CIVILIZATION OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE
The evolution of the civilization of medieval Europe covers a long history from the Y to the XY centuries. and can be conditionally divided into several periods:
Y-YII centuries - the emergence of the medieval West, the emergence of barbarian kingdoms, born from the synthesis of two cultures, barbarian and Roman;
YIII - X centuries. - an attempt by the Germans to create a new organization - the Carolingian world, a hasty attempt to unite Europe;
X-XIII centuries - the formation of a united and diverse Christian Europe - a period of internal and external rise of civilization, the formation of modern states;
XIY - XY centuries. - a crisis characterized by mutation and transformation of European medieval civilization (Jacques Le Goff).
Before the conquest by the Romans, Western Europe was an area of natural communities with all the necessary attributes of this type of civilization: the absence of a state, social organization in the form of a tribal community, the principle of direct democracy within the tribe, public ownership of land, foreign slaves, paganism and the significant role of the priesthood .
The Great Rome had a strong influence on the lives of the peoples of Europe, who underwent significant “Romanization”. The Roman conquests in Europe and the European invasions of the Roman Empire led to a powerful transfer of civilizational values.
The barbarians who settled throughout the Roman Empire in the 5th century (the era of the “Great Migration”) were by no means wild tribes that had just emerged from their forests and steppes. By the 5th century they had come a long way of evolution, they had seen a lot and learned a lot. In their travels, they came into contact with different cultures and civilizations, from which they adopted customs, arts and crafts. Directly or indirectly, most European peoples were influenced by Asian cultures, the Iranian world, as well as the Greco-Roman one, especially its eastern, Byzantine provinces. In the IV-V centuries. Christianity spread among the Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards, Franks and other tribes. Already at the beginning of the 5th century, the first early states were created in Europe. The island of Britain was conquered by the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who created several states there; Clovis created the Frankish kingdom on the territory of Gaul, Germany and Burgundy (486); the kingdoms of the Vesti and Suevi were located on the Iberian Peninsula (418); in Italy in 493 the Ostrogothic kingdom of Theodoric arose, etc.
Initially, European states were characterized by mixed, Western and Eastern, development features. The state was built on the principles of a strict hierarchy. The king had the highest military, legislative, administrative and judicial power, and sought recognition of the religious and sacred nature of his power. The Catholic Church played a huge role in all spheres of society (Catholicism is the Western branch of Christianity). Meanwhile, in economics and property issues, in the V-VII centuries. The influence of Roman traditions was obvious. According to the laws of the Visigothic, Ostrogothic and Frankish kingdoms, land, other movable and immovable property was sold, bought, given and bequeathed. Thus, private property existed and developed freely.
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The beginning of medieval Europe dates back to the end of the 5th century. In 476, the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown and the Roman Empire fell. This act was already purely symbolic (the leader of the Sciri tribe, Odoacer, sent signs of imperial power to Constantinople), because by this time German states already existed on the territory of the Western Roman Empire. This is the kingdom of the Visigoths on the Iberian Peninsula (418), the Alemanni (420) in Northern Gaul, and the Vandals (429) in North Africa.
Ten years after the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, the dominance of the Franks was established in Northern Gaul (486 - 843), and in 493 the state of the Ostrogoths was established in Italy.
Thus, the death of the Western Roman Empire, and with it the ancient world, was a foregone conclusion. Causes:
1 The crisis of Roman society: difficulties with the reproduction of slaves, problems of controllability of a huge empire, the increasing role of the army, the militarization of political life, increasing apathy, craving for luxury.
2 The onslaught of the Germanic tribes, which began in the 4th - 7th centuries. "Great Migration of Peoples"
At the origins of the Middle Ages there were two worlds: Greco-Roman civilization, as well as the clan-communal system and genetic type of barbarian peoples (Germanic, Celtic, Slavic). The formation of Europe was of a synthetic nature. The church played a big role in its formation. It was, in essence, the only and well-organized social institution and began to successfully solve the problem of Christianizing barbarian peoples. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne with the imperial crown. The Frankish state was proclaimed an empire. This fact was of great importance in the sense that, firstly, it was the success of the synthesis of Roman and Germanic elements, completed by this time; secondly, the crowned king Charlemagne became a symbol of the unity of the Christian world. Medieval Europe stands on the shoulders of the empire of Charlemagne, which was formed by the beginning of the 9th century.
Along with the Germanic tribes, the Slavs also showed great activity in Central and Eastern Europe, the Baltic region, and the Balkans. In the 6th century, Byzantium came under pressure from Slavic tribes, which, like other barbarian peoples, moved from simple predatory raids to the systematic colonization of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. With rare exceptions, the Slavs failed to create their own states on the territory of the Byzantine Empire in the 6th – 7th centuries, but many of the interior regions of the Balkans, populated by settlers, practically emerged from the authority of the emperor and were independent.
In the 7th century, European peoples and subjects of Byzantium clashed with the Arabs. In the middle of the 7th - beginning of the 9th centuries. As a result of the Arab conquests, the Caliphate was created - the largest state in the world, whose possessions stretched from India to the Atlantic coast. Such a powerful impetus for Arab expansion was given by a new religion - Islam, the creator of which was the Prophet Muhammad (c. 570 - 632). Islam is the third world religion in terms of its origins, which soon became a serious competitor to Christianity. The adherents of the new religion saw one of the main tasks in converting all other believers to their faith, which explains the energy with which the Arabs carried out their conquests. The Arab advance was stopped only in France, at the Battle of Poitiers by Charles Martel (732).
In the 10th – 13th centuries, the process of formation of the main European states was completed. The history of the Middle Ages ends, according to one point of view, in the middle of the 17th century, with the beginning of the English bourgeois revolution. Today, another point of view prevails that geographical discoveries (1492 - America), the fall of Constantinople (1453), the beginning of the Reformation (1517) indicate the transition of Europe to the New Age, into the era of modernization, renewal of traditional society.
The barbarians who settled throughout the Roman Empire in the 5th century (the era of the “Great Migration”) were by no means wild tribes that had just emerged from their forests and steppes. By the 5th century they had come a long way of evolution, they had seen a lot and learned a lot. In their travels, they came into contact with different cultures and civilizations, from which they adopted customs, arts and crafts. Directly or indirectly, most European peoples were influenced by Asian cultures, the Iranian world, as well as the Greco-Roman one, especially its eastern, Byzantine provinces. In the IV-V centuries. Christianity spread among the Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards, Franks and other tribes. Already at the beginning of the 5th century, the first early states were created in Europe. The island of Britain was conquered by the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who created several states there; Clovis created the Frankish kingdom on the territory of Gaul, Germany and Burgundy (486); the kingdoms of the Vesti and Suevi were located on the Iberian Peninsula (418); in Italy in 493 the Ostrogothic kingdom of Theodoric arose, etc. Initially, European states were characterized by mixed, Western and Eastern, development features. The state was built on the principles of a strict hierarchy. The king had the highest military, legislative, administrative and judicial power, and sought recognition of the religious and sacred nature of his power. The Catholic Church played a huge role in all spheres of society (Catholicism is the Western branch of Christianity). Meanwhile, in economics and property issues, in the V-VII centuries. The influence of Roman traditions was obvious. According to the laws of the Visigothic, Ostrogothic and Frankish kingdoms, land, other movable and immovable property was sold, bought, given and bequeathed. Thus, private property existed and developed freely.
The formation of medieval European civilization
In the VIII - X centuries. medieval European civilization enters the next period of development. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne with the imperial crown. The emperor became a symbol of the unity of German traditions, the Roman imperial past and Christian principles. The ideas of unifying the Christian world became decisive for several generations of Europeans. Charlemagne created a huge power, which, in addition to Gaul, included the Spanish March, Northern and Central Italy, the territories of Bavaria and Saxony, Pannonia (Hungary). The period of existence of the Carolingian state (mid-8th - early 10th centuries) was the time of the formation of a number of social institutions and the main features of the cultural and historical type inherent in medieval European civilization.
Land plots of free communities and monasteries gradually, as a result of direct seizures, violence, purchases, etc. passed into the hands of the nobility. A feudal form of land use is gradually being formed. Feud or fief is a special hereditary form of land ownership associated with mandatory military or civil service. A feature of feudal land ownership is its conditional nature.
The property of the feudal lord was not private and depended on a system of personal citizenship, which was hierarchical in nature. The feudal lord's ownership of the land and the dependence of the peasants on him was expressed in feudal rent (corvée, tribute, food or cash rent). Private property was represented by a narrow circle of large landowners (princes, dukes, counts, barons), with whom the state (the king) waged a constant struggle, trying to bring them under control and limit their independence.
The social system of medieval civilization was based on the principles of vassalage. A free lord had the right to respond to an insult from the king by declaring war. Vassal relations provided for mutual rights and obligations. Vassalage assumed some decentralization of power through the transfer and delegation of a number of powers to the lords of the vassals. The set of certain rights of vassals and the territories in which these rights were valid was called “immunity.” Vassal relations and their inherent immunity are a feature of medieval European civilization.
The village was the center of economic and social life. Land was revered as the main value, and peasants were the bearers of the main spiritual and cultural traditions. Medieval Europe was distinguished by its communal-corporate structure: guilds, guilds, knightly orders, church and rural communities. Corporations of the same level were united into an estate.
The population of Europe consisted of many tribes that spoke different languages and had their own customs and traditions. The unity of European civilization was ensured by the Catholic Church. The entire lifestyle, morals, and thinking of medieval man were determined by the Christian religion. In art and literature, the image of God prevailed, which almost completely obscured the image of man. The individual did not seem to exist as a value itself. The concept of freedom has transformed. "A free man is one who has a powerful patron"
VIII-X centuries became a period of Europeans repelling the onslaught of the Vikings, Scandinavian warrior-seafarers, and nomads (Avars, Turkic Bulgarians, Hungarians, Pechenegs, Polovtsians). In northern France, the Vikings created the virtually independent Duchy of Normandy. People from this duchy conquered Anglo-Saxon England in 1066. Nomads seize the southwestern territories of Europe and found the Bulgarian and Hungarian states. A feature of such conquests was the assimilation of the invaders with the indigenous peoples and, in fact, their “dissolution” in the common European cauldron of peoples.
In the middle of the 10th century, Otto I the Great attempted to recreate a single powerful state in Europe. In 962, he captured Italy and declared himself emperor of the “Holy Roman Empire.” For some time, peace was established in Europe.
Story. General history. Grade 10. Basic and advanced levels Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich
§ 6. Europe in the early Middle Ages (V – X centuries)
The birth of medieval civilization. European medieval history can be divided into two periods: the early Middle Ages (V - X centuries) - the formation of a new civilization as a result of the interaction of the ancient heritage with the traditions that were introduced by barbarian peoples united by the Christian religion, and the developed Middle Ages (XI - XV centuries) - heyday vassals And seigneurial relationships.
The crisis and collapse of ancient society began long before 476 - the accepted date of the turn of Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The late Roman Empire was characterized by phenomena that developed in the Middle Ages: the settlement of some slaves on land holdings, the growth of large landownership and the strengthening of the political power of the most prominent landowners, the decomposition of the polis and the beginning of the decline of cities. At the same time, the death of ancient civilization did not mean the complete loss of what was created. Some of its features were inherited by medieval society. Among them are the provisions of Roman law, which were preserved along with the traditional laws of the barbarians. Despite the fact that at the end of the ancient era and during the invasion of barbarians, residents left the cities, many ancient settlements continued to exist in the early Middle Ages. Often new cities arose on the site of ancient cities.
Christianity, which appeared during Antiquity and inherited many of its cultural and religious traditions, became the foundation of European medieval civilization. For a long time Latin was the only written language, which made it possible to preserve many scientific and literary achievements of Antiquity. It also became the official language of the Christian Church.
The invasion of barbarian tribes, most of which were Germanic, led to the emergence of new states - barbarian kingdoms - on the ruins of the Western Roman Empire.
The organization of power among the Germanic tribes before the creation of the barbarian kingdoms was pre-state. The main authorities were the people's assembly, the council of elders and military leaders (kings). After the Germans conquered the territory of the Western Roman Empire and the formation of the barbarian kingdoms, there was a synthesis of the tribal governing bodies of the barbarian society (royal power, local judicial assemblies, military militia of all free people) and the remnants of the Roman state apparatus (judges, tax collectors, etc.), now headed by the king barbarians.
The bulk of the German population were free community members. However, the majority of the population of the conquered regions were their former Romanized inhabitants. Many large and medium-sized villas (estates) have been preserved, where farming was conducted in the same late antique ways, and Roman towns and villages continued to exist. Their population consisted of large and medium-sized Roman landowners, clergy, small landowners, merchants, artisans, coloni, and slaves.
The barbarians and the Romanized population lived isolated from each other for a long time. Even their laws were different: the local population was judged according to the norms of Roman law, and the Germans were subject to laws based on the norms of customary law (“barbarian truths”). Gradually, the merging of the conquerors and the vanquished took place, new peoples were formed: Italians, French, Spaniards, etc.
In the V – VI centuries. among the barbarian tribes, the power of kings (konungs) increased, who from military leaders turned into rulers of states. Of course, the states of the Germanic barbarians differed significantly from the states of Antiquity. The squad became the backbone of royal power. The rulers had to take into account the opinions of the warriors and tribal nobility. The people's assembly continued to play a major role, at which kings were elected, issues of war and peace, division of spoils and punishment of the guilty were decided. The main military force in the barbarian states, along with the royal squad, were tribal militias formed from free community members.
Creation of the Frankish Empire. Many barbarian kingdoms created in the 5th – 6th centuries. the states of the Burgundians, Vandals, Suevi, Ostrogoths - turned out to be fragile. The strongest among them was the Frankish kingdom.
In 486, the Franks, led by King Clovis (reigned 481 - 511) from the Merovingian dynasty, defeated the troops of the last Roman governor and subjugated Northern Gaul. The emerging Frankish state achieved success thanks not only to military force, but also to the prudent policies of the rulers. The Franks were the first among the barbarians to accept Christianity from the Pope, and not from heretical preachers. By this they significantly increased the authority of the state in the Christian world and among the population of conquered Gaul. The strengthening of royal power was also facilitated by the compilation of a written collection of laws - the “Salicheskaya Pravda”, which replaced oral law.
In the second half of the 6th century. The Frankish kingdom was the largest barbarian state. However, already in the 7th century. it entered a period of crisis: civil strife became more frequent, the kings lost real power, and the kingdom itself fell apart into separate regions.
With the establishment of a new dynasty - the Carolingians - the Frankish state experienced an upsurge. A prominent representative of the dynasty - majordo under the “lazy kings” ( lat. "main" + "house"; ruler of the state) Karl Martell (“Hammer”; ruled 717 – 741) in 732 in the battle of the city of Poitiers? managed to stop the advance of Muslim Arabs into Western Europe. Thanks to his energetic policies, the influence of the Carolingians strengthened, and Charles's son Pipin the Short (ruled 751 - 768) became the first Frankish king from this dynasty.
The baptism of Clovis. Medieval miniature
The Frankish kings showed themselves to be loyal allies of the Pope. After the defeat of the Lombard state in Italy, part of the territory taken from them around Rome was donated by Pepin to the pope, who created his own state here - the Papal States.
The Frankish state reached its greatest power under Charlemagne (reigned 768 – 814), one of the most respected monarchs of medieval Europe. Karl spent his entire life in wars and gained fame as an invincible commander. He managed to significantly expand the borders of the state, including the lands of Italy, northeast Spain, and subjugate the rebellious tribes of the Saxons. The logical result of Charles’s policy of conquest was the restoration of the empire - this idea was supported by the church, which advocated the unity of the Christian world. In 800, during the Christmas service in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the Pope placed a crown on Charles's head and declared him Emperor of the Romans. Soon Byzantium, which considered itself the only legitimate heir of Rome, was forced to recognize the new emperor.
J. W. Schnetz. Charlemagne among his entourage
As a result of successful conquests, a huge territory came under the rule of Charlemagne, which naturally required changes to the system of government. The royal court began to play an important role, including the supreme judge, the head of the imperial chancellery, the treasurer, the commander of the royal cavalry and other associates. The emperor was also helped to rule the country by a meeting of noble Franks, with whose consent Charles issued decrees.
The power of the former tribal leaders - the dukes - was limited. Charlemagne divided the empire into 200 regions, at the head of which he placed officials - counts and margraves, who administered justice, collected taxes, and commanded local militia. As a reward for their service, they received land from the king. The emperor controlled their activities with the help of auditors - “royal envoys”.
The creation of the Frankish Empire was the final stage of a long period of synthesis of the Roman, barbarian and Christian principles of early medieval Europe.
Western Europe in a period of political fragmentation. The empire created by Charlemagne disintegrated under his grandchildren, who, after long strife, concluded an agreement on its division in 843 in Verde. Thus arose the kingdoms that laid the foundation for the existence of modern states - France, Italy and Germany. By the beginning of the 10th century. in the course of the further collapse of large states in Europe, up to one and a half dozen independent states appeared. An era of political fragmentation began.
The formation of fief land ownership began in the 8th century, when Charles Martel carried out a military reform, as a result of which heavily armed cavalry was created. Warrior-knights received plots of land - benefits (from lat. "good deed"), inhabited by peasants, for lifelong ownership on the terms of military service. The income from these lands made it possible for the warrior to acquire the necessary weapons and support himself. After the death of the knight, the benefices were returned to the previous owner.
Subsequently, the estate received for military service began to be inherited, subject to the continuation of its owner's military service. This property was called feo?d(or linen), and its owner is senor(in historical literature called a feudal lord). The lord (lord or overlord) granted fief to a warrior, who was called a vassal. The vassal was obliged to take an oath of allegiance to the lord.
The term " feudalism" comes from the word "feud". This order is characterized by the presence of feudal land tenure and a system of vassalage.
Seigneuries (fiefs) belonging to dukes and counts often exceeded the personal land holdings of the king, and their vassals - barons and knights - received fiefs and swore an oath of allegiance only to their lords, but not to the king. Some lords were significantly more powerful than kings.
Knights in battle. Medieval miniature
The emergence of political fragmentation in Western Europe was facilitated by the dominance of subsistence farming. Local lords - owners of fortified castles and private armies - were almost completely independent in economic terms. By the 11th century. the once free community members ceased to be the support of royal power. Most small landowners in Western Europe lost their economic independence, turning into dependent peasants who performed duties in favor of their lords (corvée, quitrent, etc.).
A lord giving orders to his peasants. Medieval miniature
The development of the system of seigneurial relations led to the fact that the rulers of the states of Western Europe actually managed only their own possessions - home. Large lords had a number of important political rights in their domains: they collected taxes from the territory under their control, administered court, led the militia, waged wars, issued decrees and even minted coins.
Under the current conditions, the king’s legislative acts either did not have binding force for the entire state or were ignored by local authorities. The royal armed forces were composed of vassals who served no more than 40 days a year; the standing army was small in number. Civil strife often broke out between the lords - the owners of fiefs - which significantly weakened the central power of the monarch.
By the end of the 11th century. Seigneurial order and vassal relations dominated almost the entire territory of Western Europe. In France and Italy the transition to them took place earlier, in England, Germany and other countries - later.
Class division of society. The period of the Middle Ages was characterized by a special structure of society, which was divided into three classes: “praying”, “fighting” and “working”. It was believed that God himself divided people into classes and the presence of each of them was necessary for the normal existence of the entire society.
The “prayers” were Christian clergy, whose duties were to pray for the salvation of human souls and help people atone for their sins. They did not pay taxes, and the church itself was supported by tithes - a tenth of the income, which was paid by the entire population of the country.
The organization of the Western Christian church was strictly hierarchical. At its head was the Pope, who was considered the vicar of Jesus Christ on earth. He appointed cardinals, whose assembly, in the event of the death of the pope, chose a new one from among themselves. In addition, the pope was also a secular ruler who ruled the Papal States. At the head of large church districts were bishops and archbishops appointed by the pope. The parish priests were subordinate to them. High church officials were also large landowners. As a sign of secular power, bishops received a staff and a ring from the secular lord and swore a vassal oath to him.
The “fighters” - the king and the knights - had to fight opponents of the Christian faith, as well as protect the “praying” and “working” from enemies.
In many countries of Western Europe, in the absence of a strong central government, the strengthening of local lords and political fragmentation, a system of relationships has developed among the knightly aristocracy. Its peculiarity was the clearly demarcated rights and responsibilities of the lord and vassal.
The Pope with his entourage. Medieval drawing
The main duty of vassals was considered to be military equestrian service to the lord, who was supposed to provide them with protection.
In the Middle Ages there was a formula: “There is no man without a master.” Emperors and kings considered themselves vassals of the Lord God (sometimes they took a vassal oath to the Pope). Dukes, counts, marquises (margraves) - the highest titled aristocracy - were in direct vassal dependence on the kings. In turn, their vassals were barons, who distributed fiefs to knights - ordinary warriors. Simple (one-shield) knights did not have vassals.
Taking a vassal oath. Medieval miniature
The “working” - peasants, and subsequently city dwellers - were obliged to feed the “praying” and “fighting”. The peasantry was the largest class of medieval society. Personally, free peasants bore duties only in favor of the state and the church. The duties of dependent peasants towards the lord were regulated by laws and ancient customs. The land cultivated on the lord's farm was divided into lordly plowing and peasant plots. For the use of the land, forest lands and pastures of the master, the peasants performed corvée in his favor and paid quitrent.
In the Middle Ages in Western and partly in Central Europe, the formation of the Western version of Christian civilization, which began in the era of late Antiquity, continued. The Middle Ages were characterized by a new type of division of society into three classes: “praying” (clergy), “fighting” (knighthood) and “working” (peasants, townspeople). A feature of the life of Western medieval society was the system of seigneurial relations. Another feature of this period is the complete dominance of the church in the spheres of culture, ideology and science.
Questions and tasks
1. What are the origins and characteristic features of medieval civilization?
2. Analyze the differences between medieval society and ancient society.
3. Using additional literature and online resources, prepare a project on the topic: “Why did the idea of rebuilding an empire in the West receive the support of the church?”
4. How did Charlemagne's empire differ from the Western Roman Empire?
5. Classify the main features of seigneurial relations in Western Europe.
7. Why did the division into three classes prove to be very stable throughout the Middle Ages? What features of medieval society did this division reflect?
8. The notes of Deacon Florus of Lyons say:
“The Frankish nation shone in the eyes of the whole world. Foreign kingdoms - Greeks, barbarians and the Senate of Latium - sent embassies to her. The tribe of Romulus, Rome itself - the mother of the kingdom - were subordinate to this nation: there its head, strong with the support of Christ, received his diadem as an apostolic gift... But now, having fallen into decline, this great power immediately lost both its splendor and the name of the empire; the state, recently unified, is divided into three parts, and no one can be considered an emperor; instead of the sovereign there are small rulers, instead of the state there is only one piece. The common good has ceased to exist, everyone is busy with their own interests: they think about anything, they have forgotten only God. The shepherds of God, accustomed to meeting, can no longer organize their synods with such a division of the state, there is no longer a national assembly, there are no laws; it would be in vain for an embassy to come to a place where there is no court. What happened to the neighboring peoples on the Danube, on the Rhine, on the Rhone, on the Loire and on the Po? All of them, united from ancient times by bonds of agreement, now, when the union is broken, will be torn apart by sad discord... While the empire is being torn to shreds, people are having fun and calling the world such an order of things that does not provide any of the benefits of the world.”
How did Flor of Lyons evaluate the empire of Charlemagne? What impression did her breakup make on him? What consequences, according to the medieval clergyman, did the division of the empire lead to? Why did some of the author’s contemporaries rejoice at this event?
This text is an introductory fragment. From the book History. General history. Grade 10. Basic and advanced levels author Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich§ 6. Europe in the early Middle Ages (V – X centuries) The origin of medieval civilization. European medieval history can be divided into two periods: the early Middle Ages (V - X centuries) - the formation of a new civilization as a result of the interaction of ancient heritage with
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From the book Spain from Antiquity to the Middle Ages author Tsirkin Yuliy BerkovichIntroduction. EARLY MIDDLE AGES OR LATE ANCIENTITY? In the second half of the 19th century. E. Freeman divided the entire history, as it seemed to him, of the world, but in reality only of its European-Mediterranean part, into three large eras: before Rome, Rome and after Rome (1). And in this division there was
From the book Historical Fates of the Crimean Tatars. author Vozgrin Valery EvgenievichIII. EARLY MIDDLE AGES HUNS In the second half of the 4th century. Crimea is hit one after another by a series of attacks from hordes that surge from the steppes of Central Asia. These were the Huns, Central Asian Turkic tribes, but with a strong admixture of Mongol-Tungus blood. Therefore, even clean
From the book Criminal International in the Center of Europe [How NATO creates bandit states] author Ponomareva Elena Georgievna1.2. The early Middle Ages and the period of the empires of Kosovo and Metohija have an ancient history. Many peoples have left their mark here. In the 4th century. BC e. the territory of modern Kosmet, inhabited by the Thracian-Illyrian tribes of the Dardans and the Thracian tribe of the Tribals, was part of
From the book General History [Civilization. Modern concepts. Facts, events] author Dmitrieva Olga VladimirovnaEarly Middle Ages (V-first half of the 11th century) Conditions and prerequisites for the genesis of feudalism in Western Europe Despite the fact that, in percentage terms, the Germans were a minority in the conquered provinces (from 2 to 10%), the consequences of the conquest and the emergence of new things here
From the book De Conspiratione / About the Conspiracy author Fursov A.I.1.2. Early Middle Ages and the Age of Empires The territory of modern Kosmet, inhabited by the Thracian-Illyrian tribes of the Dardans and the Thracian tribe of the Tribals, in the 4th century. BC e. was part of the Illyrian kingdom and bordered on Thrace. In the 160s BC. e. Illyria was conquered
authorPart One EUROPE IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES
From the book History of Europe. Volume 2. Medieval Europe. author Chubaryan Alexander OganovichChapter VII NORTH-WESTERN EUROPE IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES The North-Western region is two subregions or historical-territorial communities: Britain, uniting England, Scotland, Ireland, and Northern Europe - the Scandinavian countries and Finland. In addition to those located on
