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Improving mastery of complex intellectual operations analysis and synthesis, theoretical generalization and abstraction and proof. For boys and girls, the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships, systematicity, stability and criticality of thinking, and independent creative activity become characteristic. An age-related feature is the rapid development special abilities, often related to the chosen professional field (mathematical, technical, pedagogical, etc.) Later in youth, intellectual development involves reaching a qualitatively new level associated with the development creativity and implying not just the assimilation of information, but the manifestation of intellectual initiative and the creation of something new: we are talking about the ability to see a problem, pose and reformulate questions, and find non-standard solutions.
In early adolescence, the process of personality formation is not yet completed; it actively continues, but outside of school. However, much of what a person as an individual acquires during his school years remains with him throughout his life and largely determines his destiny.
1) The need for self-determination;
2) Readiness for personal and professional self-determination;
3) Life plans;
4) Sustainable self-knowledge;
5) Identity;
6) Value orientations;
7) Worldview is the internal position of a man (or woman).
Crisis of transition to adulthood (18 - 20 years old)
"Severance from parental roots."
8. Adulthood: youth and maturity (Early adulthood (youth, “entry into maturity”) - 20 - 30 years.Average adulthood (maturity) - 30 - 60 years
Adulthood as a psychological period
The period of adulthood is the longest period of ontogenesis (in developed countries it accounts for three quarters of human life). There are usually three subperiods, or three stages of adulthood:
Early adulthood (youth,
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood (aging and old age).
In the theory of E. Erikson maturity- this is the age of “committing acts”, the most complete flowering, when a person becomes identical to himself. The main lines of development of a middle-aged person are: generativity, productivity, creativity (with things, children and ideas) and restlessness - the desire to become the best parent possible, to achieve a high level in one’s profession, to be a caring citizen, a loyal friend, and a support for loved ones. The period of adulthood, the main stage of human life, deserves to clearly formulate its own social and psychological tasks for the development of this particular period.
The problem of periodization of adulthood
One of the first periodizations belongs to S. Buhler, who identified five phases of adult development based on the implementation self-determination.
- The first phase (16 - 20 years) - precedes one's own self-determination.
The second phase (from 16 - 20 years to 25 - 30 years) - the phase of trial and search (profession, life partner, etc.)
The third phase (from 25 - 30 to 45 - 50 years) is the time of maturity: a person finds his own business in life, starts a family. By the age of 40, a person’s self-esteem is established, which reflects the results of life’s journey as a whole.
Fifth phase (over 70 years old) - old person: turning to the past and desire for peace.
Lower limit of adulthood associated by anthropologists and physiologists with ages of 17 years (D. Birren), 21 years (D. B. Bromley), 20 years for women and 21 years for men (according to the international classification), 25 years (V. V. Bunak) and etc.
Characteristics and time boundaries are even more uncertain middle aged, or middle adulthood: from 20 to 35 years (D. Wexler), 25 - 40 (D. B. Bromley), 25 - 50 (D. Birren), 36 - 60 years (according to the international age classification).
Upper limit of maturity and the beginning of old age vary even more in different periodizations in a huge range: these are 55 years (V.V. Bunak V.V. Ginzburg), 60 years (G. Grimm and most demographers), 75 years (D. Birren).
Social situation of development and leading activities during the periodhmaturity
The social situation of development presupposes the active inclusion of a person in the sphere of social production, in the sphere of labor activity, as well as the creation of his own family and raising children. Awareness of personal responsibility for one’s life and the life of loved ones and the willingness to accept this responsibility is a key experience in the social situation of the development of maturity.
During adulthood, the leading type of activity is work. From the perspective of acmeology, it is clarified that the leading activity is not just inclusion in the productive life of society, but maximum realization of essential human powers during such activities. Thus, we are talking about the desire for the highest human achievements in different areas - physical, moral, professional.
Communication during adulthood
1) Social circle related to professional activities;
2) Mastery and implementation of marital and parental relationships.
Normative crises of maturity
The crisis of the 30th anniversary is the correction of the life plan, the creation of a more orderly structure of life both in professional activity and in the family;
40th birthday crisis (mid-life crisis) - awareness of the loss of youth; doubts about the correctness of the life lived as a central problem of age;
Crisis of 50 years - unresolved crisis experiences, refusal of renewal activity;
The crisis of 60 years - there is a change in all motivation in connection with preparation for the retirement period of life.
Psychological neoplasmsperiod of adulthood
1) Building a life strategy;
2) Acme phenomenon (multidimensional state, variant and changeable; “peak in development” of an adult);
3) Meaningful life decisions;
4) A new level of intellectual development (the ability to formulate problems oneself, dialectical thinking);
5) Maternity/paternity.
9. Adulthood: Aging and old age. Old age (aging) - 60 - 75 years.Old age - 75 - 90 years.
Old age as a biosociopsychological phenomenon
Late adulthood, old age as a psychological age, is the final period of life, which includes a change in a person’s position in society and plays its own special role in the life cycle system. Old age is seen as difficult biosociopsychological phenomenon. As a biological phenomenon, old age is associated with an increase in the body's vulnerability and an increase in the likelihood of death. As a social phenomenon, old age is usually associated with retirement, with a change in social status, with the loss of important social roles, and with a narrowing of the social world.
Social situation of development and leading activities in old age
N. S. Pryazhnikov proposed highlighting the specifics of self-determination and activity at different stages of old age:
I. Elderly, pre-retirement age(from approximately 55 years of age until retirement) is primarily an expectation, and at best, preparation for retirement. In general, the period is characterized by:
1.
Waiting for pension;
2. Leading activities:
The desire to “have time” to do what has not yet been done, as well as the desire to leave a “good memory” of oneself at work;
When grandchildren appear, people of retirement age seem to be “torn” between work, where they want to realize themselves to the fullest, and raising their grandchildren, who are no less important to them;
Choosing an occupation in retirement.
II. Retirement period(the first years after retirement) is, first of all, the development of a new social role, a new status.
1. Social development situation:
Mainly contacts with close people and relatives;
Retired friends gradually appear;
Raising grandchildren;
2. Leading activities:
An ever-increasing desire to “educate” or even “shame” younger people;
For some pensioners, the first time in retirement is to continue working in their main profession;
III. The period of old age itself(several years after retirement and until health deteriorates), when a person has already acquired a new social status.
1. Social development situation:
Communication mainly with the same elders;
Communication with family members who either exploit the old man’s free time or simply “look after” him;
Some retirees find new contacts through social activities;
2. Leading activities:
Leisure hobby;
For some older people during this period, the leading activity may be preparation for death;
Communication
1) Narrowing the circle of contacts;
2) Relationships with adult children and grandchildren;
Psychological neoplasms during old age
Acceptance of your life;
Life wisdom;
Happy old age;
Integration, wholeness.
Crisis of individual existence
Death as the last critical event in life;
Attitude towards death.
Conclusion
1) Crisis of trust and mistrust (during the first year of life);
2) Autonomy as opposed to doubt and shame (around 2 - 3 years of age);
3) The emergence of initiative as opposed to feelings of guilt (from approximately 3 to 6 years);
4) Hard work as opposed to an inferiority complex (ages 7 to 12 years);
5) Personal self-determination as opposed to individual dullness and conformism (from 12 to 18 years);
6) Intimacy and sociability as opposed to personal psychological isolation (about 20 years);
7) Concern for raising a new generation as opposed to “immersion in oneself” (between 30 and 60 years);
8) Satisfaction with life lived as opposed to despair (over 60 years old).
Stages of development of human subjectivity:
1) Revival;
2) Animation;
3) Personalization;
4) Individualization;
5) Universalization.
Used Books
1) R. S. Nemov, Psychology, part 1, Vlados Publishing House, Moscow, 2007
2) A. V. Petrovsky, General psychology, Publishing house "Enlightenment", Moscow, 1986.
3) V. I. Slobodchikov, Psychology of Personality Development, School Press Publishing House, Moscow, 2000.
4) S. L. Rubinstein, Fundamentals of General Psychology, Publishing House “Soviet Science”, Moscow, 1946.
5) Ya. L. Kolominsky, “Man: psychology.”
6) A. G. Maklakov, “General Psychology”, Publishing House “Prosveshcheniye”, Moscow, 2006.
7) L. Hewell, D. Ziegler, “Theories of Personality.”
8) R.S. Nemov, “Psychology of Education”, Publishing House “Soviet Science”, Moscow, 1978.
9) Editor-in-Chief A. M. Prokhorov, Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary, Publishing House “Soviet Encyclopedia”, Moscow 1986.
10)B. S. Mukhina, Developmental psychology, Asadema Publishing House, Moscow, 2000.
11) I. V Shapovalenko, Developmental psychology, Gardariki Publishing House, Moscow, 2005.
12) R. S. Nemov, Psychology, part 2, Vlados Publishing House, Moscow, 1998
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The social situation of development in old age is associated with a withdrawal from active participation in the productive life of society - with retirement. And it is retirement that some theories of old age recognize as the beginning of this age. The latter is not accidental: professional activity, with all the peculiarities of the organization of individual life, provides a person with the necessary social connections (the problem can only lie in the quality and volume of these connections).
One of the theories trying to explain the position of older people in society is the widespread and accepted in the West theory of desocialization, which was first substantiated by J. Rosen and B. Newgarten, and then supplemented by E. Cumming and W. Henry. Dissociation is a psychosocial phenomenon that is explained both by natural changes in the psychology of an aging individual and by the influence of the social environment on it. The phenomenon of dissociation is expressed in a change in motivation, focusing on one’s inner world and a decline in communication skills. The formal beginning of this process is associated with retirement and reveals subjective and objective manifestations. Objectively, “dissociation” finds its expression in the loss of previous social roles, deterioration of health, decrease in income, loss or distance of loved ones. Subjectively, it manifests itself in a feeling of uselessness, a narrowing of the circle of interests - focusing them on one’s inner world.
The essence of the theory is that with age, an aging person moves away from society, and this process is biologically and psychologically inherent and inevitable. The gap between the individual and society occurs after retirement. By inertia, an elderly person continues to maintain old connections and is interested in what is happening at work. Then these connections become artificial and are gradually interrupted. The amount of information received by a person decreases, his circle of interests narrows, his activity decreases, and therefore the aging process accelerates.
Thus, a person retiring is faced with the need for an important, difficult and absolutely independent choice - between social and individual life. Age fully manifests itself as an adaptogenic factor precisely at the moment when a person, due to retirement, is deprived of the mandatory support of society and a system of certain social connections determined by professional activity and place in society. When retiring, a person loses (to an increasing extent) social connections; retirement time and the corresponding position simultaneously “equalize” people in their retirement (detached from productive labor) state.
Social gains in the past and the material standard of living achieved during work do not relieve a person from choosing an aging strategy. In essence, a person on the threshold of old age decides for himself the question: should he try to preserve and form new areas of his social connections or move on to a life limited by the circle of his interests and the interests of loved ones, that is, move on to a generally individual life. This decision is determined by two main adaptation strategies - preserving oneself as an individual and preserving oneself as an individual.
E. Erikson left an alternative outcome for old age, but this alternative, in the author’s opinion, is generally determined by the nature of the passage of the previous stages of life. However, if we consider old age as an age of development, then we should recognize its right and necessity to choose the meaning and purpose of life, and, consequently, the possibility of progressive or regressive changes in personality. In general, a free, albeit difficult choice allows one to characterize old age as an age of development, an age of potential, and provides a chance to resist total extinction. The final choice is determined by solving the problem of meaning - the meaning of the rest of life. In accordance with this choice and, accordingly, the strategy of adaptation in old age, the leading activity in old age can be aimed either at preserving a person’s personality (maintaining and developing his social connections), or at isolating, individualizing and “surviving” him as an individual against the background of the gradual extinction of psychophysiological functions . Both types of aging obey the laws of adaptation, but provide different quality of life and even its duration. The second variant of aging is most fully described in the literature, in which age-related changes manifest themselves in a qualitatively unique restructuring of the body with the preservation of special adaptive functions against the background of their general decline. This adaptation strategy involves a gradual restructuring of basic vital processes and, in general, the structure of regulation of functions in order to ensure the safety of the individual, maintain or increase life expectancy. This adaptation strategy involves the transformation of an individual’s “open” system into a “closed” system. The literature indicates that the relative psychological isolation of the regulatory circuit in old age is manifested in a general decrease in interests and claims to the outside world, egocentrism, a decrease in emotional control, a “sharpening” of certain personality traits, as well as in the leveling of individual personality traits. In many ways, these personal changes are due to the old person’s self-centered interests. As many authors note, the inability of an elderly person to do anything for others gives him a feeling of inferiority, deepened by irritability and the desire to hide, which is facilitated by an unconscious feeling of envy and guilt, which subsequently grows into indifference to others.
Obviously, in the case of a strategy of adaptation to old age based on the “closed loop” principle, this age would be difficult to consider as the age of development. However, an alternative adaptation strategy is possible, when an elderly person seeks to preserve himself as an individual, which is associated with the maintenance and development of his connections with society. In this case, the structuring and transfer of experience can be considered as the leading activity in old age. In other words, positive evolution in old age is possible if an elderly person finds the opportunity to realize the accumulated experience in a matter that is meaningful to others and at the same time invest a piece of his individuality, his soul into it. Replicating one’s experience, the fruits of one’s life wisdom, makes an elderly person significant for society (at least from his own point of view) and thereby ensures the preservation of both his connections with society and the very sense of social involvement in society. The range of such socially significant activities can be very wide: continuing professional activities, writing memoirs, raising grandchildren and students, teaching and many other things to which the soul has always been drawn. The main thing here is the moment of creativity, which allows not only to improve the quality of life, but also to increase its duration. It is this type of leading activity that ensures internal integration in old age, the necessary social connections, distracts from obsessive thoughts about health, strengthens self-esteem, and allows one to maintain mostly good and warm relationships with others.
Preserving oneself as an individual, realizing the need to systematize and transfer one’s experience to subsequent generations are associated with the work of comprehending one’s existence - present and past. B. G. Ananyev showed that reflection on issues related to the meaning of life has a fundamental impact on the characteristics of the final phases of the life path. According to the author, the paradox of the end of life is that the “dying” of forms of human existence occurs before “physical decrepitude” from old age, and in conditions of social isolation there is a breakdown, a narrowing of the meaning of life, which leads to personality degradation. Thus, the preservation of personality in old age is associated with resistance to conditions favorable to such isolation. Many researchers of the age-related aspects of awareness and experience of the meaning of life point to the importance of both the fact itself and the results of this awareness for choosing the path of aging. Thus, V. E. Chudnovsky, considering the meaning of life as an idea that contains the purpose of life, as a generalized final attitude towards life, which reflects the relationship of the present, past and future, indicates that in old age, waning forces direct a person to search for the meaning of life .
The question of leading activity in old age remains open for discussion and study. There is a point of view of A. G. Leaders, according to which the leading activity of an elderly person is a special “inner work” aimed at accepting his life path. An elderly person comprehends not only his current life, but also his entire life. A fruitful, healthy old age is associated with accepting your life path. For an elderly person, the possibilities for serious real changes in his life path have practically been exhausted, but he can work endlessly with his life path in an ideal way, internally.
Theoretically sound and practically fruitful is the attempt of N.S. Pryazhnikov to consider the problem of the social situation of development and leading activity in old age in connection with the problem of periodization of this age. In his proposed periodization of old age, the emphasis was placed not so much on chronological development, but on the socio-psychological specifics of each of the identified periods.
Psychological characteristics and features of personal self-determination of certain periods of old age (according to N. S. Pryazhnikov)
I. Older, pre-retirement age (from approximately 55 years until retirement) is primarily an expectation, and at best, preparation for retirement. In general, the period is characterized by the following:
Waiting for a pension: for some, retirement is perceived as an opportunity to “start resting as soon as possible,” for others, as the end of an active working life and the uncertainty of what to do with their experience and the considerable remaining energy;
The main contacts are still of a production nature, when, on the one hand, colleagues can expect a given person to leave work as soon as possible (and the person himself feels this), and on the other hand, they do not want to let the person go, and he himself secretly hopes that retirement for him will come later than for many of his peers;
Relationships with relatives, when, on the one hand, a person can still largely provide for his family, including grandchildren (and in this sense he is “useful” and “interesting”), and on the other hand, a premonition of his imminent “uselessness”, when he stops earning a lot and will receive his “pathetic pension”;
The desire to educate and prepare for oneself a “worthy replacement” at work.
2. Leading activities:
The desire to “have time” to do what has not yet been done (especially professionally), as well as the desire to leave a “good memory” of oneself at work;
The desire to pass on your experience to students and followers;
When grandchildren appear, people of pre-retirement age seem to be “torn” between work, where they want to realize themselves as much as possible, and raising their grandchildren, who are no less important to them (this is also a continuation of their family);
Towards the end of the pre-retirement period (especially if the probability of leaving a given job is very high), there is a desire to choose an activity in retirement, to somehow plan your future life.
P. The period of retirement (the first years after retirement) is, first of all, the development of a new social role, a new status. In general, this period is characterized by the following:
1. Social development situation:
Old contacts (with work colleagues) are still preserved at first, but later they become less and less pronounced;
Mainly contacts with close people and relatives (accordingly, relatives require special tact and attention to still “inexperienced” pensioners);
Gradually, pensioner friends or even other, younger people appear (depending on what the pensioner will do and with whom he will have to communicate, for example, retired social activists immediately find new areas of activity for themselves and quickly acquire new “business” contacts );
Usually, relatives and friends want the pensioner, “who already has a lot of time,” to be more involved in raising his grandchildren, so communication with children and grandchildren is also the most important characteristic of the social situation of pensioners.
2. Leading activities:
First of all, this is a “search for oneself” in a new capacity, this is a test of one’s strength in a variety of activities (raising grandchildren, in the household, in hobbies, in new relationships, in social activities, etc.) - this is self-determination by the “ trial and error"; in fact, a pensioner has a lot of time, and he can afford it (however, all this happens against the backdrop of the feeling that “life is getting smaller and smaller every day”...);
For some pensioners, the first time in retirement is to continue working in their main profession (especially when such an employee receives a pension and basic salary together); in this case, the working pensioner’s sense of self-worth increases significantly;
An ever-increasing desire to “educate” or even “shame” younger people;
III. The period of old age itself (several years after retirement and until a serious deterioration in health), when a person has already mastered a new social status, is characterized approximately by the following:
1. Social situation:
Communication mainly with the same elders;
Communication with family members who either exploit the old man’s free time or simply “look after” him;
Some retirees find new contacts through social activities (or even ongoing professional activities);
For some pensioners, the meaning of relationships with other people is changing; for example, some authors note that many connections that were previously close to an old person are gradually “losing their former intimacy and becoming more generalized.”
2. Leading activities:
Leisure hobbies (retired people often change one hobby after another, which somewhat refutes the idea of their “rigidity”; they still continue to search for themselves, to look for meaning in different activities...). The main problem of such a search is the “disproportion” of all these activities in comparison with the previous (“present”) work;
The desire to confirm one’s sense of self-worth in every possible way, according to the principle: “As long as I do at least something useful for others, I exist and demand respect for myself”;
For some old people during this period (even when their health is still quite good and there is no reason to “say goodbye to life”), the leading activity may be preparation for death, which is expressed in joining religion, often going to the cemetery, talking with loved ones about “ will."
IV. Longevity in conditions of a sharp deterioration in health differs significantly from old age without any special health problems. Therefore, it makes sense to highlight the features of this particular type of old age.
1. Social situation:
Mainly communication with family and friends, as well as with doctors and roommates (if the elder is in hospital treatment);
These are also roommates in nursing homes (mostly elderly people are transferred to such homes when they need special care). Unfortunately, in many homes this care is actually worse than at home. For example, even in such a prosperous country as France, 8% of healthy old people die in the first week of admission to nursing homes, 29% in the first month, 45% in the first six months. State nursing homes “are characterized by poor sanitary conditions, severe overcrowding, harsh regimes, poorly organized leisure time, and unqualified medical care. Many old people simply become drunkards” (quoted from).
2. Leading activities:
Treatment, the desire to somehow fight diseases;
The desire to make sense of your life. Very often this is a desire to embellish one’s life; a person seems to “cling on” to all the best things that happened (and didn’t happen) in his life. In this state, a person wants to leave behind something very good, significant, worthy and thereby, as it were, prove to himself and others: “I did not live in vain.” Or repent of something unworthy.
U. Longevity with relatively good health (after approximately 75-80 years and older) can be characterized by the following:
1. Social situation:
% communication with loved ones and relatives who even begin to be proud that a real centenarian lives in their family. To some extent, this pride is selfish: relatives believe that their family has good heredity and that they will also live a long time. In this sense, a centenarian is a symbol of a future long life for other family members;
A healthy centenarian may have new friends and acquaintances;
Since a centenarian is a rare phenomenon, a variety of people, including representatives of the media, strive to communicate with such an old man, so the circle of acquaintances of a centenarian may even expand somewhat.
2. Leading activities:
It largely depends on the inclinations of a given person, but in any case it is a fairly active life (sometimes even with excesses characteristic of a healthy mature person). Probably, to maintain health, not only doctor’s prescriptions are important, but also the very feeling of one’s health (or “feeling of life”).
Characteristics of the elderly
According to the classification of the WHO European Bureau, aging, that is, old age, lasts for men from 61 to 74 years, for women - from 55 to 74 years. From the age of 75, old age begins, that is, old age, and the period over 90 years old - longevity or senility.
But this is only a gradation of biological age. Therefore, M.D. Aleksandrova considers the psychological aspect of aging in relation to the sensory-perceptual and intellectual spheres, to personality characteristics, and the dynamics of creative productivity. In addition, according to other authors, when determining old age, the most significant feature is the socio-economic “threshold” - retirement, change in source of income, change in social status, narrowing the range of social roles.
Old age is not a static state, but a dynamic process. It is associated with specific changes in living conditions, many of which, unfortunately, have a negative connotation. These include changes in physical capabilities, loss of social status associated with the work performed, changes in functions in the family, death or threat of loss of loved ones, deterioration in economic living conditions, and the need to adapt to rapid cultural and everyday changes. Moreover, the end of professional work causes a radical change in lifestyle for many people. Others experience additional changes in their immediate environment and behavior patterns, for example as a result of placement in a nursing home.
Main characteristics and stages of old age according to N.S. Pryazhnikov:
Older, pre-retirement age (from about 55 years old until retirement) is, first of all, anticipation, and at best, preparation for retirement. In general, the period is characterized by:
· Waiting for a pension: for some, retirement is perceived as an opportunity to “start relaxing as soon as possible,” for others, as the end of an active working life and the uncertainty of what to do with their experience and the considerable remaining energy.
· The main contacts are still more of a production nature, when, on the one hand, colleagues can expect the person to leave work as soon as possible (and the person himself feels this), and on the other hand, they do not want to let the person go, and he himself secretly hopes that that retirement will come later for him than for many of his peers.
· Relationships with relatives, when, on the one hand, a person can still largely provide for his family, including grandchildren (and in this sense he is “useful” and “interesting”), and on the other hand, a premonition of his imminent “uselessness” , when he stops earning a lot and will receive his “pathetic pension”.
· The desire to educate and prepare for oneself a “worthy replacement” at work.
2. Leading activities:
The desire to “have time” to do what has not yet been done (especially professionally), as well as the desire to leave a “good memory” of oneself at work.
The desire to pass on my experience to students and followers.
When grandchildren appear, people of pre-retirement age seem to be “torn” between work, where they want to realize themselves as much as possible, and raising their grandchildren, who are no less important to them (this is also a continuation of their family).
Towards the end of the pre-retirement period (especially if the probability of leaving a given job is very high), there is a desire to choose an activity in retirement, to somehow plan your future life.
II. The period of retirement (the first years after retirement) is, first of all, the development of a new social role, a new status. In general, this period is characterized by the following:
1. Social development situation:
Old contacts (with work colleagues) are still preserved at first, but later they become less and less pronounced.
Mainly contacts with close people and relatives (accordingly, relatives are required
special tact and attention to still “inexperienced” pensioners).
Gradually, pensioner friends or even other, younger people appear (depending on what the pensioner will do and with whom he will have to communicate, for example, social pensioners immediately find new areas of activity for themselves and quickly acquire new “business” contacts ).
Usually, relatives and friends want the pensioner, “who already has a lot of time,” to be more involved in raising his grandchildren, so communication with children and grandchildren is also the most important characteristic of the social situation of pensioners.
2. Leading activities:
First of all, this is a “search for oneself” in a new capacity, this is a test of one’s strength in a variety of activities (raising grandchildren, in the household, in hobbies, in new relationships, in social activities, etc.) - this is self-determination by method "trial and error"; in fact, a pensioner has a lot of time, and he can afford it (however, all this happens against the backdrop of the feeling that “life is getting smaller and smaller every day”).
For some pensioners, the first time in retirement is to continue working in their main profession (especially
when such an employee receives a pension and basic salary together); in this case, the working pensioner’s sense of self-worth increases significantly.
An ever-increasing desire to “educate” or even “shame” younger people.
III. The period of old age itself (several years after retirement and up to 75 years or a sharp deterioration in health),
when a person has already mastered a new social status, it is characterized approximately as follows:
I. Social situation:
Communication is mainly with the same elders.
Communication with family members who either exploit the old man’s free time or simply “look after” him.
Some retirees find new contacts through social activities (or even ongoing professional activities).
For some pensioners, the importance of relationships with other people changes, for example, some authors note that
many connections that were previously close to the old man gradually “lose their former intimacy and become more generalized.”
2. Leading activities:
Leisure hobbies (retired people often change one hobby after another, which somewhat refutes the idea of their “rigidity”: they still continue to search for themselves, to search for meaning in different activities). The main problem of such a search is the “disproportion” of all these activities in comparison with the previous (“present”) work.
The desire to confirm one’s sense of self-worth in every possible way according to the principle: “As long as I do at least something useful for others, I exist and demand respect for myself.”
For some old people during this period (even when their health is still quite good and there is no reason to “say goodbye to life”), the leading activity may be preparation for death, which is expressed in joining religion, in frequent visits to the cemetery, in conversations with loved ones about “ will."
A review of changes in personality manifestations in old age makes the problem of the typology of aging extremely relevant for gerontopsychology. A lot of attempts have been made to describe the types of aging. Here are the most famous of them.
In F. Giese’s typology, three types of old people and old age are distinguished:
1) a negative old man who denies any signs of old age;
2) an extroverted old man who recognizes the onset of old age through external influences and observation of changes (young people have grown up, differences in views with them, death of loved ones, changes in their position in the family, changes-innovations in the field of technology, social life, etc.) ;
3) an introverted type, which is characterized by an acute experience of the aging process. A person does not show interest in new things, is immersed in memories of the past, is inactive, strives for peace, etc. .
I.S.Kon identifies the following socio-psychological types of old age:
The first type is active creative old age, when old people, retiring for a well-deserved retirement, continue to participate in public life, educating young people, etc., live a full life, without experiencing any handicap.
The second type of old age is characterized by the fact that pensioners do things for which they simply did not have time before: self-education, recreation, entertainment, etc. That is, this type of old people is also characterized by good social and psychological adaptability, flexibility, adaptation, but the energy is directed mainly towards themselves.
The third type (mostly women) finds the main application of their strength in the family. And since housework is inexhaustible, the women doing it simply have no time to mope and be bored. However, psychologists note that life satisfaction in this group of people is lower than in the first two.
The fourth type are people whose meaning in life is taking care of their own health. Various forms of activity and moral satisfaction are associated with this. At the same time, there is a tendency (more often in men) to exaggerate their real and imaginary illnesses, and increased anxiety.
Along with the identified prosperous types of old age, I.S. Kon also draws attention to negative types of development: a) aggressive old grumblers, dissatisfied with the state of the world around them, criticizing everyone except themselves, lecturing everyone and terrorizing those around them with endless claims; b) disappointed in themselves and their own lives, lonely and sad losers, constantly blaming themselves for real and imaginary missed opportunities, thereby making themselves deeply unhappy. .
The classification proposed by D.B. Bromley is quite widely supported in the world psychological literature. She identifies five types of personality adaptation to old age:
1) A constructive attitude [according to the theory of K. Roshchak - Constructive type] of a person towards old age, in which elderly and old people are internally balanced, have a good mood, and are satisfied with emotional contacts with people around them. They are moderately critical of themselves and at the same time very tolerant of others and their possible shortcomings. They do not dramatize the end of professional activity, have an optimistic attitude towards life, and interpret the possibility of death as a natural event that does not cause sadness and fear. Thanks to their positive life balance, they confidently count on the help of others. The self-esteem of this group of elderly and old people is quite high.
2) Dependency relationship. A dependent personality [according to the theory of K. Roshchak] is a person subordinate to someone, dependent on a marital partner or on his child, who does not have too high demands in life and, thanks to this, willingly leaves the professional environment. The family environment provides him with a sense of security, helps him maintain internal harmony, emotional balance, and not experience hostility or fear.
3) Defensive attitude. The defensive type [according to the theory of K. Roshchak] - which is characterized by exaggerated emotional restraint, some straightforwardness in one’s actions and habits, the desire for “self-sufficiency” and reluctant acceptance of help from other people. People of this type of adaptation to old age avoid expressing their own opinions and have difficulty sharing their problems and doubts. Sometimes they take a defensive position towards the whole family: even if there are some claims and complaints against the family, they do not express them. The protective mechanism they use against the fear of death and deprivation is their activity “through force”, constant feeding by external actions. People with a defensive attitude towards advancing old age are very reluctant and only under pressure from others to leave their professional work.
4) Attitude of hostility towards others. Aggressive-accusatory type [according to the theory of K. Roshchak] of old age - people with such an attitude are aggressive, explosive and suspicious, they strive to “shift” the blame and responsibility for their own failures onto other people, and do not quite adequately assess reality. Distrust and suspicion make them withdraw into themselves and avoid contact with other people. They do their best to drive away the thought of retiring, because... use the mechanism of releasing tension through activity. Their life path, as a rule, was accompanied by numerous stresses and failures, many of which turned into nervous diseases. People belonging to this type of attitude towards old age are prone to acute reactions of fear, they do not perceive their old age, and think with despair about the progressive loss of strength. All this is also combined with a hostile attitude towards young people, sometimes with the transfer of this attitude to the entire “new, alien world”. This kind of rebellion against their own old age is combined in these people with a strong fear of death.
5) The attitude of a person’s hostility towards himself. Self-accusatory type [according to the theory of K. Roshchak] - people of this type avoid memories because there were many failures and difficulties in their life. They are passive, do not rebel against their own old age, they only meekly accept what fate sends them. The inability to satisfy the need for love is the cause of depression, self-esteem and sadness. These states are associated with feelings of loneliness and uselessness. Their own aging is assessed quite realistically: the end of life, death, is interpreted by these people as deliverance from suffering.
L.I. Antsiferova, based on the combination of characteristics - level of activity, strategies for coping with difficulties, attitude towards the world and oneself, satisfaction with life - identifies two main personality types of older people:
1. Older people who bravely face retirement, switch to new interesting activities, tend to establish new friendships, and retain the ability to control their environment. All this leads to them experiencing a feeling of satisfaction with life and even increases its duration.
2. Older people are characterized as passively related to life, experiencing alienation from others, a decrease in intelligence scores on tests, loss of self-respect, a feeling of uselessness and personal inadequacy. .
The essence of the psychosocial personality crisis characteristic of old age is the achievement of ego integrity. Erikson associates the possibility of a successful transition to an older psychological age with a positive resolution of previous age-related crises. The integrity of the individual is based on summing up his past life and recognizing it as a single whole, in which nothing can be changed.
R. Pekk, developing Erikson's ideas, argued that a person needs to overcome three sub-crises or conflicts in order for a sense of integrity to fully develop:
1. Revaluation of one’s own self in addition to a professional role or some other social role. We must be able to move on to a new consideration of ourselves, our uniqueness, not through the prism of one role - a professional or a parent - but from other positions.
2. Awareness of the fact of deteriorating health and aging of the body, development of the necessary indifference and tolerance. Successful aging is possible if a person can adapt to the inevitable physical discomfort or find an activity that helps him to distract himself.
3. Overcoming preoccupation with the prospect of imminent death, accepting the thought of death without horror, extending one’s own lifeline through participation in the affairs of the younger generation.
Thus, old age is the beginning of the final period of a person’s life, which includes a change in a person’s position in society and plays its own special role in the life cycle system. As a biological phenomenon, old age is associated with an increase in the vulnerability of the body, with an increase in the likelihood of death, as a social phenomenon - retirement, decline in social status, with a narrowing of the social world, at the psychological level - we are talking about awareness of the changes taking place and more or less successful adaptation to him.
Ryzhachkov Anatoly Alexandrovich 11/12/2019
Retirement is not only the end of professional activity, but also a change in a person’s entire life. You should prepare for this event in advance. When retiring, you can be satisfied with what you have done in life or, conversely, regret having to leave your job.
Regardless of when you retire (at age 50, 60, or 70), saying goodbye to work can be complicated. Retirement stress is accompanied by a reluctance to participate in social life, a decrease in interest in other people, and often leads to a decrease in intellectual activity. Feelings of uselessness and lack of a clear routine can provoke a violation of self-esteem, bad mood or withdrawal. “Withdrawal,” in turn, often leads to egocentrism and “obsession” with memories. A person begins to listen intensively to himself, his body.
An active optimist will more easily endure the changes associated with retirement and will regain balance in life. The desire to work is the main need of a healthy person.
Work helps develop many of a person’s abilities, makes him useful to others, and gives meaning to life. The great 18th century philosopher Voltaire, in his ninth decade of life, believed that the older a person gets, the more he needs to work, because it is better to die than to drag along senilely through life (to work means to live!).
Having reached retirement age, it is important to continue working, but in accordance with your health condition. Elderly people should not do hard physical work, which Aristotle said would dry out the body and lead to premature aging. We can say that moderate work is healthy stress, and excessive work due to its volume, content or, conversely, because it does not use all human capabilities, is unhealthy stress.
After 65-70 years, you should not strive for a job that requires a lot of attention or quick decision-making. It’s good if you can walk to work, spending no more than 15-25 minutes.
If a pensioner does not work anywhere, then he still needs to keep himself busy. It is useful to make a to-do list for the day, even if you manage to complete everything.
Strong physical labor has a beneficial effect on the condition of the body. Many older people enjoy working in their garden plots. The following guidelines should be followed when working in the garden.
- You cannot work if you are feeling unwell. As soon as an elderly person feels unwell while working: he has a headache or a feeling of malaise, he should immediately stop working and take a break.
- It is not recommended to work in hot weather. It is best to work in the garden before 11 a.m. and after 5 p.m.
- There should always be a hat on the head, and clothing made from well-ventilated fabrics (cotton or linen) that does not restrict movement should cover the body as much as possible.
- You should not stay in one position for a long time, especially in an inclined position. It is possible to use different large benches for working with plantings.
- It is necessary to take long breaks from work and always carry emergency medications recommended by your doctor.
- Never work at height without insurance.
- It is undesirable to be alone in the garden for a long time, because if your health suddenly deteriorates, there will be no one to help.
Due to the difficult economic situation in the country, many people who have retired are forced to look for an additional source of income, since the pension accrued to them by the state is most often not enough. In addition, lonely pensioners communicate with their co-workers at work. This has a positive impact on them by maintaining social connections.
An active working life in retirement will not only replenish the pensioner’s budget, but also (with a reasonable workload) improve his health. It must be remembered that all centenarians worked until the last days of their lives, remaining sane and having good physical characteristics until old age.
Pogodina A.B., Gazimov A.Kh. Fundamentals of gerontology and geriatrics: textbook. – Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2007. – pp. 51-53.
