Rearrangements
Rearrangement as a type of translation transformation is a change in the arrangement (order) of language elements in the translation text compared to the original text. Elements that can be rearranged: words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence, independent sentences /7/.
The rearrangements are due to a number of reasons, the main one of which is the difference in the structure (word order) of sentences in English and Russian. An English sentence usually begins with a subject followed by a predicate, i.e. the rheme - the center of the message (the most important thing) - comes first. Topic (secondary information) - circumstances are most often located at the end of the sentence.
The word order of a Russian sentence is different: at the beginning of the sentence there are often secondary members (adverbs of time and place), followed by the predicate and only at the end - the subject.
In the translation of poetry, rearrangements are most often due to the need to maintain rhythm or maintain rhyme.
For example, in the translation of A. Akhmatova’s poem “Consolation”, in order to preserve the rhyme in the second stanza, the translator abandoned inversion and retained the sentence structure characteristic of the English language.
|
Let your spirit become quiet and calm, There will be no more losses: He is a new warrior of God’s army, Don’t be sad about him now. |
May your spirit be still an peaceful, There will be no losses now: He is new warrior of God's army, Do not be about him in sorrow. |
Substitutions
Substitutions are the most common and diverse type of translation transformations. During the translation process, both grammatical units - forms of words, parts of speech, members of sentences, types of syntactic connections, etc. - and lexical ones can be replaced.
Grammatical transformations include /7/:
a) Replacement of word forms - replacement of number in nouns, tense in verbs, etc. The reason for such transformations may be a discrepancy between the norms of two languages, or a change in the grammatical form of a word is caused by purely stylistic reasons. For example, in the poem “So many stones have been thrown at me” the plural noun “window” is translated as “window”, the comparative adverb “earlier” is translated as “early”. The tense of the verb also changes: “The tower has become” - “Tower stands”.
b) Part of speech substitutions are the most common type of substitution. “I"m grateful to” (grateful) - “thank you.” The simplest example is the so-called “pronominalization,” or replacing a noun with a pronoun.
c) Replacement of sentence members. When replacing sentence members in the translation text, the syntactic scheme of sentence construction occurs.
Thus, in most cases, when translating from English into Russian, the Russian sentence does not overlap with the English one and does not coincide with it in structure. Often the structure of a Russian sentence in translation is completely different from the structure of an English sentence. It has a different word order, a different sequence of parts of a sentence, and often a different order of arrangement of the sentences themselves - main, subordinate and introductory. In a number of cases, the parts of speech that express members of an English sentence are conveyed accordingly by other parts of speech. All this explains the widespread use of grammatical transformations in translation.
Syntactic transformations include: replacing the main clause with a subordinate clause and vice versa, replacing an essay with a subordination and vice versa, replacing a conjunction with a non-conjunction.
When translating poetic texts, the most common practice is to replace a simple sentence with a complex one and vice versa. This kind of replacement is often caused by grammatical reasons - structural discrepancies between the sentences of the source and target languages. For example:
In this example, the comparative phrase is replaced by a subordinate clause of an unreal condition.
With lexical replacements, individual lexical units of the source language are replaced by lexical units of the target language, which are not their dictionary equivalents, that is, taken in isolation, they have a different referential meaning than the units of the source language conveyed by them in translation /21/.
Most often there are three cases - specification, generalization and replacement based on cause-and-effect relationships (replacing an effect with a cause and a cause with an effect).
a) Concretization is the replacement of a word or phrase in the source language with a broader meaning with a word or phrase in the target language with a narrower meaning /7/. Most often, this type of transformation is applied when translating from English into Russian, since the Russian language is characterized by greater specificity than the corresponding lexical units of the English language.
An example of specification when translating from Russian into English is the correct selection of the equivalent of the noun “hand” when translating various poems by A. Akhmatova:
“And pigeon from my palms eats wheat...”
“Waxy, dry hand...” - “By my dry, waxen hand...”
“Exhausted, in your arms...” - “On your arms, as I lost all my power...”
b) Generalization - a technique opposite to specification, consists in replacing the particular with a general, specific concept with a generic one.
When analyzing translations of Anna Akhmatova’s poetic texts, one can find a number of unsuccessful examples of generalization, since the general sense of atmosphere is lost.
In the poem “Everything promised it to me” in the line “On the rusty cast iron of the fence,” the noun “cast iron” is translated as “iron.” As a result, what the reader sees is not old, rough black cast iron, but rust-eaten iron, which affects the overall impression.
c) Replacement of an effect with a cause and vice versa. During the translation process, lexical substitutions often take place based on cause-and-effect relationships between concepts. Thus, a word or phrase in a foreign language can be replaced during translation by a word or phrase in a foreign language, which, according to logical connections, denotes the cause of the action or state indicated by the translated unit of the language.
For example, “We don’t know how to say goodbye” - “To say goodbye we don"t know.”
It is important to take into account that in poetic texts the equivalence of translation is ensured at the level not of individual elements of the text (words in particular), but of the entire translated text as a whole. In other words, there are untranslatable particulars, but there are no untranslatable texts.
Additions
Addition refers to the introduction of additional words or structures into the structure of a sentence /55/.
The reasons for the need for lexical additions in the translation text may be different.
The most common of them can be called “formal lack of expression” (absence) of the semantic components of the phrase in the source language /6/. However, in poetic texts, additions are due to other reasons.
As a rule, this is the need to maintain the rhythm and rhyme of the poem. For example, to preserve the structure of the poem “I Stopped Smiling,” additional structures were introduced:
From the point of view of vocabulary, English speech fully allows the use of a synonymous pair of verbs, which in Russian mean the same thing.
Likewise, introducing the preposition “Instead there” is not considered an error, since it does not affect the meaning of the poem.
Often, lexical additions are determined by the need to convey in the translation text the meanings expressed in the original by grammatical means. For example, when transmitting English plural forms of nouns that do not have this form in Russian /7/.
Omissions
Omission is the exact opposite of addition. When translating, words that are most often omitted are those that are semantically redundant in terms of their semantic content /7/.
However, in translations of Anna Akhmatova’s poems, omission is not used as an adequate translation transformation, since the author of the translation strives to reproduce all units of the original. The omission of any lexical units is more of a mistake than a translation technique. An example of such an omission is the translation of the poem “Under the frozen roof of an empty dwelling.”
As you know, Akhmatova’s work is permeated with religious notes; her trees have a certain sacred meaning.
A significant part of the meaning is lost when translating the line “And in the Bible a red maple leaf is laid on the Song of Songs” as follows: “And in the Bible a leaf On Song of Songs is sitting.”
As a result, not only the indication of the tree to which the leaf belongs is lost, but also of the color, the symbolism of which is also important in the work of A. Akhmatova.
For the correct construction of a sentence, the order of words and the arrangement of different members of the sentence are essential. Any rearrangement of words in a sentence entails a change in meaning associated with emphasizing one of its members. Examples: Even this work is difficult for him (meaning that even an easy job is difficult for a weak performer). This work is even difficult for him (the unexpectedness of the difficulty is emphasized). This work is difficult even for him (that is, the work is difficult even for a strong performer).
There is a difference between direct and reverse word order. Direct order is more common. For example: The new foreman quickly adjusted the work of the team. In this sentence, the subject precedes the predicate (the foreman adjusted); the agreed definition comes before the word being defined (new foreman); an inconsistent definition follows after the word being defined (team work); the addition comes after the control word-predicate (established work); the adverbial manner of action precedes the predicate verb (quickly established).
Reverse order (inversion) is used as a powerful means of expression. And the good side is Siberia! (M. Gorky). In this sentence, the subject comes after the predicate. Yes, we were very friendly (L. Tolstoy). Here the adverbial measure comes after the predicate.
Direct word order is typical for scientific and official business speech, reverse - for fiction and colloquial speech.
In any case, the reverse word order must be stylistically justified, otherwise ambiguity arises. For example: The carpenter made this bookcase out of oak with four legs (read as if it were oak with four legs, not a bookcase).
The above remarks about word order apply to a single (i.e., out of context) sentence. But in speech, a separate sentence is only a minimal unit and, as a rule, is connected with other similar units, therefore, under the influence of context, the word order may deviate from one or another model. For example: Moscow is the largest city in Russia. It is now home to more than ten million people. The first sentence has a direct word order, and when constructing the second sentence, its close semantic connection with the previous sentence is taken into account. In the first place in it was the circumstance of place in it (since we are talking about a city), followed by the circumstance of time now, then the predicate lives and, finally, a group of the subject of more than ten million people. Reverse word order is acceptable if a circumstance or addition is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
When creating texts, the informational role of word order should be taken into account. Despite the fact that the Russian language has a relatively free order of words in a sentence, i.e., the members of a sentence do not have a fixed place, as in some other languages, there are nevertheless certain rules for the arrangement of words.
In oral speech, the most significant word is highlighted by intonation, and in Russian written speech, the informational role of a word or phrase increases towards the end of the sentence. In other words, the absence of active, meaning-forming intonation in written speech is compensated by the presence of the principle of linear presentation of information. According to this principle, auxiliary information is first introduced into the sentence, and then the main one, with the main one located after the predicate, and the auxiliary information at the beginning of the sentence before the predicate. Depending on where a particular phrase is located, the meaning of the sentence changes. Let's take two sentences as an example.
Based on the customer’s letter, the unfinished scope of work on the production of the prototype is transferred to the first quarter of 2006. The unfinished scope of work on the production of a prototype is transferred to the first quarter of 2006 on the basis of a letter from the customer.
In the first sentence, the purpose of the statement is to indicate the period for which the production of the prototype is postponed. The second contains a justification for the reason for postponing the order delivery date.
Two more sentences for example: In order to exchange experience, we ask you to send new drawings made in your design office. Please send us the new drawings completed in your design bureau as an exchange of experience.
In the first case, the purpose of the statement is to indicate the necessary drawings. In the second, an indication of the form of cooperation on the basis of which the writer expects to receive the drawings that interest him.
Thus, a thoughtful arrangement of words allows the author of the letter to draw the addressee’s attention to a particular thought or highlight important points of the statement. Incorrect word order makes the phrase difficult to understand and even makes it ambiguous. For example: School students helped adults during the holidays in the fields of the collective farm. With this order of words, you might think that the holidays have arrived for collective farmers working in the fields. It should be written: During the holidays, school students helped adults in the fields of the collective farm.
Grammatical transformations
Translation from one language to another is impossible without grammatical transformations. Grammatical transformations are, first of all, a restructuring of a sentence (a change in its structure) and all kinds of replacements - both syntactic and morphological. Grammatical transformations are determined by various reasons - both purely grammatical and lexical in nature, although the main role is played by grammatical factors, i.e. differences in the structure of languages.
When comparing the grammatical categories and forms of the English and Russian languages, the following phenomena are usually discovered: 1) the absence of one or another category in one of the languages; 2) partial match; 3) complete coincidence. The need for grammatical transformations naturally arises only in the first and second cases. In Russian, compared to English, there are no grammatical categories such as articles or gerunds, as well as infinitive and participial complexes and absolute nominative construction. Partial coincidence or discrepancy in the meaning and use of corresponding forms and constructions also requires grammatical transformations. This may include such phenomena as partial discrepancy in the category of number, partial discrepancy in the forms of the passive construction, incomplete coincidence of the forms of the infinitive and participle, some differences in the expression of modality, etc.
First of all, we will focus on the article, because the article (both definite and indefinite), despite its extremely abstract meaning, often requires semantic expression in translation. As is known, both articles have pronominal origin: the definite article comes from the demonstrative pronoun, and the indefinite article from the indefinite pronoun, which goes back to the numeral one. These original meanings of articles sometimes appear in their modern usage. In such cases, their lexical meaning must be conveyed in translation, otherwise the Russian sentence would be incomplete and inaccurate, since the denotative meaning of articles is semantically an integral part of the entire semantic content of the sentence (3). Its historical connection with the numeral one is very clear in the following example:
Yet H. G. (Wells) had not an enemy on earth. (G.B. Shaw)
However, Herbert did not have a single enemy in the world.
The meaning of the definite article also often requires translation, especially when it comes before a numeral.
Only in the fields where talent cannot be hidden have the young conquered - the theatre, music, football, computers, physics, fashion. (“Daily Mail”)
Young people come forward only in cases where it is impossible to hide their natural talent (meaning theater, music, football, electronics, physics, fashion).
From all the above translations, it is clear that ignoring the lexical and sometimes grammatical meaning of the article during translation would lead to an incomplete or inaccurate transfer of content.
In Russian there are no infinitive complexes that are so common in English. Let us consider only the translation of the infinitive complex with the preposition for.
On its return journey the spacecraft must be accelerated to some 25,000 m.p.h. for it to enter the earth’s orbit. (“The Times”)
Upon return, the spacecraft's speed must be increased to approximately 25,000 miles per hour to enable it to enter Earth orbit.
In this case, the infinitive complex is translated by a subordinate clause of the goal.
However, very often grammatical transformations are also necessary when transmitting the corresponding forms and constructions due to some discrepancies in their meaning and use. Such discrepancies are observed, for example, in the use of the category of number.
United Nations Secretary General U Thant has strongly criticized South Africa, Rhodesia and Portugal for their policies in Africa. (“Morning Star”)
UN Secretary-General U Thant sharply criticized South Africa, Rhodesia and Portugal for their policies in Africa.
The noun “politics” does not have a plural form, because the word “politicians” is the plural form of the noun “politician” - a political figure.
As for uncountable nouns, especially those that express abstract concepts, the number of discrepancies may be greater. For example: ink - ink, money - money, watch - hours, news - news, and vice versa: to keep the minutes - keep minutes, to live in the suburbs - live in the suburbs, on the outskirts - on the outskirts, grapes - grapes, shrimp - shrimp, etc.
A discrepancy is also found in some cases of using the infinitive. The Russian infinitive does not have a perfect or continuous form.
Thus, all the phenomena considered - the absence of an appropriate form, partial coincidence, differences in the nature and use of the form - cause the need for grammatical transformations during translation. Grammatical transformations can be divided into two types: permutations and substitutions.
1. Rearrangements
Rearrangement as a type of translation transformation is a change in the arrangement (order) of language elements in the translation text compared to the original text. Elements that can be rearranged: words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence, independent sentences.
The rearrangements are due to a number of reasons, the main one of which is the difference in the structure (word order) of sentences in English and Russian. An English sentence usually begins with a subject (or subject group), followed by a predicate (predicate group), i.e. the rheme - the center of the message (the most important thing) - comes first. Topic (secondary information) - circumstances (place and time) are most often located at the end of the sentence.
The word order of a Russian sentence is different: at the beginning of the sentence there are often secondary members (adverbs of time and place), followed by the predicate and only at the end - the subject. This should be taken into account when translating. This phenomenon is known as “communicative division of a sentence.”
The most common case of permutation is a change in the order of words and phrases in the structure of a sentence associated with communicative division:
Molasses buckets appeared from nowhere.
From nowhere the molasses buckets appeared.
During the translation process, a word may be rearranged from one sentence to another, as in the following example:
I put on this hat that I"d bought in New York that morning. It was this red hunting hat, with one of those very, very long peaks.
I... put on the red hat that I bought in New York this morning. It was a hunting hat, with a very, very long visor.
The need for such a transfer in this case is determined by the repetition of the noun “hat,” to which the rearranged adjective “red” refers, in two adjacent sentences.
Often during translation there is a change in the order of the parts of a complex sentence - the main clause and the subordinate clause(s):
If he ever gets married, his own wife"ll probably call him "Ackley".
Probably his wife will call him “Ackley” - if he ever gets married.
The English subordinate clause precedes the main clause, but in the Russian translation, on the contrary, the main clause precedes the subordinate clause. Opposite cases are also possible.
Independent sentences in the text can also be rearranged.
“Are you going" to court this morning?” asked Jem. We had strolled over.
We approached her fence. -Are you going to court? - asked Jim.
The need for rearrangement in this case is due to the fact that the Past Perfect form in the second sentence of the English text expresses the meaning of the precedence of this action in relation to the action indicated in the first sentence. Since the Russian form “approached” does not express such a meaning, preserving the original order of sentences in translation could lead to semantic distortion (the action denoted by the verb “approached” would be perceived as subsequent to the action expressed by the verb “asked”) .
Permutations (as a type of translation transformation) occur quite often; they are often accompanied by other types of translation transformations.
Rearrangement as a type of translation transformation is a change in the arrangement (order) of language elements in the translation text compared to the original text. Elements that can be rearranged: words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence, independent sentences.
The rearrangements are due to a number of reasons, the main one of which is the difference in the structure (word order) of sentences in English and Russian. An English sentence usually begins with a subject (or subject group), followed by a predicate (predicate group), i.e. the rheme - the center of the message (the most important thing) - comes first. Topic (secondary information) - circumstances (place and time) are most often located at the end of the sentence.
The word order of a Russian sentence is different: at the beginning of the sentence there are often secondary members (adverbs of time and place), followed by the predicate and only at the end - the subject. This should be taken into account when translating. This phenomenon is known as “communicative division of a sentence.”
The most common case of permutation is a change in the order of words and phrases in the structure of a sentence associated with communicative division:
Molasses buckets appeared from nowhere.
From nowhere the molasses buckets appeared.
During the translation process, a word may be rearranged from one sentence to another, as in the following example:
I put on this hat that I"d bought in New York that morning. It was this red hunting hat, with one of those very, very long peaks.
I... put on the red hat that I bought in New York this morning. It was a hunting hat, with a very, very long visor.
The need for such a transfer in this case is determined by the repetition of the noun “hat,” to which the rearranged adjective “red” refers, in two adjacent sentences.
Often during translation there is a change in the order of the parts of a complex sentence - the main clause and the subordinate clause(s):
If he ever gets married, his own wife"ll probably call him "Ackley".
Probably his wife will call him “Ackley” - if he ever gets married.
The English subordinate clause precedes the main clause, but in the Russian translation, on the contrary, the main clause precedes the subordinate clause. Opposite cases are also possible.
Independent sentences in the text can also be rearranged.
“Are you going" to court this morning?” asked Jem. We had strolled over.
We approached her fence. -Are you going to court? - asked Jim.
The need for rearrangement in this case is due to the fact that the Past Perfect form in the second sentence of the English text expresses the meaning of the precedence of this action in relation to the action indicated in the first sentence. Since the Russian form “approached” does not express such a meaning, preserving the original order of sentences in translation could lead to semantic distortion (the action denoted by the verb “approached” would be perceived as subsequent to the action expressed by the verb “asked”) .
Permutations (as a type of translation transformation) occur quite often; they are often accompanied by other types of translation transformations.
In Russian, word order (more precisely, the order of sentence members) is considered free. This means that in the sentence there is no strictly assigned place for one or another of its members. For example, a sentence consisting of five significant words: The editor carefully read the manuscript yesterday– allows 120 options depending on the rearrangement of sentence members.
There is a difference in the direct order of words, determined by the type and structure of the sentence, the method of syntactic expression of a given member of the sentence, its place among other words that are directly related to it, as well as the style of speech and context, and brother
order, which is a deviation from the usual order and most often performs the function
and n e r s i i , i.e., a stylistic device for highlighting individual members of a sentence by rearranging them. The direct order is typical for scientific and business speech, the reverse is widely used in journalistic and literary works; The reverse order plays a special role in colloquial speech, which has its own types of sentence construction.
The determining factor in the arrangement of words in a sentence is the purposefulness of the utterance, its communicative task. Associated with it is the so-called actual division of a statement, which involves the movement of thought from the known, familiar to the unknown, new: the first (the basis of the statement) is usually contained in the initial part of the sentence, the second (the core of the statement) is in its final part. Wed:
1) On April 12, 1961, the Yu flight took place. A. Gagarin into space, the first in human history(the starting point, the basis of the statement is an indication of the date, i.e. the combination April 12, 1961, and the core of the statement is the rest of the sentence, which is logically emphasized);
2) Flight Yu. A. Gagarin into space, the first in the history of mankind, took place on April 12, 1961(the basis of the statement is a message about the historical flight of Yu. A. Gagarin, and the core of the statement is an indication of the date, which is logically emphasized).
§ 178. Place of subject and predicate
- In declarative sentences, the subject usually precedes the predicate, for example: Wires stretched from tree to tree...(Azhaev); Some people left the village to earn money...(Gladkov); The earth revolves around the sun.
The relative position of the subject and predicate may depend on whether the subject denotes a definite, known object or, conversely, an indefinite, unknown object. Wed: The train has arrived(definite). – The train has arrived(undefined, some).
The reverse order of the main members of a sentence (first the predicate, then the subject) is common in the following cases:
Placing the subject ahead of the predicate in such cases was found in old texts, for example: – Tell me, gossip, what is your passion for stealing chickens? - the peasant said to the fox when he met her(Krylov); – Do you know grandpa, mom? - the son says to the mother(Nekrasov); the rhythm of the verse is also taken into account;
3) in sentences in which the subject denotes a period of time or a natural phenomenon, and the predicate is expressed by a verb with the meaning of being, becoming, the course of an action, etc., for example: A hundred years have passed...(Pushkin); Spring came(L. Tolstoy); It was a moonlit night(Chekhov);
4) in descriptions, in a story, for example: The sea sings, the city hums, the sun sparkles brightly, creating fairy tales(Bitter);
5) as a stylistically specified device and inversion, with the aim of logically highlighting one of the main members of the sentence, for example: Bear hunting is dangerous, a wounded animal is terrible, but the soul of a hunter, accustomed to dangers since childhood, is brave.(A. Koptyaeva).
When placing adverbial words at the beginning of a sentence, the subject often comes after the predicate, for example: There was noise coming from the street...(Chekhov). However, in these conditions there is also a direct order of the main members of the sentence, for example: Uvarov and Anna arrived at the base at the hottest time of the day(A. Koptyaeva).
- In interrogative sentences, the predicate often precedes the subject, for example: Won't my grandfather or aunt stand up for me?(Pushkin); So will I give you this short, dear little wish?(A. N. Ostrovsky).
- In imperative sentences, subject pronouns preceding the predicate verb strengthen the categorical nature of the order, advice, motivation, and following the predicate, they soften the tone of the order. Wed: Just give me a peep(A. N. Ostrovsky). – Don't crush me, old woman(Turgenev).
- In colloquial speech, the copula is often placed first, for example: I was young, ardent, sincere, intelligent...(Chekhov).
- Placing the nominal part of the predicate in front of the subject serves the purpose of inversion, for example: The dark thickets of forests and the depths of the seas are mysterious and therefore beautiful; the mysterious cry of a bird and the crack of a tree bud bursting from the warmth(Paustovsky).
A means of highlighting the predicate is also the placement of the nominal part before the copula, for example: ...Both remained hungry(L. Tolstoy); Bor became deaf and gloomy(Seifullina). The same in a compound verbal predicate when placing an infinitive before an auxiliary verb, for example: So, why didn’t you even think about sowing?(Sholokhov).
§ 179. Place of definition in a sentence
- The concordant definition is usually placed in front of the noun being defined, for example: interesting plot, proofreading, verified quotations, third edition, our publishing house.
Placing an agreed definition after the qualified noun serves the purpose of inversion, for example: The mountains are inaccessible on all sides(Lermontov).
Postpositive definition (i.e., a definition that comes after the word being defined) was often found in the works of writers and poets of the 19th century, for example: She had a strong influence on me(Turgenev); Participation and unfeigned love were visible on Anna’s face(L. Tolstoy); A lonely sail whitens in the blue sea fog(Lermontov); There is a short but wonderful time in the original autumn...(Tyutchev).
Postpositive definitions are common, referring to the noun repeated in a given sentence, for example: This idea of a reflex is, of course, an old idea...(Academician I.P. Pavlov); Voropaev remembered his first meeting with Goreva - a meeting amazing and rare in its unique front-line beauty(Pavlenko). Wed. in journalistic and business speech: Such plans, bold and original plans, could arise only in our conditions; This decision is certainly a wrong decision and must be reversed.
In stylized speech, postpositive definitions give the story the character of a folk narrative; Wed from Neverov: The moon came out on a dark night, looking lonely from a black cloud at the deserted fields, at distant villages, at nearby villages.
Definitions expressed by possessive pronouns, being in a position after the defined noun, can give an expressive color to the statement, for example: I remember your hands from the moment I began to recognize myself in the world.
In neutral styles, postpositive definitions expressed by demonstrative pronouns are not uncommon, for example: This stop... was surrounded by a double rampart made of thick pine logs(Kazakevich).
The means of semantically highlighting the definition are:
a) its isolation, for example: People, amazed, became like stones(Bitter);
b) separation of the definition from the defined noun, for example: Rare stars swayed in the ashen dawn sky(Sholokhov).
A detached definition is usually postpositive, for example: publication of letters received by the editor; exhibition of paintings nominated for the prize. Placing such common definitions (without separating them) in front of the word being defined is perceived as a kind of inversion; compare: publication of letters received by the editor; exhibition of paintings nominated for the prize.
- If there are several agreed upon definitions, the order of their arrangement depends on their morphological expression:
1) definitions expressed by pronouns are placed ahead of definitions expressed by other parts of speech, for example: on this solemn day, our future plans, all typos noted, every fourth Tuesday. Placing pronoun-qualifiers after adjective-qualifiers is an inversion, for example: At this silver-opal hour in the morning the whole house slept(Fedin); The tankman struggled with his slow and long pain(L. Sobolev);
2) attributive pronouns precede other pronouns, for example: all these amendments, every comment you make. But the pronoun most is placed after the demonstrative pronoun, for example: the same possibilities, the same case;
3) definitions expressed by qualitative adjectives are placed ahead of definitions expressed by relative adjectives, for example: new historical novel, warm woolen linen, light leather binding, late autumn;
4) if heterogeneous definitions are expressed by qualitative adjectives alone, then the one that denotes a more stable attribute is placed closer to the defined noun, for example: huge black eyes, a pleasant light breeze, an interesting new story;
5) if heterogeneous definitions are expressed by relative adjectives alone, then, as a rule, they are arranged in order of ascending semantic gradation (from a narrower concept to a broader one), for example: daily weather reports, antique bronzes, specialty bookstore.
- An inconsistent definition is placed after the noun being defined, for example: expert's conclusion, leather-bound book, novel with a sequel. But definitions expressed by personal pronouns as possessives come before the word being defined, for example: his objections, their statements.
Placing an inconsistent definition expressed by a noun in front of the word being defined is inversion, for example: medium sized bear(Gogol); General Zhukov's yard(Chekhov).
Prepositive inconsistent definitions, i.e. those standing in front of the word being defined, have become entrenched in some stable expressions, for example: watchmaker, guard senior lieutenant, kind-hearted man.
Consistent definitions usually precede inconsistent ones, for example: high mahogany bed(L. Tolstoy); old tobacco-colored eyes(Sergeev-Tsensky). But an inconsistent definition, expressed by a personal pronoun with a possessive meaning, usually precedes an agreed definition, for example: his last performance, their increased demands.
§ 180. Place of addition in a sentence
- The complement usually follows the control word, for example: proofread manuscript, correct typos, ready to type.
An object (most often direct) expressed by a pronoun (personal, indefinite) can precede the control word without creating an inversion, for example: I liked the book; This sight amazed him; The mother noticed something in her daughter's expression; I'm glad to see you.
Placing an object in front of a control word usually has the character of inversion, for example: Maybe we'll see the pharmacist(Chekhov); The soul reaches for something high(V. Panova). Wed. in lively conversational speech: Someone is asking you; They forgot all their friends; Can you fix the TV?
Preposition of an object with the meaning of person is common in impersonal sentences, for example: He needs to talk to you; My sister is not feeling well; Everyone wanted to relax.
- If there are several additions related to one control word, different word orders are possible:
1) usually a direct object precedes other objects, for example: Take the manuscript from the proofreader; Discuss the issue with your employees; The newcomer extended his hand to everyone present.;
2) the indirect complement of the person, standing in the dative case, usually precedes the direct complement of the subject, for example: Tell us your address; The mother gave the child a beautiful toy; This woman saved Bekishev’s life...(V. Panova).
Similarly, the genitive case with the meaning of the agent (inconsistent definition) precedes the other case (as a complement), for example: son’s arrival to his parents, author’s memo to the editor.
- The direct object, which matches the form of the subject, is usually placed after the predicate, for example: Mother loves daughter; The oar touched the dress; Laziness breeds carelessness; Courts protect laws. When the subject and object are rearranged, the meaning of the sentence changes ( The daughter loves the mother; The dress hit the paddle) or ambiguity arises ( Carelessness breeds laziness; Laws are protected by the courts). Sometimes in such cases of inversion the necessary meaning is retained, resulting from the lexical meaning of the named members of the sentence ( The bicycle crashed into the tram; The sun was covered by a cloud), but the correct understanding of such sentences is somewhat difficult, therefore it is recommended either to maintain the direct word order, or to replace the actual phrase with the passive ( The bicycle is broken by a tram; The sun is covered by a cloud).
§ 181. Place of circumstances in a sentence
- Circumstances about the activity, expressed by adverbs in -o, -e
, are usually placed before the predicate verb, for example: The translation accurately reflects the content of the original; The boy looked at us defiantly; Gavryushka blushed deeply and protested violently...(Gladkov); The station was moving faster and faster...(G. Nikolaeva); The pavement was smoothly white(Antonov).
Some adverbs that combine with few verbs are placed after them, for example: walk, lie prone, walk barefoot, fall backward, walk.
Usually postpositive are the circumstances of the manner of action expressed by a noun in an adverbial meaning, for example: scatter in waves, disperse in circles.
The place of the circumstance of the course of action may depend on the presence or absence of other minor members in the sentence; compare: The climbers walked slowly. – Climbers walked slowly along a steep path.
A means of semantically highlighting the circumstances of the manner of action or measure and degree is to place them at the beginning of a sentence or to separate them from the words to which they are adjacent, for example: In vain Gregory tried to see Cossack lava on the horizon.(Sholokhov); Nikita experienced this feeling twice(Fedin); Yes, we were very friendly(L. Tolstoy).
- Circumstances of measure and degree are prepositive, for example: The announcer repeated the numbers given in the text twice; The director is very busy; The manuscript is fully prepared for typesetting.
- The adverbial circumstance usually precedes the predicate verb, for example: There was little conversation at dinner(Turgenev); A month later, Belikov died(Chekhov); In the evenings the doctor was alone(V. Panova).
Often, however, the adverb of time is postpositive, which contributes to its semantic emphasis, for example: My sister got up early; I arrived before dawn.
- The adverbial adverbial of place is usually prepositive, and often appears at the beginning of a sentence, for example: It was restless at the factory...(Bitter); A cloud was coming from the west(Sholokhov).
If the adverbial adverbial place is at the beginning of a sentence, then it is often immediately followed by the predicate, and then the subject, for example: To the right rose the white hospital building...(Garshin); Unfamiliar smells of herbs and flowers were coming from everywhere...(Serafimovich). However, under these conditions, a direct order of the main members of the sentence is also possible, for example: Over the gray plain of the sea the wind gathers clouds(Bitter).
Setting the adverbial place after the predicate is the norm in those combinations in which the presence of the adverbial is necessary for the completeness of the statement, for example: The house is located on the outskirts of the city; His parents live permanently in the south.
If a sentence contains an adverb of time and an adverbial place, then they are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence, with the adverbial of time in the first place and the adverbial of place in the second, for example: Tomorrow in our city the weather is expected to be warm and without precipitation; By evening everything calmed down in the house. Placing two circumstances side by side emphasizes their semantic role in the sentence. Their other placement is also possible: the adverbial of time is placed first, then the subject, followed by the predicate and, finally, the adverbial of place and other members of the sentence, for example: At the beginning of April, the river opened up along its entire length; Yesterday I met my old friend on the street.
- Circumstances are cause and purpose and often come before the predicate, for example: Due to rough seas the ship arrived late(Chekhov); Two girls cried out of fear(V. Panova); A man with a bag on his back... pushed another with his shoulder for a laugh(Malyshkin).
Placing these circumstances after the predicate verb usually leads to their semantic isolation, for example: She woke up in fear; He does not go to work, allegedly due to illness; The train was sent to the depot for annual repairs..
§ 182. Location of introductory words, addresses, particles, prepositions
- Not being members of a sentence, introductory words are freely located in it if they relate to the sentence as a whole; compare: He seemed to have fallen asleep. – He seemed to have fallen asleep. – He seemed to have fallen asleep.
At the same time, it should be noted that the semantic load of the introductory word in the given options is not the same: to a greater extent it is noted in the first of them, where at the beginning of the sentence the word it seemed in meaning it approaches a simple sentence as part of a non-union complex sentence; the last two options are equivalent.
If the introductory word is connected in meaning to a separate member of the sentence, then it is placed next to it, for example: A real bird began to appear, game, as the hunters put it(Aksakov); Our dilapidated boat bent over, scooped up and solemnly sank to the bottom, fortunately, in a shallow place(Turgenev).
You should not put an introductory word between the preposition and the word that the preposition controls, for example: “The matter was in seemingly right hands” (instead of: The matter seemed to be in the right hands).
- Addresses are also freely located in a sentence, however, for their semantic and intonation highlighting, the place they occupy in the sentence is not indifferent: the address at the beginning or end of the sentence is logically emphasized. Wed: Doctor, tell me what's wrong with my child. – Tell me, doctor, what's wrong with my child?. – Tell me what's wrong with my child, doctor.
In appeals, slogans, appeals, orders, oratory, official and personal letters, the appeal is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence.
The same is true in poetic speech, and the appeal is often isolated into an independent sentence, for example: A pale young man with a burning gaze! Now I give you three covenants(Bryusov); My dear mother earth, my forest side, a land suffering in captivity! I will come - I just don’t know the day, but I will come, I will bring you back(Tvardovsky). Wed. broken treatment with the main part at the end of the sentence: For blood and tears, thirsty for retribution, we see you, forty-one(Shchipachev).
- Particles, as a rule, appear before the word to which they refer in meaning. Wed:
A) This book is difficult even for him(we are talking about difficulties for a qualified person);
b) This book even difficult for him(the unexpectedness of the difficulty is emphasized);
V) Even this book is difficult for him(we are talking about an unprepared reader).
Particle -yes postpositive ( quite, insisted), but to emphasize the meaning, sometimes in colloquial speech it is placed before the verb, for example: Although the State Councilor disappeared himself, he still killed his comrade(Gogol); Elena remained silent, and I finally locked her this time too.(Dostoevsky).
- The separation of the preposition from the controlled noun is unsuccessful in constructions like: “I will come with a few more comrades” (instead of: I'll come with a few more friends); “The volume of exports has decreased from approximately...; increased to approximately..." (instead of: ...decreased by approximately...; increased to approximately...).
You should not put two prepositions in a row, for example: “In one of the letters I received from you...” (instead of: In one of the letters received from you...); “Pay attention to work that is outstanding in all respects” (instead of: Pay attention to work that is outstanding in all respects).
In combinations of a noun with a numeral, denoting an approximate quantity, a preposition is placed between the named parts of speech ( in ten minutes, twenty paces), and not before the whole combination (“in ten minutes”, “in twenty steps”).
