he was a relative of Rurik), who ruled in Novgorod, united Novgorod and Kyiv in 882. This is how it happened, according to the chronicler, the state Rus(also called Kievan Rus by modern historians).
The legendary chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians served as the basis for the emergence of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. It was first formulated German scientists G.F. Miller and G.Z. Bayer, invited to work in Russia in the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov was an ardent opponent of this theory.
The very fact of the presence of the Varangian squads, by which, as a rule, the Scandinavians are understood, in the service of the Slavic princes, their participation in the life of Rus' is beyond doubt, as are the constant mutual ties between the Scandinavians and Russia. However, there are no traces of any noticeable influence of the Varangians on the economic and socio-political institutions of the Slavs, as well as on their language and culture. In the Scandinavian sagas, Rus' is a country of untold riches, and service to Russian princes is the surest way to gain fame and power. Archaeologists note that the number of Varangians in Rus' was small. No data has been found on the colonization of Rus' by the Varangians. The version about the foreign origin of this or that dynasty is typical of antiquity and the Middle Ages. It is enough to recall the stories about the calling of the Anglo-Saxons by the Britons and the creation of the English state, about the founding of Rome by the brothers Romulus and Remus, etc.
Other theories ( Slavic and centrist)
In the modern era it is quite the scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory has been proven, explaining the emergence of the Old Russian state as a result of foreign initiative. However, its political meaning is still dangerous today. The “Normanists” proceed from the position of the supposedly primordial backwardness of the Russian people, who, in their opinion, are incapable of independent historical creativity. It is possible, as they believe, only under foreign leadership and according to foreign models.
Historians have convincing evidence that there is every reason to assert: the Eastern Slavs had strong traditions of statehood long before the calling of the Varangians. State institutions arise as a result of the development of society. The actions of individual major individuals, conquests or other external circumstances determine the specific manifestations of this process. Consequently, the fact of the calling of the Varangians, if it really took place, speaks not so much about the emergence of Russian statehood as about the origin of the princely dynasty. If Rurik was a real historical figure, then his calling to Rus' should be considered as a response to the real need for princely power in Russian society of that time. In historical literature the question of Rurik’s place in our history remains controversial . Some historians share the opinion that the Russian dynasty is of Scandinavian origin, like the name “Rus” itself (“Russians” were the Finns’ name for the inhabitants of Northern Sweden). Their opponents are of the opinion that the legend about the calling of the Varangians is the fruit of tendentious writing, a later insertion caused by political reasons. There is also a point of view that the Varangians were Slavs, originating either from the southern coast of the Baltic (Rügen Island) or from the area of the Neman River. It should be noted that the term “Rus” is repeatedly found in relation to various associations both in the north and in the south of the East Slavic world.
State formation Rus or, as it is called after the capital, Kievan Rus) - the natural completion of a long process of decomposition of the primitive communal system among one and a half dozen Slavic tribal unions that lived on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” The established state was at the very beginning of its journey: primitive communal traditions retained their place in all spheres of life of East Slavic society for a long time.
Centers of the Old Russian state
Rus' was based on two centers: southern folded around Kyiv(founders brothers Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid) in the middle of the 9th century. The northern center formed around Novgorod.
The first prince of Novgorod was Rurik(862-879) with brothers Sineus and Truvor. From 879-912 rules Oleg, who united Novgorod and Kyiv in 882 and created a single state of Rus'. Oleg carried out campaigns against Byzantium (907, 911), concluded an agreement in 911 with the Byzantine emperor Leo VI on the right to duty-free trade.
In 912, power inherits Igor(son of Rurik). He repelled the invasion of the Pechenegs, made campaigns against Byzantium: in 941 he was defeated and in 944 he concluded the first written agreement with the Byzantine emperor Roman I Lacapin. In 945, as a result of an uprising of the Drevlyan tribe, Igor was killed while trying to re-assemble polyudye - an annual tour of the subject lands by the prince and his squad to collect tribute.
The Old Russian state was early feudal monarchy, where power was passed on by inheritance. The head of state was Grand Duke, he owned the supreme legislative and executive power. He performed duties supreme military commander , was the head of diplomatic activities. Helped the prince in administration Advice(the top of the squad are princely men). Druzhina consisted of a “senior” (carrying out the prince’s orders) and a “younger”: youths and children’s (the prince’s personal servants). Appanage princes were in vassal dependence on the Grand Duke (personal dependence of small feudal lords on large ones).
After the unification of the Slavic tribes into the Old Russian state, all the people in it begin to form a single society. However, as in all other countries, this society was not homogeneous and was divided into different categories and strata depending on what people did.
Lesson summary “Education of the Old Russian State”«.
1. Prerequisites for the creation of the Old Russian state STATE - such an organization of life in which there is a unified system of managing people, uniform laws, border protection is carried out, and relationships with other peoples and countries are regulated. State formation is a long process. The state arises as a result of the decomposition of the tribal system. The prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs occurred over several centuries.
1. Prerequisites for the creation of the Old Russian state People appeared who purchased furs, honey, wax from the Slavs and exported them to the markets of Byzantium and Khazaria (merchants). In the 9th century, trade was of great importance in the life of the Slavs. The trade route from the Baltic and Northern Europe to Byzantium (“the path from the Varangians to the Greeks”) ran through the lands of the Slavs.
1. Prerequisites for the creation of the Old Russian state Trade was a very profitable, but also a very dangerous business. The lower reaches of the Dnieper River were under the control of the nomadic Pecheneg people. They robbed passing merchant ships and sold the captured people into slavery.
1. Prerequisites for the creation of the Old Russian state Merchants traded in the cities, and artisans moved here. The cities subjugated the surrounding territories. People from various tribes settled in the cities. New orders, uniform for all, were established in the cities.
2. The emergence of princely power Historians have different points of view about the emergence of princely power among the Slavs. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Normans raided European countries. They invaded the northwestern territory of the Eastern Slavs and imposed tribute on the Chud and Meryu (Finno-Ugric) tribes, as well as the Krivichi and Ilmen Slovenes. The Finno-Ugric tribes called the Normans “Routsi”, hence the name “Ros” or “Rus”. The Russes are that part of the Normans who settled in the lands of the Eastern Slavs, gradually mixed with the local population, adopted their language and customs.
2. The emergence of princely power Some Slavic cities began to invite armed detachments of Russians led by princes (konungs) for their defense for a small fee. among the Slavs. The Slavs called their mercenary warriors Varangians. Kings began to be invited to resolve inter-tribal disputes. Gradually, the kings turned from leaders of mercenary troops into rulers. Instead of a small fee, they obliged the population to pay them TRIBUTE.
3. Formation of state centers The Chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” reports that in 862 the Slavs and Finno-Ugrians expelled the Varangians, but discord and clashes began among them, and enemy attacks resumed. Then the representatives of the tribes at the meeting decided to invite the Varangians they knew to reign. Prince Rurik responded to the invitation. He arrived with his squad and began to rule in Ladoga and later Novgorod became its capital.
3. Formation of state centers The calling of Rurik, from which the beginning of the statehood of the Eastern Slavs is traditionally counted, in historiography was called “The Calling of the Varangians.” Rurik Rurik laid the foundation for the Rurik dynasty, which ruled until the end of the 16th century.
3. Formation of state centers The noble warriors of Rurik Askold and Dir went with their warriors on a raid on Constantinople, but along the way they stopped at Kyiv and, having captured it, remained to reign there. Monument to the founders of Kyiv According to legend, Kyiv was founded by three brothers - Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv.
4. Formation of the Old Russian State After the death of Rurik in 879, his relative Oleg became the prince of Novgorod. In 882, having gathered a large army, he went on a campaign to the south. Along the way, the Krivichi were subjugated. After that, he went down the Dnieper to Kyiv, where Askold and Dir reigned. Oleg lured them to his boats and announced to them: “You are not a prince ѧ ѧ ѧ neither to the family of princes ѧ ѧ ѧ, but I am to the family of princes ѧ ѧ ѧ.” Askold and Dir were killed, and Oleg became the ruler of Kyiv.
4. Formation of the Old Russian State After the annexation of Kyiv, Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans to his power, and having defeated the Khazars, he annexed the territories of the northerners and Radimichi. A large East Slavic state of Rus' was formed. Historians call this state the Old Russian State or Kievan Rus.
4. Formation of the Old Russian state All tribes that recognized the power of the Kyiv prince entered into an agreement with him and agreed to pay tribute in furs, bread and others. From November to April, the prince and his retinue traveled around the subject lands and collected the prepared tribute. This form of collecting tribute was called POLYUDYE.
4. Formation of the Old Russian State In case of war, all tribes had to raise a militia. The all-Russian militia was commanded by a voivode. In the cities, all major issues were decided by the veche. Some tribes retained the power of their princes. Local princes were ready to use any opportunity to free themselves from the power of Kyiv.
Homework 1. Study the paragraph Learn the first princes and the years of their reign. 3. Answer the question. on page 31 (orally)
