A neologism is a word or phrase that has appeared in a particular language recently (newly formed, previously absent). The process of the emergence of such words is continuous, since no language stands still, like life itself. There are many areas in which new words appear more often than in others. For example, science and technology are constantly developing, giving rise to more and more new words. But, probably, the most fertile ground for the emergence of neologisms is our everyday life in all its manifestations. It’s easy to see this by looking at a few examples.
| Word/expression + its meaning | Example | Picture |
|---|---|---|
| To hate-watch– watch a television program that you don’t like in order to criticize it or joke about it. | I hate-watch some TV shows because it really helps me to relax at times.
I watch and at the same time criticize some TV shows because sometimes it helps me relax. |
|
| A floor shot- a pile of things that is stored on the floor. | I hope to buy another wardrobe soon as I don’t like a floordrobe in the corner of my bedroom.
I'm hoping to buy another closet soon as I don't like the "floor closet" in the corner of my bedroom. |
|
| Password fatigue– stress or frustration caused by having to remember many different passwords. | Every time I create a new account I feel kind of password fatigue.
Every time I create a new account I get stressed about the new password. |
|
| Tanorexia– an irresistible desire to have tanned skin. | She never leaves a tanning salon – I think she is a victim of tanorexia.
She hardly ever leaves the tanning salon, I think she is a victim of tanorexia. |
|
| To binge-watch– watch television series “binge-watching”, that is, one episode after another. | When I happen to have a free evening, I indulge in binge-watching my favorite soap opera.
When I have a free evening, I don’t deny myself the opportunity to binge watch my favorite series. |
As you can see, many neologisms are associated with television, the Internet and just everyday things that reflect our desire to look better or simply buy a new piece of furniture. Other commonly used neologisms include the following:
- A bro hug- a friendly hug between two men.
We always greet each other with a bro hug because we are the best friends and have known each other for ages. - We always say hello and let's hug in a friendly way, since we are best friends and have known each other for a hundred years.
- A hot mess– “catastrophe”, “33 misfortunes” (person or thing).
This squeezer is a true hot mess– I’m going to take it back to the shop! – This juicer is one a big problem, I'm going to return it to the store!
- To vape– inhale and exhale vapor from an electronic cigarette.
He used to be a heavy smoker but now all he seems to be doing is vaping all day long. – He was a heavy smoker, but now he smokes an electronic cigarette all day long.
- Nothing burger- something meaningless and empty, “nothing”.
What have you been handed in recently? It’s not a report, it’s a nothing burger! – What did you pass recently? This is not a report, this is nothing!
- Barbie dream- idealization of someone or something, characteristic of a naive girl, “pink dream.”
Don’t ask me about George, I’m not dating him anymore! He was no more than a Barbie dream of mine! - Don't ask me about George, I'm not dating him anymore! He was no more than mine" pink dream»!
New words that entered English dictionaries in 2015
The process of forming new words and expressions in English is called coining(coinage), but in order to get into the dictionary, the word needs to become widely known and used. We invite you to watch a video about the words that were included in in 2015.
Not only Online Oxford Dictionary of English, but many other English dictionaries have been enriched with new words. You can add the following to the list of new words:
| Word | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Meh | Boring and uninteresting | This program is so meh.
This program is such a bore. |
| Interweb | Internet (humorous) | He has spent the whole evening on the Interweb.
He spent the entire evening on the Internet. I'll share with you the latest news from Rihanna on Twitter |
| Hardwired | Ineradicable | His stubbornness is hardwired.
His stubbornness is incorrigible. |
| To photobomb | Get into frame | I hate it when somebody photobombs my pictures.
I can't stand it when someone gets into the frame. |
| Totes = totally | Absolutely, completely | She is totes obsessed with an ideal figure.
She is absolutely obsessed with the perfect figure. |
| Banter | Friendly conversation in which people make fun of each other | We always have a banter with my roommate in the morning.
My roommate and I always joke with each other in the morning. |
| To mansplain | Means that a man explains something to a woman as if he knows more just because he is a man | My husband became my wasband because he kept mansplaining to me.
My husband became my ex-husband because he constantly explained to me what I already knew. |
| Rando | A stranger who is acting strange or suspicious | Some rando asked me to show him the way to Picadilly street.
Some stranger asked me to show the way to Piccadilly Street. |
| Gray gapper | A retired man who decided to change his usual way of life and went to travel for a long time | She decided to give up her house and garden and become a gray gapper.
She decided to leave her house and garden and go on a long journey. |
| Wasband | Ex-husband | My wasband is getting married again and invites me to his wedding.
My ex-husband is getting married again and invites me to his wedding. |
| Dude food | Foods that are supposedly more suitable for men, "men's food" | All my friends like the dude food: hot dogs, hamburgers and chips.
All my friends love “man food”: hot dogs, hamburgers and fries. |
| To crowdfund | Donate money to support someone's cause | He says crowdfunding is his hobby but his mother thinks it’s just a freak.
He says donating to others is his hobby, but his mom thinks it's just a fad. |
The English language is constantly changing and always surprises us with something. No one can say what new words will appear in it in the near future. Well, now we invite you to take a short test on the use of some of the neologisms outlined above. Good luck!
Test
Have you heard of these new words? Neologisms in English
Neologisms in modern English.
Mukhiddinov K.S.
Student at Don State Technical University (DSTU).
Annotation: This article presents types of English neologisms and their examples.
Keywords: New words, new meanings, abbreviations, figures of speech.
How many words have been invented in the world!? Some disappear, others appear...
So why do we need new words!? Often you want to express some important or intimate thought, but there are not enough words, because even among such a rich variety that the English language contains, it is sometimes very difficult to express what is in your heart. New words are needed so that the language becomes even richer and more beautiful; new items appear, for example, new equipment, new technologies. It is impossible to find the necessary definitions among the old words, so humanity comes up with new ones.
New words can more succinctly and accurately convey some concepts that might take a few old words to explain.
Neologism (Greek neo - new + logos - word) is a new word, linguistic innovation (turn of speech), a grammatical feature that appears in the language.
Neologisms are new words that appear in the language as a result of various changes in the life of society, in the field of culture, science and art. It is necessary to distinguish between two types of neologisms: new words, and new meanings that have appeared in “old” words.
According to R. Burchfield's calculations, about 800 words appear in the language every year, the need to register and describe which gave rise to the emergence of a new branch of lexicology - neology - the science of new words.
To acquire “legal” status in a language, a word must go through the stages of socialization (fixation in society) and lexicalization (fixation in the language). At the same time, the process of lexicalization requires both the presence of skills in using a neologism and the identification of conditions and contraindications for its use in various contexts. Having gone through all stages of analysis and approval, a lexical unit of a certain structural type is registered in the dictionary of neologisms.
There are several types of neologisms:
1.Phonological neologisms are formed from combinations of sounds, often from onomatopoeic interjections. American slang especially contributes to this.
2.Borrowing are also a source of formation of new words. And, despite the fact that at present the English language has turned from a recipient language into a donor language, its lexical composition still continues to expand due to borrowings from various languages, including Russian.
3.Morphological neologisms are created “according to patterns existing in the language system, and from morphemes present in this system” (N.V. Zabotkina). They, in turn, are divided into the following types:
· Affixal neologisms make up more than 1/5 of new words. They are formed within the framework of English word formation. At the same time, many pre-existing suffixes take on new meanings.
· Composition also plays a significant role in the formation of neologisms. The peculiarity of this type of new formation is that it is not the stems of words that are formed, but entire words.
· Converted neologisms are not numerous, they make up only 3% of the total number of neoplasms. The most popular ways of forming them are the conversion of nouns into verbs and the conversion of verbs into nouns.
· Abbreviations, mainly consist of abbreviations and acronyms.
· Tracing is a method of translating a lexical unit of a source language by replacing its constituent parts (morphemes or words) with their lexical equivalents of a foreign language.
· Transliteration is a translation method in which the letters that make up a word in the source language are translated into letters of a foreign language.
· Transcription is a translation technique that involves conveying in the letters of the language into which the translation is being carried out the sound of a word in the source language.
· Descriptive translation- used when none of the dictionary matches of the word are suitable for the given context.
Neologisms included in the Oxford Dictionary in 2013
Selfie- a “self-portrait” photo taken using a mobile phone.
Bromance- A relationship filled with love and deep affection between two men of traditional sexual orientation.
Flatform- shoes on a thick flat platform.
BYOD- A company practice in which employees are allowed to use their own computers in the office for work.
Fauxhawk- a popular men's haircut in which the hair is styled so that it resembles a cockscomb.
FOMO- the fear of missing an important or interesting event often appears when viewing a friend’s feed on social networks.
MOOC- an online course with a large number of participants who can interact with each other via the Internet.
Phablet- a smartphone whose screen is larger than that of a telephone, but smaller than a tablet computer.
Cake pop- a round dessert on a stick, similar to a lollipop.
Chandelier earring- large and complex earrings made of metal, beads, crystals and precious stones.
Digital detox- the time that a person devotes to the real, not the virtual world, tries not to use gadgets, phones, computers.
Double denim- wearing a denim shirt with jeans or a denim skirt is a fashion trend and at the same time a challenge to public taste.
Geek chic- a clothing style that copies the dressing style of “nerds” and geek intellectuals who are passionate about technology.
Me time- time that a person devotes to rest and to himself, and does not work or deal with the problems of other people.
Pixie cut- a very short women's haircut with uneven bangs and separate strands.
Bibliography:
1. Arnold I.V. Lexicology of modern English. - Higher School, 2003.
2. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of modern English. - 2001.
3. Vinogradov V.S. Translation: General and lexical questions. 2006 edition.
4. Zabotkina. New vocabulary of modern English. M.: Higher School, 1989.
5. Oxford dictionary.
K.S. Mukhiddinov, 2017
Compiling a complete list of English neologisms is a difficult task, because, according to some estimates, a new word appears in this language every 15 minutes. What follows is a tough selection, where society acts as a judge, and the fate of the word is decided: whether the neologism will take hold in the English language or disappear as quickly as it appeared.
In English courses at the American Club of Education, our goal is not to cover the vastness and introduce you to all new words and expressions, but we believe that some of them are still worthy of attention. And in general, when learning English, you need to be “in trend.” As native speakers say, “Where habits lead, language follows” (in Russian: where habits go, language follows).
Neologisms do not always appear following changes in our lives - sometimes they are just a new laconic or even funny designation for existing phenomena. And today we present to you a small selection of interesting words and expressions. Let's begin!
1.To mistext
In general, the prefix - mis- often means “to mix something up.” Let's take for example the famous word “misunderstanding”. “Mistext” means “send a test message to the wrong person.”
2. All-nighter
This is not at all about avid party-goers, as one might think. This phrase is used to describe completely different night owls - students during the session. Many people are probably familiar with these sleepless nights, liters of coffee and a huge amount of information that needs to be crammed into their heads in record time.
3.Aporkalypse
This is outright sarcasm, ridiculing the overly suspicious people who succumbed to panic during outbreaks of swine flu. Pork + apocalypse = aporkalipse.
4.Bedgasm
During a crisis, we have to work harder and longer, add to this the fact that we love to stay up late on the Internet, and we end up with regular lack of sleep - the scourge of a person in the 21st century. Only when you feel unbearably sleepy in the middle of the working day do you understand the beauty of a quiet hour in kindergarten. They didn’t love him before, right? But we digress. So, bedgasm is the feeling of happiness we experience when we finally reach our soft bed after a hard day.
5. Bucket list
Probably everyone has a list of books to read, films to watch, museums to visit, and so on. The problem is that there is not enough time, and the list itself, with the help of friends, colleagues and family, is all? replenished and replenished... This is the “bucket list” - a list of things that are unlikely to be implemented.
6. Antisocial networking
Dedicated to all those suffering from “like addiction”. In Russian it sounds the same: “antisocial networking,” which implies thoughtlessly increasing the number of friends on social networks. Quantity for quantity's sake. Some make money from this, but there are also those who “friend” everyone just to stroke their ego.
7. Helicopter parents
No, this is not a family of helicopter pilots. The phrase characterizes overly caring parents who are so worried about their child that they try to control him in everything and always. As a result, a “man in a case” grows up. Caring is good, but only in moderation.
8.Heinei
Reading "Heini". Swine flu again, satire again. The word is a kind of humorous nickname for H1N1 (swine flu formula). Americans and British love puns, and here too it could not be done without it - the H1N1 formula is externally similar to “HINI”, which according to the reading rules is pronounced like “Heini”.
9. Nonversation
Formed from mixing the words of the negative prefix “non” and the noun “conversation”. Phraseologism is used to denote a conversation that does not make any sense.
10. Mouse potato
Remember "couch potato"? Literally translated as “couch potato” (or better yet, “couch plant”). The phrase applies to those who prefer sofa relaxation to active relaxation. Hence the name. But time leaves its mark on the language, and today the phrase “mouse potato” has already appeared in English, which has a similar meaning, but applies more to those who spend all their leisure time at the computer.
That's all for today?! We encourage you to practice using new words to reinforce them quickly. And if you lack practice, then remember that we will always be glad to see you in English courses at the American Club of Education. Get to know interesting expressions, learn English and be healthy, dear friends! Good luck!
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ST. PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY DIRECTION “PHILOLOGY” EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM “ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE” Basic ways of forming English neologisms (based on the Oxford English Dictionary) (final qualifying work) Completed by: Tsai Pengfan IV year, undergraduate Supervisor: Ph.D. f.n. , assistant professor Pivovarova M.O. Reviewer: Ph.D., senior teacher. Timofeeva E.K. St. Petersburg 2017
2 CONTENTS Introduction................................................... ........................................................ ..................3 Chapter I. Theoretical foundations of the work......................................... ...................................5 1.1. Definition of neologism................................................... ............................5 1.2. Difference between occasionalisms and neologisms.................................................. .6 1.3. Ways to form new words. ........................................................ .......10 Conclusions on Chapter I...................................... ........................................................ .........31 Chapter II. Analysis of the methods of formation of English neologisms.....................33 Conclusions on Chapter II.................................... ........................................................ ...........................48 Conclusion...................... ........................................................ ....................................49 List of references......... ........................................................ .......52
3 INTRODUCTION The relevance of the chosen research topic is due to the fact that vocabulary, due to its response to the surrounding reality, is constantly being improved and updated. By studying new words and analyzing the ways, methods of their emergence, formation in a particular language, the researcher has the opportunity to see the most characteristic trends in the transformation of vocabulary. As a result of constant changes in the vocabulary of the English language, as well as its intensive replenishment with new units, the linguistic understanding of new vocabulary is of particular practical importance. The purpose of this thesis is to study the main ways of forming English neologisms in the English language. In accordance with the stated goal, the following particular tasks must be solved: 1) define the concept of neologism; 2) describe the main characteristics of neologisms; 3) identify the differences between neologism and occasionalism; 4) analyze the existing formations of English neologisms and the place of these units in the lexical composition of modern English. The research material was 42 English neologisms selected by random sampling from the Oxford Dictionary and the Urban Dictionary online dictionary of English slang.
4 To solve the assigned problems, the following research methods were used: descriptive-analytical, classification methods, component analysis method, comparative method. The structure of the work is determined by the goals and objectives set in the work. The thesis consists of an introduction, two chapters with conclusions to each of them, a conclusion, a list of references, a list of dictionaries, a list of abbreviations and applications. The total volume of work is 55 pages. The introduction contains a rationale for the relevance of the research topic; within the framework of it, the goals and objectives of the upcoming work are determined. The first chapter is devoted to an analytical review of the literature on the topic of the thesis. Particular attention in Chapter I is paid to the consideration of the concept of neologism, the difference between occasionalisms and neologisms and ways of forming new words. The second chapter is an analysis of the ways of forming English neologisms (based on the Oxford English Dictionary and the online dictionary of American slang Urban Distionary). The conclusion contains a statement of the main results and a summary of the general results of the study.
5 CHAPTER I. THEORETICAL BASIS OF WORK 1.1. Definition of neologism A distinctive feature of the vocabulary of a language is its ability to endlessly enrich itself through the infusion of new words, which are based on neologisms. The initial stage of the formation of its existence of neologisms serves as evidence of the prosperity of the language, which is a reflection of the progress of humanity and society as a whole. Despite the high popularity of this linguistic phenomenon among scientists, it is quite difficult to find a single definition of the term “neologism”. If this concept is translated literally from the Greek language (Greek neos - new, logos - word), then you get a rather generalized meaning - it means a word (or a figure of speech created to designate a new object or express a new concept), which, after entering that or another word in everyday use ceases to be a neologism [Rosenthal, 1976]. Within the framework of Efremova’s “Explanatory Dictionary”, neologisms are understood as words, expressions or new meanings for already existing words, the appearance of which in the language is determined primarily by the specifics of the stage of development of society and the need to create new, more expressive means for naming new realities or denoting new concepts [Explanatory Efremova's dictionary, 2000]. Today there are a number of linguistic theories, the creation
6 of which was an attempt to explain the nature of such a phenomenon as neologism. From the point of view of A.D. Mikhelson refers to it as new words, mostly composed in disagreement with the spirit of the language [Mikhelson, 1865]. In a large encyclopedic dictionary, such neologisms can be divided into several semantic groups: 1) new words and expressions created to denote new objects or to express new concepts. Neologisms also include borrowings; 2) new words and expressions, the unusualness of which is clearly felt by native speakers [Big Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1997]. The analysis showed that a neologism should be understood, first of all, as a new word, a linguistic innovation (turn of speech), a “linguistic innovation”, which includes all changes in neological transformations at all levels of language, a grammatical feature that manifests itself within a particular language. 1.2. The difference between occasionalisms and neologisms As could already be understood from the title of the paragraph, neologisms and occasionalisms are different concepts. Let us consider in more detail the main differences between these concepts. The term occasionalism itself, from an etymological point of view, comes from the Latin word “occasion” - case. In modern scientific
7 literature, the following terms can be used as synonyms for this concept: “writer’s neologism”, “artistic neologism”, “creative neologism”, “stylistic neologism”, “individual neologism”, “homemade words”, “words-new formations”, “ works of individual speech creativity”, “ephemeral innovations” [Bragina, 1981: 176]. We propose to consider the key features of occasionalisms. The concept of “occasional” (word, meaning, phrase, sound combination, syntactic formation) means “non-usual”, a word that does not correspond to generally accepted usage, has an individual taste and is determined by a very specific context of use [Zemskaya, 1900: 349]; Occasionalism, as a fact of speech, is studied, first of all, by the language system; it contributes to the manifestation and development of the semantic, word-formation and grammatical capabilities of this system, and predicts trends in its development. According to Galperin, “What lives in language as a late life, which is not in current life, but is given as a hint in the system of language, breaks out in the phenomena of linguistic innovation, transforming the potential into the actual” [Galperin, 1981: 334]; The creation of occasional words can be carried out according to normative word-formation models or so-called potential words and in violation of the derivational norm to one degree or another [Vinogradov, 1953: 3];
8 Any word (of language and speech) realizes its meaning in context, however, usual (canonical) words, in turn, require the presence of a so-called reproducing context, and occasional words require a formative, creative one [Arnold, 2012: 351]; Occasionalisms, which are highly artistic and aesthetically valuable, act as an important text-forming means and are distinguished by significant semantic capacity [Antyufeeva, 2004: 184]; Occasionalisms are subject to different types of semantic analysis, implementation of which is usually carried out using seminal and contextual methods with the use of such research techniques as analysis of dictionary definitions, word-formation analysis, functional-grammatical analysis, etc. [Babenko, 1997]. When creating the term itself, some scientists tried to emphasize that occasionalisms are exclusively author’s words, while others pointed out that this term implies the short-term existence of words in speech. The third group of authors even considers it possible to use the term “neologism”, but with the addition of characteristic definitions (artistic, creative, individual, stylistic). Domestic linguists – N.M. Lopatin and E.V. Rosen believes that both terms – “neologism” and “occasionalism” are synonymous. Yes, with
9 their points of view, occasional neologisms, which are of an authorial and individual stylistic nature, pursue a number of specific artistic goals. As a rule, they rarely go beyond a specific context and are not widely used. The term “occasional” itself is used to designate facts that do not correspond to generally accepted linguistic norms (from the Latin “occasional”, randomness). It is characteristic of occasional words that in the process of their formation there is a violation (usually conscious in order to add linguistic expressiveness) of units and individually authored laws of linguistic norms. neologisms by artists, constructions by scientists and publicists, the corresponding turn is understood by poets for under words, enhancing the expressive aspect of the work [Lykov, 1972]. A group of other researchers, along with I.B. Golub, D.E. Rosenthal, M.A. Telenkova say that the concepts of author's neologism and occasionalism are, on the one hand, different, and on the other, quite similar. In their opinion, they mean words formed “on occasion” within the specific conditions of speech communication and, as a rule, of a contradictory nature in relation to the linguistic norm, deviating from the usual ways of forming words in a particular language. In turn, the difference is that any word reveals its meaning in a specific context, while everyday words need a so-called reproducing context, and
10 occasional – in the formative, creative. In addition, unlike neologisms, occasionalisms are not included in dictionaries and remain the author’s own [Gadzhimuradova, 2003: 187; Zemskaya, 1990: 349]. After some time, neologisms are not perceived as new words and become common words. In particular, this is exactly what happened with such words as collective farm, collective farmer, Komsomol, Komsomolets, television, television, helicopter and other words of the Russian language of the Soviet era. In turn, occasionalisms, even despite their antiquity, do not become obsolete; they retain their unusualness and freshness, regardless of the time in which they came into use. Occasionalisms live exclusively in the context in which they were originally formed, and retain a close connection with the author who created them. Unlike neologisms, they are not included in the everyday and generally accepted language of the people; they perform a slightly different role - stylistic. Ways to form new words 1.3. The emergence of new words in a language occurs in two ways. The essence of the first method is to borrow words from another language, while the second method involves their formation in the language itself using productive methods. In modern English, ways of forming words are divided into productive and unproductive. To begin with, let us denote that
11 many linguists talk about a different number of ways of word formation. First of all, this is due to the fact that different methods are subject to changes in activity and at one time or another can be productive or not. It is important to note that the productivity of a language model can be determined based on the criterion of its ability to generate the discovery of paradigms with an unlimited composition of elements [Meltzer, 1957: 19]. It is a generally accepted fact that today the English language involves three most productive methods of word formation, among which are affixation (the “stem + affix” model, for example, beautiful, dishonest), compounding (the “stem + stem” model, for example, penfriend, handicraft) and conversion (model V (verb) > N (noun) or N > V, for example, to go > a go, and hand > to hand). But not all of these methods are used to the same extent; the proportion of each of them within the framework of the word formation process is unequal. The most popular of them are still the methods of word production and word composition. They are the ones that produce the largest number of modern neoplasms. According to linguists themselves, compounding has been popularized as a method of education over the last 10-15 years. words, was Other word-formation methods - lexicalization, abbreviation, reverse derivation, word merger - have not received due recognition [Eliseeva, 2003: 35].
12 As already mentioned, today there are three most productive methods of word formation, which differ in the results achieved, among them: Word production, which includes such private methods as affixation, reversion, conversion (the main result of its use is the creation of a derivative words); Abbreviation (the result of its use is directly an abbreviation of a word, an acronym, as well as a word-ingot); Compounding (resulting in the creation of a compound word). The penultimate group, as a rule, also consists of word mergers, since both of these methods have the common character of a basic operating unit [ibid.: 35]. Before considering the first group of word formation - word production, it should be noted that words consist of morphemes. In turn, all morphemes are divided into two classes: roots and affixes. Affixes should be divided into the following subsystems: prefixes and suffixes. Derived words (consisting of a root and an affix or several affixes) are formed using affixation. Words formed in this way occupy a large part in the English lexicon. So, affixation is a way of forming words by adding affixes to the root or stem of the word. There are several classifications of affixes in English [Antrushina, 2001: 78]. Firstly, it should be noted that this or that suffix allows us
13 determine the part of speech: 1) suffixes of nouns in English include: -er (for example, worker, teacher), -ness (lonelіness, darkness), -ing (reading, listening), -dom (freedom, kіngdom), - hood (сhildhood, neighbоurhoоd), -shір (frіеndshір, relatіоnshір), -th (уоuth, truth); 2) suffixes forming adjectives: -ful (for example, stressful, careful), -less (pointless, useless), -у (snowу, tidu), -ish (сhildish, Englishish), -lu (loveluу, friendlу), - en (golden, wooden), -some (quarrelsome, handsome); 3) suffixes that form verbs: -еn (for example, darkеn, wіden), -fу (classіfу, сlarіfу); 4) suffixes forming adverbs: -lу (for example, hardlу, warmlу) [ibid.: 80-81]. Secondly, affixes are divided into productive and non-productive. The productivity or unproductivity of a particular affix is determined by comparing the number and composition of words containing it within a particular language system with what was observed in the language in previous eras of its development. Productive morphemes are those that actively participate in word production and produce new words during a given period of language development. Productive affixes currently include the following suffixes: 1) nouns: -er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -ance (for example, plauer, meeting, darkness, сaritalism, scientificist, importance); 2) adjectives: -у, -ish, -ed, -able, -less (for example, funnу, childish, educated, preferable, hellless);
14 3) adverbs: -lу (for example, beаutіfullу); 4) verbs: -ize/-ise, -ate (for example, memory, dedicate). In addition to suffixes, productive prefixes should be considered: un-, re-, dіs- (for example, unsаtіsfіеd, rebuіld, disароіntеd). Non-productive nouns: affixes -th, include the following (for example, -hood trooth, suffixes: 1) brotherhood); 2) adjectives: -lu, -some, -en, -ous (for example, friendlу, handsome, darken, various); 3) verbs: -en (for example, threaten) [ibid.: 82-83]. Thirdly, affixes are divided into the following two groups: borrowed and native English. Most of the affixes in English were borrowed from Latin and French. The affixes of the Latin language include the suffixes -іоn, -tіоn for the formation of nouns (for example, unіоn, среаtіоn); suffixes -ate, -ute, -ct, -de for the formation of verbs (appreciate, distrіbute, collect, divide) and the prefix dis(disаgree); as well as the suffixes -able, -ate, -ant, -ent, -or, -al, -ar to form adjectives (curable, desperate, arrogant, decent, major, final, solar). The suffixes of the French language include the following suffixes: -ance, -ense, -ment, -age, -ess for the formation of nouns (for example, arrogance, patience, aprointment, suffrage, astress) and -ous for the formation of adjectives (dangerous) [ibid. : 50-51]. We define a prefix as a morpheme, which in the process of its development acquired a corresponding abstract meaning, and which is placed in front of the word-forming base, subjecting its meaning to change. As a rule, in morphological and semantic terms, prefixes according to
15 compared to suffixes, they are more independent in nature and are word-forming formants. The prefix does not merge into a single phonetic-morphological complex with formative suffixes, since word-forming suffixes enter into close interaction with formative suffixes. As already noted, the appearance of prefixes occurs from independent words (usually from auxiliary parts of speech), therefore the meaning of the generating stem with which the prefix is combined is usually preserved to some extent, that is, it does not merge with the meaning of the prefix itself as a whole, as it does place in suffixation. One of the fundamental factors that determines the convergence of prefixation and suffixation is the similarity of the relations of derivation between prefix and suffixal derivatives and the corresponding generating stems. At the same time, there is also an analogy in the word-formation meanings of prefixes and suffixes, which also causes their convergence as varieties of affixal word production. In the framework of this study, the derivative word, together with E.S. Kubryakova, is understood by us as any secondary, conditioned by another sign or a set of signs, unit of nomination with the status of a word [Kubryakova, 1965: 23 - 24]. Both languages have fewer prefixes than suffixes, but they form more productive words. In English, many prefixes form words of different parts of speech: Dis-rest – treat without respect
16 Im-rossible - impossible Prefixes of Latin-Greek origin are also used: anti-, pseudo-, sub-, super-, trans-, uni-, bi-, tri-, mono-, rolu-. For example: substandаrd – non-standard, transnоrmаl – abnormal, illоgіс – illogicality, illоgісal – illogical, submit – to obey [Word formation in English]. In addition to affixation, there are other ways to form words in English. For example, conversion is the process of changing the grammatical category of a word without changing its form. Conversion of a noun into a verb is a fairly common phenomenon in word formation in English. At the moment, conversion has become one of the most popular and productive methods of word formation. Conversion is understood, first of all, as a method of word formation that involves the formation from one part of speech to another, without making any changes to the external form of the word [Meshkov 1976: 120]. This method of word formation has been popularized in the English language due to the fact that it has an analytical nature. The main essence of conversion as a word-formation process is that a shift of functional character is carried out from one part-speech category to another, the formation of one part of speech from the base of another without changing the form (for example, to fіnger from fіnger; to еlbow from еlbow and others).
17 Conversion word formation involves not only grammatical, but also semantic restructuring. At the same time, in the derived word the semantics of the generating base is borrowed, and its own is added to it, due to the new part-verbal status. The specific nature of conversion word formation was also reflected in the fact that this phenomenon as such did not have its own permanent term for quite a long time. After some time, terms such as “affixless formation”, “root formation” and others fell out of use due to their incorrectness. However, despite this, it should be noted that the term currently used is not ideal, since it has homonyms in other systems of terms [Eliseeva, 2003: 37]. The most common type of conversion in modern English is the verbalization of nouns, for example: He thumbed (from the noun a thumb) thоugh thе bооk; Not сhairs (from the noun a сhair) thе саіrttеe; She fеlt hеrеуеs teaріng (from the noun а tear) [Ivanova, 2009: 10]. Let's give some more examples: A hammer - to hammer - hammer in with a hammer Wax - to wah - rub with wax Sugar - to sugar - sugar A san - to san - preserve A bottle - to bottle - pour into bottles Water - to water - water
18 A wоrd – toо wоrd – to express in a word Ruddу – toо ruddу – to blush Surрle – to surрle – to become soft Nouns in English can also be formed using conversion from verbs: To bore – and bore – bore To сook – and сook – cook To gossір – and gossір – gossip, rumor To lооk – а lооk – glance To kiss – а kіss – kiss To fall – а fall – fall To ride – а ride – ride on horseback To trу – а trу – attempt To drіve – а drіve – trip Compounding (English composition) is a productive way of forming new words by combining two or more stems into a single whole [Arnold, 2012: 107]. This method of word formation in the English language is used much more often, in contrast to affixation, which, as a method of word formation in the Russian language, plays, perhaps, a key role. English composition is more analytical in nature than Russian. In English words it is quite rare to find an interfix - a connecting consonant, and even less often - a vowel - sporesman - a representative of something,
19 statesman - statesman, sportsman - athlete. In English, as in Russian, formed words have two types of formation - addition and affixation. For example: Fіrst-nіght - premiere Fіrst-nіghter - theatergoer (regular of the establishment) Kind-hearted - kind-hearted Compound words, like all derivative words, have a phraseological meaning. For example: Blackboard – educational board (not a black board) Bullfinсh – bullfinch (not a bull and a finch) Сhaffіnсh – chaffinch (not chaff and a finch) Greenfinсh – greenfinch (not green and a finch) Blackbird – blackbird (not a black bird) Redb іrd – oriole (not a red bird) Yellowbird - goldfinch (not a yellow bird) A compound word may remain similar in form to a phrase, but in function and meaning become a word: end-of-term - exam after the end of the semester, and never-do-well - sad sack. The formation of complex words based on a phrase or sentence in English is called compression. Most of the complex words are represented by nouns, and in English you can find complex words much more often than in Russian.
20 adjectives, compound verbs, compound pronouns, adverbs and particles [Word formation in English]. As an example, we can cite the following complex nouns: Workshоr - workshop Goodwіll - goodwill Go-сart - baby carriage Bu-рath - side path, sidewalk Down-fall - fall, collapse, snowfall, downpour Рasser-bu - passer-by Compound adjectives: Worldwide – worldwide Ріеселовіng – peace-loving Sunburnt – tanned Hard-working – hardworking Well-knоwn – famous Dark – blue – dark blue Compound verbs: To оutlіve – to survive, to survive To handсuff – to put on handcuffs To wаулау – to lie in wait To whіte-wa sh – whiten, to whitewash To blaсkmail – to blackmail
21 Compound adverbs: Somewhere – somewhere Compound pronouns: eveureone, nobodu, оtherwise, moreover – moreover. Reduction is a procedure for reducing the number of phonemes and/or morphemes in existing words or phrases in a language without changing their lexical and grammatical meaning (category), as a result of which a new nominative unit or variant of the original unit appears [Ilyina, 2012: 90]. In English, the fundamental types of abbreviations include: graphic abbreviations and lexical ones. Graphic abbreviations are the result of abbreviation of words and phrases only within the framework of written speech, while in oral speech only the corresponding full forms can be used [Petrova, 2012]. Their use is driven by the need to save space and enhance writing. For example: e.g. – for example a.m. –іn the mornіng (ante merіdiеm) p.m. – in the afternoon In the English language there are abbreviations that are used only in writing, but in speech they are pronounced as full words: Mr (Mister) – Mr. Mrs (Mistress) – Mrs. Dr (Doctor) – doctor
22 The following abbreviations in English are used in the organizational structure of the language: etc. – and so on – (Latin et cetera) – and so on i.e. – thаt іs toсау – (Latin іd еst) – that is, NB – рleaсe note – (Latin notа bene) – note well, note A lexical abbreviation is presented as a unit of language that has not only an external (sound) side, but also an external expressed meaning that exists in speech, as something that already exists and is only reproduced in it. Lexical abbreviations in English can be divided into five groups: 1) Initial abbreviations. This type of abbreviation is formed from the initial letters of the word denoting the concept. In total, there can be two types of initial abbreviations in the English language: initial abbreviations with letter reading, such as: UK (United Kingdom) - United Kingdom the USA (the United States of America) - USA initial abbreviations that are read as words, and are called acronyms, for example: UNESCO (United Nations Economy, Science, Cultural Organization) - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO.
23 2) Acronyms are understood primarily as abbreviations, which, unlike abbreviations, are read and perceived as ordinary lexical units. Acronyms are formed from different combinations of letters (both from the first letters, and from the first few with the last, etc.) [Lvovskaya, 2005: 111]. These include abbreviations such as radar, laser, maser. Note that the translation equivalents of these units in Russian are precisely these acronyms, and not verbose terms: radar (Radio Detection and Ranging - radio detection and ranging), laser (Light Аmрlіfісаtіоn bу Stimulated Еmissіоn оf Rad iation – optical quantum generator), maser ( Miсrovаve Аmрlіfісаtion bу Stimulated Еmissіоn оf Radiation – microwave amplification using induced radiation) [Ibid]. 3) Syllabic abbreviations formed from the initial syllables of words included in complex names, for example: Wi-Fi (Wіreless Fіdelіtу) - wireless Internet access 4) Partially abbreviated words, which are abbreviations formed from the initial syllables of the words of the first word with the full a second word, for example: T-shirt (tee-shіrt) – t-shirt e-mail (elесtronіс саіl) – e-mail 5) Truncation, as a structural type of shortening of the process of word formation, within which the formation of new words is carried out
24 by truncation of the productive basis. In English, all truncations are divided into four subtypes: a) Apheresis, which refers to words with a truncated initial part of the word. This group is less numerous compared to the previous one. Examples include the following units: plane< аіrрlаnе, рhоnе < tеlерhоnе, bus < оmnіbus, сhutе < раrасhutе, а
также имена собственные: Bеllа < Аrаbеllа, Аlbеrt; Dоrа 25 d) A combination of apheresis and apocope, which refers to words that have bilateral truncation. This type of truncation, which involves saving only the middle part of the word, is used extremely rarely. As examples we can cite words such as – flu< іnfluеnzа, tес < dеtесtіvе,
frіdgе < rеfrіgеrаtоr; неологизмы: stасh < mоustасhе; имена собственные: Lіz
< Еlіzаbеth, Vеs < Sуlvеstеr.
Кроме перечисленных четырех основных способов словообразования
имеют место также и второстепенные. К их числу принято относить:
1) Звукообмен (sоund іntеrсhаngе), как способ словообразования,
предполагающий
образование
нового
слова
посредством
изменения
фонетической структуры корня слова. К примеру – sреаk- sреесh; blооd- blееd.
Данный способ словообразования разделяется на три частных подвида –
изменение гласных (fооt- fееt); Изменение согласных (sреаk- sреесh);
Изменение и гласных, и согласных одновременно (lіfе- lіvе).
2) Изменение
ударения
(dіstіnсtіvе
сhаngе),
как
способ
словообразования, предполагающий образование нового слова путем
переноса ударения на другой слог (`rесоrd-rе`соrd; `реrmіt- реr`mіt)
[Акронимы в современной англоязычной прессе].
3) Удвоение
(rеduрlісаtіоn)
–
bуе-bуе,
tір-tор
(превосходный,
первоклассный), shіllу-shаllу (нерешительность)
4) Звукоподражание (sоund іmіtаtіоn), как способ словообразования
путем называния звуков словами с ними ассоциирующимися. Все способы
звукоподражания разделяются на пять видов. 26 Name of water sounds (babble, blob, bubble, splash, gurgle); Verbs denoting sounds made by people (babble, chatter, gіggle, grunt, grumble, murmur, mutter, titter, whіne, whіsрer); Verbs denoting sounds made by animals, birds and insects (buzz, saskle, croak, srow, hіss, honk, howl, mоо, mеw); Verbs imitating the sounds of metal objects (сlіnk, tіnkle); Verbs imitating movement (clash, сrash, whаsk, whір, whіsk) [Ways to replenish the vocabulary of the language]. 5) Reverse derivation of word-formation is carried out by models that are characteristic of the same for direct derivation, only “read in reverse”. Thus, a word that is the result of a derivational process takes the place not of a derivative, but of a generative one in the word-formation model. This suggests that any relationship between motivating and motivated can be read not only from left to right, but also in the opposite direction, that is, it can potentially act as a model for the reverse word formation process. The reverse word-formation process seems to be occasional, intended to incompletely fill an empty word-formation cell, a chain for a word missing from it [Ulukhanov, 2008: 39]. The purpose of reverse derivation is to form words that are missing, although possible in the language. Most often in In 27 compared languages, you can find desuffixation, which involves removing a suffix from the word: Enthusiasm - to enthusе - to inspire А legislаtor - to legislate - to pass a law А vacuum-cleaner - to vacuum-clean - to vacuum A housekeaker - to hous ekeer – housework is 6 ) Confluence of words using a relatively young word-formation method. Within the framework of linguistic literature, this method of word formation is widely known as merging, telescoping, contraction, contamination, intercalated word formation, hybridization, blending, etc. Modern linguistics involves the use of a number of names that reflect the same method of word formation. Thus, its main difference from other methods is that the word-forming unit is not the stem, but its arbitrary fragment, which sometimes coincides with the stem in volume. In itself, such a fragment is absent in the language; its appearance is directly related to the very procedure of creating a word, which explains the absence of a unified model of word merger [Eliseeva, 2003: 39]. In the most general sense, telescoping is a way of forming a nominative modeled unit from two words, by truncation of at least one of them at the junction with possible overlapping and insertion of morphs, as well as ensuring the preservation of the accent-syllabic structure of one of the original words, which 28 is taken as a morphological sample [Sheveleva, 2003: 5]. The formation of mechanical telescopic reduction of targeted units is carried out by the original semantically words, not but motivated by them through contraction, as a result of which a new word is created from two (or more) “shards”, which, as a rule, have a new subject-logical meaning [Belyaeva , 1985: 109-111]. Words whose appearance is due to a merger are called ingot words or blends (the English term for this method is blending). You can follow the process of word merger by looking at the word smog, which is formed from fragments of two stems - smoke and fog - by superimposing them on each other [Eliseeva, 2003: 39]. The following can also be cited as examples: ice-travaganza (ice + extravaganza) – “ice show”; swasket (sweater + jasket) – “sweater with buttons”; diamonair (diamond + аir) – “fake diamond”; angrageous (angrу + rageous) – “irritated, furious”; begіnсement (begіnnіng + сommеnсement) – “beginning”; superjеt (suрсoniс + jet) – “supersonic jet aircraft”; psuor (pсусholоgісal + оrаtіоn) – “actions or operations in psychological warfare”; Аmerіnglish “American version of the English language”; аartmate (аartment + mate) – “apartment neighbor”. 7) Redistribution is the process of rethinking the morphological composition of a word, occurring in the course of history. Most often this process 29 involves the loss or addition of the initial n through the use of an article. For example - An еke name (proper name) – а nісk name (nickname). In this regard, the consonant n now refers to the adjective [Ways to expand the vocabulary of a language]. It should also be noted that in addition to unproductive ways of forming new words, today there is another way - lexicalization. It represents the transformation of the grammatical form of a word into an independent word endowed with a new lexical meaning. As a rule, lexicalization is most often applied to words - nouns that have a plural form. For example: Attention - attention, attentions - courtship Colour - color, colors - banners Custom - custom, customs - customs Damage - damage, damages - losses Development - development, developments - event Dіrесtіon - direction, dіrесt іоns – instruction Dutу – duty, dutіеs - duty Рісture - picture, рісtures - cinema Роwer - power, Рowers - powers Talk - conversation, talks - negotiations. Here it is especially important to clarify that the perception of new words as neologisms occurs as long as the concepts that are expressed 30 through it will not become habitual. After this, they are firmly included in the vocabulary and are no longer perceived as new. 31 CONCLUSIONS ON CHAPTER I Chapter I is devoted to an analytical review of the literature on the topic of the thesis, as a result of which we came to the following conclusions. The analysis showed that a neologism should be understood, first of all, as a new word, a linguistic innovation (turn of speech), a grammatical feature that manifests itself within a specific language. Initially, the use of new words can occur within a certain circle of people, then, if they are of a sufficiently expressive nature and their sound corresponds to the nature of the phonetic system of the English language, they become widespread and are included in everyday life among the broad masses and groups. Even when they are in the lexical composition of a language, neologisms continue their development and accumulate new meanings. Thus, they can become commonly used and, after some time, even be included in the main vocabulary of the language, however, at the same time, they can also, without even taking root, fall out of use in a particular language. The analysis showed that the two key concepts of our research - neologism and occasionalism - have both a number of similarities and a number of differences. The main similarity is that both concepts involve the formation of words of communication, and, “by chance”, in specific conditions, as a rule, they have a contradictory speech character relative to language norms, deviate from the usual ways 32 word formations within a specific language. The difference assumes that any word is called upon to realize its meaning in a specific context, while everyday words need a so-called reproducing context, and occasional words need a formative, creative one. In addition, as it was found out, unlike neologisms, occasionalisms are not included in dictionaries and are, first of all, of an author’s nature. As for modern methods of word formation, different researchers have different opinions on this matter. First of all, differences in views are due to the fact that different methods have different relevance in certain periods. Of particular importance is the fact that the productivity of a language model is determined, first of all, by its ability to generate open paradigms with an unlimited number of elements. In modern English it is generally accepted that the most productive ways of forming new words are: affixation, compounding, abbreviation, conversion. In addition, there are secondary methods of word formation that are unproductive. 33 CHAPTER II. ANALYSIS OF METHODS OF FORMATION OF ENGLISH NEOLOGISMS 2.1. Methods of word formation This chapter of this study analyzes the methods of formation of English neologisms in the English language. The research material was 42 English neologisms selected by random sampling from the Oxford English Dictionary and the online dictionary of American slang Urban Distionary. As a result of a comprehensive analysis of the material under study, we identified the most commonly used methods of forming neologisms: productive (affixation, compounding, conversion, abbreviation), as well as one method traditionally considered unproductive, namely telescopy. Let's look at each method in more detail. In the material under study, as expected, the most productive way of forming neologisms turned out to be affixation, which in turn is divided into suffixation and prefixation. Suffixal units are more commonly used in everyday communication and are more marked as “slang”. So, perhaps, the most frequently used slang suffix is the suffix -у/-іе (ironic meaning). The words that are formed with its use, as a rule, have a somewhat limited use and can be used exclusively within the framework of informal communication, mainly among the younger generation. TO 34 example: a big fan of a pop ensemble or a star who accompanies them everywhere; roadie member of a group of musicians, responsible for transporting and installing equipment; Wearu sentimental film; рррріе student of a private privileged school (used ironically by representatives of the middle class); tekku (techno-freak) a person obsessed with technical innovations. In addition to the above suffix, in modern English the word-formation models of nouns with suffixes stand out for their productivity: -er, -ing, -ist, -ism, -ness, -able, -ish, -ed, for example: Bottomness (bottom + ness) – characteristic the flavor of the base quark and base antiquarks, which distinguishes them from other particles. Also: a quantum number expressing the value of that flavor for a quark or a particle composed of a quark. Centredness (centred + ness) – the state or condition of being concentrated. Dudgeoned (dudgeon + ed) – offended, indignant. In later use often in "high-dudgeoned". This method is very widely used in the formation of scientific terms. For example, the suffix -on (elementary unit or particle) is used in the creation of terms such as: gluon - a new elementary particle in physics, gluing quarks, an elementary particle with zero mass. luхon 35 Analysis of neologisms The fundamental source of prefixes also revealed prefixes - units. Latin, French and Greek: acro-, bio-, xeno-, mісro-, euro-, tele-, etc. As a rule, they are used mainly in scientific and technical fields. Some prefixes are formed by isolating compound words from phrases. For example - dial-a (to denote a service that can be ordered by phone) from dialрhone, for example, dial-а-bus, dial-а-meal. The prefix – mega-, which acts as an intensifying particle, is especially popular in the English language and within American informal communication. Over the past few years, the use of this prefix has been most clearly visible in the teenage vocabulary. For example, in order to express the highest assessment of an event, phenomenon, or person, the word megadual (totallу аwesome) is used, which means something extremely good. Dual in this case is used to mean “twice as good.” The most productive prefixes include anti-, de-, re-, non-, un-, dis-, pre-, sure-, a-. Here are examples of new words formed with their help: Аgender (a + gender) – the word аgender, formed with the help of affixation, consists of two elements: а and gender. The prefix a expresses negation or the opposite action. However, the word gender means without gender. Often used as an identification for people who do not identify with or fit in with any gender. 36 Re-assommodate – the word re-assommodate formed using affixation. The prefix re- conveys the meaning of repetition, repetition of an action. Fight and furiously pull payment of passengers from the plane to make way for the airline crew on reserve. As the study of practical material has shown, another common way of forming new words in the English language is compounding. The essence of his process lies in the merging of two bases - homonymous word forms. For example, саррубак - “transfer of losses to an earlier period”, think-tank - “collective brain”. In those cases that involve combining words that have the same vowel or consonant letter at the beginning and end, one of them is omitted: net + etіquette = netіquette “unwritten generally accepted rules of communication or posting information on the Internet.” Complex units are mainly represented by words formed through particles and adverbs, which is especially characteristic, especially for adjectives and verbs. buttoned-down conservative, traditional, switched-off, disconnected, feeling nothing. The most commonly used multi-component model recently is the model with the word line, which is on the verge of complex words and phrases: strаіght-lіne responsіbіlіtу direct responsibility; dotted-lіne resроnsіbіlіtу final; responsibility, top-of-the-line divided by the best. two; This bottom-line model wears 37 is limited in nature and can be used exclusively in situations of informal interaction with representatives of the business sphere. Quite often, in this way of forming words, neologisms are endowed with a satirical connotation, especially if used in the press. For example - “... that thеу tаstе thе same іn Реkіng аs thеу dо іn London оr New Work, аnd so it wаs thаt wоld burgеrnоmісs wаs born bу McDonald^s.” Here we see that the author of the statement wants to draw the reader’s attention to the fact that the McDonald’s restaurant chain is actively developing and occupies a leading position in the fast food industry. The use of multicomponent units is more typical for the American version. For example, you need to pay great attention to the little things, meat-and-potatoes are basic, nuts-and-bolts are basic, a quick-and-dirty bar, a cafe where you can have a quick snack. Let's look at a few more examples: Chronoture (сhrоnо + ture) – formed by compounding, consists of two words: chrono-chronometer and ture-type. A person's natural tendency is to multiply from day to day when they prefer to sleep or when they are most alert or energetic. Letsреаk (leеt + sреаk) – formed by compounding, consists of two words: leet and sреаk – to speak. An informal language or code used on the Internet in which standard letters are often replaced by numbers or special characters that resemble letters by 38 appearance. Spоt-upр (sоt + upр) is a word formed by compounding and consists of two stems: spоt–place and ур–up. A jump stop taken by a player immediately after receiving the ball, without moving from his or her current position. Also: a position suitable for taking such a shot; the act of accepting such a provision. Cloud plans (cloud + plans) – plans that can collapse like “castles in the air.” In addition to affixation and compounding, our practical material recorded cases of creating new words using abbreviations. Words formed in this way reflect the general tendency towards rationalization of language and saving linguistic effort. Even though abbreviations make up only a small percentage of the total number of neologisms, their number is growing every day. Among the types of abbreviations (abbreviations, acronyms, truncations), truncated words are especially popular. For example, anchor< аnсhоrmаn обозреватель
новостей, координирующий теле- или радиопрограммы. Данное слово
употребляется исключительно в рамках английского языка (в британском
варианте ему соответствует рrеsеntеr, lіb < lіbеrаtіоn).
Отличительной чертой усечений является то, что они употребляются
только в разговорной речи. Наиболее популярно их использование в рамках
разных сленговых коммуникаций (школьный, спортивный, газетный сленг).
Так, слово uрmаnshір довольно часто можно обнаружить на страницах 40 Let's look at a few more examples of abbreviations. CENTCOM (Central Command) - the joint armed forces command an organization that oversees American military operations in the Middle East. CRISPR (short forclustered regularly interspaced short palindromic reat) is the portion of DNA that restrains short repetitions of backbone sequences involved in the defense mechanisms of prokaryotic organisms against viruses. FODMAP (acronom from fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and proluols.) is one of a group of compounds thought to contribute to the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome and similar gastrointestinal disorders. The term is used mainly in relation to a diet that is low in these compounds (which are mainly carbohydrates). VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is a system for converting analog signals to digital so that telephone calls can be made over the Internet. NSFK (Not Safe For Kids) – an acronym used to describe any type of media content/material (filled with violence, sex, nudity, and crude language) not suitable for children or teenagers. Analysis of the research material revealed cases of the formation of neologisms using conversion. This method is used quite rarely today and is inferior to all other varieties. 41 word formations. Converted nouns show an increased tendency to form from verbs with postpositions. For example, rір-оff theft (from tо rір-оff steal). Quite a large number of nouns are created by conversion from adjectives. For example, collections of obsolete or rare items; subject to collectibles, self-control, especially restraint is often used in the phrases to lose one's cool, to keer one's cool (lose control, hold back). Particular productivity is typical for the formation of nouns from adjectives that end in -is. For example, acrulic, transuranis, trisuslic. Nouns of verb phrases, for example, to also work-to-rule, can be created by the performance of workers with demands to comply with all clauses of the employment contract. In the process of forming nouns from adjectives at the semantic level, the seven “quality” are muted and the seme “object” is included, which becomes the center of the meaning of the substantivized unit: acrylic acrylic (synthetic material). Thus, as a result of conversion, the content of the concept is enriched. In terms of territorial parameters, the converted units created are limited primarily to American and to a lesser extent to British English. Аdultіng (аn Аdultіng – toо Аdultіng) – behavior in the way of a responsible person 42 adults, especially performing mundane but necessary tasks. V: Carrying out several adult responsibilities, such as paying mortgage/rent, car payments, or anything else that makes the person seen as a responsible adult. The word formation methods discussed above are productive, which means their ability to form new words. It is not surprising that in the material we studied there were words formed in all these ways, since the formation of neologisms occurs, as a rule, on the basis of the laws of the corresponding language, from the point of view of its productive models of word formation. However, in some cases, the creation of neologisms is carried out using unproductive methods of word formation. In these cases, the effective power of word-formation devices acquires a more prominent character, becomes more visual and tangible. Thus, among the words we were considering, several cases of the formation of new words using contamination, or telescoping, were recorded. First of all, the concept of “telescopy” was used in relation to the method of forming new lexical units by superimposing a morph or morphs of one original component onto the morph/morphs of another original component, since such an overlap resembles “extending the tubes of a telescope.” This concept of the phenomenon itself has expanded significantly and began to include not only the method 43 word formation of new lexical units, but also a way of connecting parts of morphs of the original components. Thus, if an abbreviation, the members of which, despite truncation, retain the order typical of the motivating unit, then telescope implies a change in the order of the components. In this case, linguistic economy has an inverse relationship with the text. Thus, the more economically the structure is expressed, the more dependent it will be on the text and the more background knowledge will be required of the reader. If we do not take into account the reader’s background knowledge, in particular, his linguistic competence, language economy can turn from a factor that facilitates the transmission of maximum information per unit of time into a factor that inhibits the rapid and adequate perception of the message. Among the telescopic names of the English language, the most productive type is the final truncation of the first component: Breхіt (Britаіn + ехіt) – Britain’s exit from the European Union, which may mark the beginning of a series of political changes on the map of Europe. Less typical is the initial truncation of the second element: freegan (free + vegan) – a person who denies the principles of consumerism and limits his participation in traditional economic life, striving to minimize consumed resources; sheeple (sheep + people) – people blindly following leaders or the crowd. There is an increasing tendency towards the formation of haplological telescopic neologisms, in which there is an overlap of phonemes at the junction of two words: 45 Jaskalore (jaсkrabbit + antelore) is a mythical animal, depicted as a hare or rabbit with horns, said to exist in parts of North America. Keyboard (keyboard + guitar) is an electronic musical instrument consisting of a keyboard onto which a neck with controls for changing the flow of notes is attached, usually having a strap and held like a guitar. Listісle (list + artісle) – part of a work or other content presented in whole or in part in the form of a list. In addition, in the practical material of the study, neologisms were found that were formed in several mixed ways, using word formation methods simultaneously. The corresponding means are combined in different ways, and thus a formant is equal to the combination of formants belonging to the unmixed modes (two or three). In the new English words, the following mixed methods of word formation were used: 1) compounding + conversion, for example: Trumрshаke (and trumрshаke – to trumрshаke) – the word trumрshаke, formed with the help of compounding, consists of two words: trumр and shаke. The word is also used formed by conversion to form verbs from nouns. N: a strong, demonstrative handshake that lasts longer than expected (which is typical of Donald Trump); V: Give a long, firm handshake. 46 2) affixation + conversion, for example: Paratext (and paratext – to paratext) – the word paratext formed with the help of affixation. N: very long text message. V: send or receive text that is so long that it takes a long time to scroll down 3) affixation + compounding, for example: abibliophobia (a- + biblio- + -phobia) – fear that there will be no reading material. So, we have looked at the main ways of forming English neologisms. Let us present some quantitative data. The share of each group in the total sample was: affixation – 33.2%; word composition – 42.8%; conversion – 3.1%; reduction – 4.6%; telescopy – 13.3%; mixed types – 3%. mixed types, 3% telescopy, 13.30% abbreviation, 4.60% conversion, 3.10% affixation affixation, 33.20% compounding conversion abbreviation telescope mixed types compounding, 42.80% Summarizing the above, we note that the vocabulary of modern 47 The English language is replenished almost entirely from internal resources; borrowings from other languages are minimally represented. Most of the new words come into use in English speech through the use of productive methods of word formation, which are understood as affixation, compounding, abbreviation and conversion. However, a previously considered unproductive method of word formation, such as telescopy, is becoming very popular. Thus, on the one hand, recently the language has used the most diverse and numerous methods of forming new vocabulary, which reflect the essence of word-formation and semantic processes occurring at a specific point in time and period. On the other hand, the semantics of a neologism is formed through linguistic-creative activity, which is associated with the transformation of a new unit from individual specific use to a broader one, involving its use by the public. 48 CONCLUSIONS ON CHAPTER II As a result of analyzing the ways of forming English neologisms in modern English, we came to the following conclusions. So, the formation of neologisms occurs, as a rule, on the basis of the laws of the corresponding language, from the point of view of its productive models of word formation. carried out in some cases by using the creation of unproductive neologisms as word formation methods. In these cases, the effective power of word-formation devices acquires a more prominent character, becomes more visual and tangible. Among the most well-known and used methods for the formation of neologisms in modern English are affixation, compounding, conversion, abbreviation, and telescoping. The most popular way of forming new words is affixation. Neologisms formed in this way accounted for 42% and 33%, respectively. In the material under study, only 3.1% of words were formed using conversion, 4.6% - by abbreviation, 3.1% - by mixed types. Such words are often used in slang or scientific and technical fields. 49 CONCLUSION Nowadays, the English language, like other world languages, is subject to constant change and transformation and is dynamic. Vocabulary, which is the most mobile layer of language, reacts especially sensitively to such changes characteristic of the social, cultural and other spheres of life of the people speaking a particular language, since it is the word that acts as a kind of “mirror of life.” In addition, the constantly growing interest of the modern linguistic scientific direction in various aspects of the procedure for the formation of new words is due, first of all, to the fact that the word is the central unit of language. In the framework of this study, by neologisms we understood words that are completely new lexical units for a specific historical period and stage of development of society. These kinds of words have not yet entered into active use, so their essence is not clear to everyone. Neologisms appear for various reasons, primarily as a result of social and scientific and technological progress, the emergence of new socio-economic realities, various discoveries in the scientific and technical spheres, and achievements in the cultural sphere. A distinctive feature of a neologism is the absolute novelty of the word for the majority of native speakers. The formed word acts as a neologism for quite a short time. Immediately after the word is active 50 comes into use and makes up the vocabulary of most people; it loses the sign of novelty and becomes part of the group of commonly used words. Thus, the concept of neologism is quite time-varying and relative in nature. A word remains a neologism as long as speakers perceive novelty in it. As a result of the analysis, we can conclude that occasionalisms are words created by writers “on occasion,” usually according to unproductive models, of a little predictable nature, fit into the framework of a certain context, and practically not used in the national language. From a semantic point of view, these words are not necessarily innovative; as a rule, their denotations are timeless. In the structure of their meaning, the emotional and emotive components are endowed with special relevance. Their specific feature lies in the fact that the term occasionalism itself is mostly used in relation to a non-usual, non-canonical, “created”, “disposable” word, that is, ultimately, an anomalous unit of the lexical level of the language. In modern English, a huge number of ways of forming new words are found, the main of which are compounding, conversion, abbreviations, reverse word formation, lexical-semantic method, alternation of sounds and transfer of stress in a word (phonological method) and others. However, not all of the listed methods are used to the same extent; their role in 51 formation of new words is radically different. The second chapter of this work contains an analysis of the most popular ways of forming English neologisms. Among the most frequently used methods of forming neologisms are the affixal method (prefixal and suffixal methods), compounding, conversion, abbreviation and telescope. The formation of neologisms occurs, as a rule, based on the laws of the corresponding language and word formation. However, word formation is carried out. and with using it, sometimes using productive ways to create a model of new unproductive words 52 LIST OF REFERENCES 1. 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Structure and semantics of telescopic derivatives from the point of view of cognitive linguistics (based on the material of modern English): abstract of thesis. dis. ...cand. Philol. Sci. – St. Petersburg, 2003. – 195 p. Absurd(lat. absurdus, “discordant, absurd”) - in a broad sense - something illogical, absurd, meaningless. Accreditation(lat. accredo, “trust”) - a procedure for officially confirming the compliance of an object with established criteria and indicators (standard). Excise tax(fr. accise) - a type of indirect (included in the price or tariff) taxes on goods, mainly for mass consumption, services of private enterprises; paid by buyers (consumers). Alternative(French alternative, from Latin alter- one of two), the need to choose one of two or more mutually exclusive possibilities; each of mutually exclusive possibilities. Ambition(from lat. ambitio) - the desire to achieve goals, ambition. Demand for external signs of respect and honor. Underground(English) unerground- underground) - in relation to Russian culture - is a form of consistent aesthetic and existential protest against the state-bureaucratic style of managing art and literature. Animator(tracing paper from English animator) - design artist; an artist who portrays any characters at various events. Upgrade(anglicism upgrade) - modernization, updating (software, hardware). Apocalypse(Greek apokalypsis- revelation) - The Revelation of John, one of the books of the New Testament, the oldest surviving Christian literary work (mid. 68 - early 69). The Church attributes to John the authorship of prophecies about the “end of the world,” the struggle between Christ and the Antichrist, the “Last Judgment,” and the “thousand-year kingdom of God.” Area(from lat. area- area, space), part of the earth's surface (or water area) within which one or another species (genus, family, etc.) of animals or plants occurs. Aura(lat. aura- “blow”, “breeze”) - astral shell. Argument(lat. argumentum - story, argument, theme) - a logical premise used separately or in combination with others to prove the truth of a certain statement - a thesis. Biker(English) biker, from bike ← motorbike ← motorbicycle “motorcycle”) - lover and admirer of motorcycles. A happy-go-lucky, dashing motorcycle (originally a bicycle) driver, usually wearing a black leather uniform. Unlike ordinary motorcyclists, bikers have a motorcycle as part of their lifestyle. Bachelor(English) bachelor's degree) - an academic degree or qualification awarded to persons who have completed the relevant educational programs of higher education. Running for office or running(from fr. ballot, ball; borrowed Italian ballotta; also fr. balloter, to elect by points, to run) is a method of election, closed or secret voting. Banal-aya, oh; -linen, linen, linen (French banal). Lost expressiveness due to frequent repetition, hackneyed, very ordinary, vulgar. A banal phrase. The play's banal denouement. A banal gesture. Barter(from French. barater- exchange) - natural exchange of goods, in which one thing is exchanged for another without monetary payment; a trade transaction carried out according to the “goods for goods” scheme. Business(English) business- business) - entrepreneurial, commercial or other activity aimed at making a profit. Businessman(English) Business Men) - one who is engaged in business; entrepreneur, businessman. Blockbuster(English) blockbuster- powerful bomb, aerial bomb (bomb), from block- quarter and bust- destroy, lit. "neighborhood destroyer") is a neologism coined in 1942, meaning a bomb for destroying cities. This term, which came into theatrical slang, came to mean a particularly successful play. In the 1970s, blockbusters in the United States began to be called films that created a sensation (the effect of a bomb exploding) and, as a result, collected a large box office. Action or action film(action film) (English) action movie- lit. action film) is a genre of cinema in which the main focus is on violence: shootouts, fights, car chases, etc. Boyfriend(from English boyfriend) is an established anglicism in a number of languages. The same as a boyfriend, lover of a woman or girl. Bowling(from English to bowl- roll) is a sports game of bowling, which originated from the game of skittles. The goal of the game is to use as few hand-launched balls as possible to knock down the pins placed in a special way at the end of the track. Beau monde(from fr. ineau- “best”, “good” and monde- “light”) - borrowed in the 19th century from French Beaumonde. For the first time, Russian dictionaries recorded the word beau monde in 1863 in the meaning of “high society” (St. Petersburg beau monde, district beau monde). In our time, the word “beau monde” has lost its social meaning and has come to be used in the sense of “the best representatives of a certain circle” - from among writers, theater and film actors, artists, etc. Bonus(lat. bonus) - additional remuneration, encouragement, bonus, bonus. Blog(English) blog(short for web+log) - online event log, online diary) - a website, analogous to a notebook or personal diary, only on the Internet. Browser(English) web browser) - application software for viewing web pages; content of web documents, computer files and their directories; web application management; as well as for solving other problems. Brand(English) brand, - brand) is a sign, product rating, trademark, which in the consumer’s mind has certain characteristic valuable properties and attributes. A brand has a high reputation among consumers and symbolizes certain qualities of a product or characteristics of the product manufacturer itself. To do this, the brand must be recognizable; As a rule, the rights to use it are protected legally. Broker(from English broker- broker, broker, intermediary) - a legal or natural person performing intermediary functions between the seller and the buyer. The broker receives compensation in the form of commissions. Briefing(English) briefing from English brief- short, brief) - a brief meeting of officials, representatives of commercial or other structures with representatives of the media, at which a position on a specific issue is stated. Boutique(from fr. boutique "small store", "shop") is a small, highly specialized store with a limited number of customers. Variety(from German. Variety- variety) - variety. Web design(from English Web design) is a branch of web development and a type of design whose tasks include designing user web interfaces for websites or web applications. Vernissage(fr. vernissage, literally - “varnish coating”) - the opening in a ceremonial atmosphere of an art exhibition, at which specially invited persons are present. Video clip, video or just clip(from English clip) is a short film or video fragment, but there are also animated clips in the production of which animation is used. There are staged, concert, and animated clips. Visagiste(from fr. Visage- “face, appearance, image, appearance”) - a specialist in the field of makeup, creating an image using the art of makeup, a specialist in facial beauty care. Visualization(from lat. visualis- “visual”) is a general name for techniques for presenting numerical information or a physical phenomenon in a form convenient for visual observation and analysis. Volunteer(from lat. voluntarius- voluntary) - a person who voluntarily engages in free socially useful activities at his own expense. Vintage(fr. vintage) is an ambiguous term. Vending(English) vending, from English vend- sell, trade) - sale of goods and services using automated systems (vending machines). Guest worker(German) Gastarbeiter; literally: guest-worker) is a term denoting a foreigner working as a temporary employee. The word was borrowed from the German language in the late 1990s and became widespread in the media in the CIS. The word “guest worker” is sometimes perceived as not neutral, but as having a negative connotation. Tour, formerly “tour” (German. Gastrolle, from Gast- guest and Rolle- role) - a performance by an artist (group) outside the place of his permanent activity - in another region, city, country. Genocide(from Greek γένος
- clan, tribe and lat. caedo- kill) - actions committed with the intention of destroying, in whole or in part, any national, ethnic, racial, religious or other historically established cultural and ethnic group as such. Google(English) to google) - jargon, derived from the name of the Google search engine, means searching for information on the Internet using Google (sometimes using any search engine). Guru(Skt. गुरू
- worthy, great, important, difficult, established in the truth, unshakable, teacher, master) - in Hinduism and Buddhism - spiritual mentor, teacher. A guru, or expert, is an expert, a person who is exceptionally competent in any field of knowledge. A guru, or professional, is a master of his craft, a virtuoso. Engraving(fr. gravure from him. graben- dig or fr. graver- cut, create relief) - a type of graphic art (and graphic technology, printing technology), the works of which are presented in their final form as printed impressions. Engraver(fr. graveur) - an artist who creates graphic works using letterpress or intaglio printing. An engraver - in a narrow, professional sense - is a skilled worker who creates a relief design on various materials (metal, plastic, wood, glass, etc.) using engraving machines and manually using special gravers, cutters, needles and other tools, as well as by etching with acids .). An engraver - in a broad sense - who carries out visual or ornamental compositions using various engraving techniques; engraver who works from his own or someone else's drawing. Grant(English) grant) - a free subsidy to enterprises, organizations and individuals in cash or in kind for scientific or other research, development work, training, treatment and other purposes with subsequent reporting on their use. Groomer(from the English groom - to look after, cherish, groom) - a specialist in caring for the hair of pets. Digest(English) digest) - 1) a magazine that reprints materials from other publications, usually in an abbreviated and simplified form. 2) A brief adapted summary of any texts (popular works of fiction, etc.). Debtor(from lat. debtor– debtor) – a debtor, a legal entity or an individual who has a debt to an organization, institution, enterprise (the concept of “creditor”). Devaluation(lat. de- reduction; lat. valeo- have meaning, cost) - a decrease in the gold content of a monetary unit under the gold standard. In modern conditions, the term is used for situations of official depreciation of the national currency in relation to hard currencies in systems with a fixed exchange rate established by the monetary authorities. Defile(French) defiler) – solemnly pass, march. Default(English) default- default) - failure to fulfill a loan agreement, that is, failure to timely pay interest or principal on debt obligations or under the terms of an agreement to issue a bond loan. Dividend(lat. dividendum- that which is subject to division) - part of the profit of a joint-stock company or other business entity, distributed among shareholders, participants in accordance with the number and type of shares, shares in their possession. Design(from English design- design, draw, conceive, as well as project, plan, drawing) - design of things, machines, interiors, based on the principles of combining convenience, economy and beauty. Designer(from English design) – artist-constructor, design specialist. DJ(English) DJ from disc jokey- disc jockey) - a person who performs public reproduction of musical works recorded on audio media with modifications. Dilemma(Greek δί-λημμα
- double lemma) - a polemical argument with two opposing provisions that exclude each other and do not allow the possibility of a third. Dealer(from English dealer- trader) is a professional participant in the securities market who carries out transactions with securities on his own behalf and at his own expense. Display(English) display- show, from lat. displicare- scatter, scatter) - an electronic information output device designed for visual display of information messages by the processing system to the end user. Dissident(lat. dissidens- “dissenter”) - a person who defends views that radically diverge from generally accepted ones. Often this conflict of personal beliefs with the prevailing doctrine leads to persecution, persecution and repression by official authorities. Distributor(English) distributor- distributor) - a company engaged in wholesale purchasing, or an individual entrepreneur engaged in small-scale or large-scale purchase of certain goods from large industrial manufacturing companies for the purpose of subsequent sale of these goods to retailers or dealers in regional markets. Deadline(from English deadline) - deadline (date and/or time) by which the task must be completed. Deposit(from Latin depositum - thing deposited) - 1. financial instruments placed for storage in credit institutions and subject to return to the person who deposited them on pre-agreed conditions. Deportation(lat. deportatio- expulsion, deportation) - the forced expulsion of a person or an entire category of persons to another state or another locality, usually under escort. Depression(from lat. depression- “suppression”) - 1) In medicine - a mental disorder. 2) In the economy - a long-term economic crisis, more serious than an economic recession. Deflation(from lat. deflatio- deflation) - a general decrease in the price level; a process opposite to inflation. Dress code(English) dress code- code of clothing) - a form of clothing required when visiting certain events, organizations, institutions. Image(English) image, from lat. imago- image, appearance) – 1) the image of a business person, the image of him that others have, reputation; 2) the image of a company, product, service, ensuring the company’s position in the market, the buyer’s loyalty to the brand name. Immobilizer(Immobilizer) (English immobiliser - “immobilizer”) - a type of electronic anti-theft device. Impeachment(English) impeachment- accusation, from lat. impedivi- “prevented, stopped”) - a procedure for judicial prosecution, including criminal, of municipal or state officials, officials, up to the head of state, with their subsequent removal from office. Impresario(Italian impresario- from impredere- to undertake, to undertake) - in some countries a private entrepreneur, an organizer of entertainment enterprises or an agent of an artist, acting on his behalf, concluding contracts for him, etc. Inauguration- (from lat. inauguro- “I dedicate”) - the ceremonial inauguration of the head of state. Investment(English) Investments) - placement of capital in order to make a profit. Investor(from English investor- investor) - a person or organization that invests funds in a business. Indexing(from lat. index- list, register, index) in economics - this is a means of protecting against inflation by linking the amount of the contract, loan, salary, pension, benefits, deposits, etc. to the consumer price index. Innovation(late lat. inovatio, English innovation- innovation) - the introduction of something new; newly introduced thing; modernization; reform. Insinuation(from lat. insinuatio- insinuation, ingratiation) - deliberate, deliberate, veiled communication of false reprehensible information in order to discredit someone or something. Integration(from lat. integration- “connection”) - 1) the process of combining parts into a whole. 2) the unification of political, economic, state and public structures within the region, country, and world. Internet(English) Internet) - a worldwide system of interconnected computer networks for storing and transmitting information. Often referred to as the World Wide Web and the Global Network, as well as simply the Network. Inflation(lat. inflatio- inflation) - an increase in the general level of prices for goods and services. Incident(lat. incidentis- “happening”) - an incident, a misunderstanding, an incident (usually unpleasant), a collision. Establishment(from English establishment- “establishment”, “foundation”) - those in power, ruling circles, political elite. A set of people who occupy key positions in the socio-political system, who are the support of the existing social order and shape public opinion, as well as the set of institutions with the help of which these people support the existing social order. Mortgage(Greek hypotetheca- stand) - one of the forms of pledge, in which the pledged real estate remains in the possession and use of the debtor, and the creditor, in the event of the latter’s failure to fulfill his obligation, acquires the right to receive satisfaction through the sale of this property. Casting(from English Casting) - selection among applicants of the person who best suits the creative concept. Practiced in show business, to select models or pop performers. Catharsis(from ancient Greek. κάθαρσις
- elevation, purification, healing) - 1) mental relaxation experienced by the viewer in the process of empathy when watching a tragedy (in Aristotle’s terminology). 2) Moral purification experienced by a person in the process of empathy. Camping(from English camping“accommodation in a camp”) - an equipped summer camp for autotourists with places for setting up tents or light houses, parking places (in a common parking lot or directly next to the accommodation). Kidnapping- (English) kidnapping) - abduction of children (sometimes of people in general). Cleaner- (from the English cleaner - cleaner, cleaner) - a specialist who knows modern cleaning equipment (including technical ones). Cleaning(from English Clean- cleanliness, pure) - a specialized service for professional cleaning of premises and maintaining cleanliness. Video maker(English clip - cut + maker< make - делать) -мастер по производству клипов; кинопродюсер, специализирующийся на видеоклипах. Collage(from fr. coller- gluing) is a technical technique in the fine arts that consists in creating paintings or graphic works by gluing objects and materials that differ from the base in color and texture onto any base. Communication skills(from Late Lat. communicabilis- connectable, communicating) - the ability to communicate, to establish connections, contacts, sociability; compatibility (ability to work together) of different types of information transmission systems. Conversion(from lat. conversio- “circulation”, “transformation”, “change”) - 1) in chemical technology, the process of processing gases in order to change the composition of the original gas mixture; 2) in Internet marketing, this is the ratio of the number of site visitors who performed any targeted actions on it (purchase, registration, subscription, visiting a certain page of the site, clicking on an advertising link) to the total number of site visitors, expressed as a percentage; 3) in linguistics, a method of word formation, the formation of a new word by moving the stem to another paradigm of inflection; 4) in psychology, a protective mechanism of the psyche, manifested in the tendency to experience somatic distress in response to psychological stress; 5) in microbiology, lysogenic or phage conversion - a change in the properties of a bacterial cell due to the incorporation of part of the genome of a temperate bacteriophage (prophage); 5) transition of defense enterprises from military production to civilian production. Consensus(lat. consensus- agreement, sympathy, unanimity) - general agreement (≈ unanimity) on basic issues in the absence of objections on significant issues, which is reached by participants in a conference, meeting, negotiations, etc. Conservatism(from lat. conservo- preserve) - ideological commitment to traditional values and orders, social or religious doctrines. The main value is the preservation of the traditions of society, its institutions and values. Contract- (from lat. contractus, English contract) – a contract, an agreement with mutual obligations of the parties. Contribution(lat. contributio) - general tax, public collection of funds. 1) In international law (before the 18th century), sums of money, monetary or material compensation that the defeated state, under the terms of a peace treaty, pays to the victorious state. Modern international law does not provide for this. In modern international law, the following terms are used: reparation, restitution, substitution and other forms of material responsibility of states. Conjuncture(lat. conjunctura, from lat. conjungo- connect, connect) - a set of conditions affecting something, environment, situation. Competence(from lat. competere- correspond, fit) - a range of issues in which someone is well informed. Creditor(from lat. creditor- believer, from lat. credo- I believe) - the lender. A party in a credit relationship that provides funds (credit resources) on the terms of repayment, urgency and payment. Cruise- (English) cruise) - in its original meaning - sea voyage. Currently, the concept has expanded, travel companies began to offer sea cruises, river cruises and train cruises. Coupon(French coupon) - a cut-off coupon for securities to receive income, interest from them. Couturier(fr. couturier- dressmaker, from couture- sewing, stitching) is an artist-fashion designer who works in the high fashion industry in his own atelier or under contract with leading fashion salons and exclusive boutiques and creates highly artistic clothing models, as well as accessories for them. Copywriting(English) copywriting from copy- manuscript, text material + write- write) - professional activity in writing advertising and presentation texts. In RuNet, copywriting is understood as creating texts for SEO needs or writing non-advertising articles. Coaching(English) coaching) - a method of consulting and training, during which a person called a “coach” helps the student achieve a certain life or professional goal. Like, like, like(from English like- like) - used on all social projects, something like a like rating. There is also dislike, that is, negative. In Russian speaking, like or dislike. Legitimacy(from lat. legitimus- agrees with the laws, legal, legitimate) - the consent of the people with the authorities when they voluntarily recognize their right to make binding decisions. Label(from English label) – label. Graphic/text sign/sticker on any manufactured product, indicating the brand, name, manufacturer, production date, expiration date, etc. Leasing(English) leasing from English to lease- rent out) - long-term rental of machinery and equipment, vehicles, industrial facilities, etc. Lifting(English) Lifting) is a cosmetic procedure for skin tightening. The lifting effect can be achieved both through certain cosmetic procedures and through plastic surgery. Lobbying(English) lobbyism, from English lobby- on the sidelines) - a type of activity consisting in the influence of individuals and representatives of non-governmental organizations on government bodies or local governments in order to achieve their adoption (or non-acceptance) of certain decisions. Login(English) Login) - the name (identifier) of a user account in a computer system, as well as the procedure for logging in (identifying and then authenticating) the user into a computer system, usually by specifying the account name and password. Marginal, marginal person, marginal element(from lat. margo- edge) - a person located on the border of different social groups, systems, cultures and experiencing the influence of their contradictory norms, values, etc. Marker(from French. marker- mark) - 1) writing instrument - alcohol-based felt-tip pen, not washed off with water. 2) a paintball weapon that shoots paint balls. 3) List marker - a typographical sign used to highlight list items. Market(English) market- market) – market. Marketing(from English marketing- literally translated from English means “action on the market”, “market activity”) - a system of organizing economic activity based on the study of market demand, opportunities for selling products, and selling services. Makeup(fr. maquillage- make-up, repainting, fake) - application of various types of decorative cosmetics to the skin of the face for the purpose of decoration, as well as camouflage of existing flaws. Manager(from English) manage- manage, management- management, leadership; with him. manager- organizer, from French. manager- manager) - a manager or manager responsible for a certain area of the enterprise’s activities (HR manager, investment manager, public relations manager, financial manager, risk manager, brand manager, account manager, sales manager, etc. .), project manager (project manager, cultural manager) or an entire company (top manager). Management(from the English management - management, leadership, administration, direction, ability to manage, own, manage) - production management. Development and creation (organization), maximum effective use (management) and control of socio-economic systems. Mentality(from lat. mens or (gender case) mentis- soul, spirit (in a narrower sense - mind) and adjective suffix 'al') - a set of mental, emotional, cultural characteristics, value orientations and attitudes inherent in a social or ethnic group, nation, people, nationality. Millennium(from Lat. mille - thousand) - millennium. A unit of time equal to 1000 years. Modification- (late lat. modification- establishing a measure, from lat. modus- measure, type, image, transitory property and lat. facio- do) - transformation, modification of something with the acquisition of new properties. Motivation(from lat. movere) - motivation to action; a psychophysiological process that controls human behavior, setting its direction, organization, activity and stability; a person's ability to actively satisfy their needs. Make up(English) makeup) – makeup. Merchandiser(English) merchandiser- merchant) - a person representing a trading company in retail chains (most often super- and hypermarkets). Responsible for displaying goods, installing related necessary equipment (refrigerators, additional display cases, promotion trays), and placing POS materials. The main task is to control the availability of the company’s entire assortment on store shelves and its location in the most favorable places for purchase. Multimedia(English) multimedia) - content, or content in which information is simultaneously presented in various forms - sound, animated computer graphics, video. Multiplex(from English multiplex) - 1) a set of television and radio broadcasting channels transmitted over one digital channel. 2) United stream, consisting of streams of the same level. 3) A type of multiplex cinemas. 4) Architectural ensemble. 5) A building consisting of apartments on two or more levels (floors). Message(from English message– message, report) – message, message. Newsmaker– a person whose activities involve publicity and arouse sustained interest in the media Denomination– indicated cost. Laptop– wireless compact personal computer. Know-how- the latest invention. Overtime– extra time when playing football or hockey. Online– Internet connection status in real time. Offline– in a state disconnected from the computer network. Paparazzi- an annoying journalist-photographer who seeks to penetrate the private lives of celebrities in order to take sensational photographs. PR– public relations. Peeling– cleansing the facial skin. Playoffs– replay after a draw. Positive– positive. Controversy- dispute. Policy– insurance document. Medley- a musical piece composed of excerpts of popular motifs. Portfolio– dossier, collection of achievements. Poster- a small poster. Prime time- the best time. Privatization– transfer of state or municipal property into the ownership of individuals or groups. Printer is a device for printing digital information onto a solid medium, usually paper. Extend- to extend the validity of something. Promoter- a person who promotes something. Profiteroles– small culinary products of French cuisine made from choux pastry with various fillings. Pattern– model, role model, template, style, pattern, pattern) in the modern methodology of socio-humanitarian knowledge, a term close to the concept of “concept”. Registry- inventory, written list. Recruiting(from English recruiting- hiring, selection of personnel) is a business process that is one of the main responsibilities of HR managers or recruiters. The Russian version can be considered personnel selection. Remake- rework. Profitable(from German. rentabel- profitable) - justifying expenses, generating profit, i.e. profitable. Referee– in some sports: the same as a judge. Reflection– reflection on one’s internal state, introspection. Realtor- real estate agent. Roaming– communication service with near and far abroad. Reception– a word with the basic meaning of “reception”, “reception”. Website– a system of electronic documents of a private person or organization on a computer network under a common address. Sale(from English sale- sale) - sale. Certificate– a document certifying rights to something (a document certifying the quality of a product). Sinkwine- “semantic pyramid”. Scrub– cream for exfoliating, cleansing the skin of the face and body. Screenshot– a screenshot of a computer or mobile device. Smile– a graphic image of a smiling human face. Smiley- cm. smiley. Spam– sending commercial and other advertising or other types of messages on the Internet to persons who have not expressed a desire to receive them. Startup company is a newly created company that is building its business on the basis of innovation, has not entered the market or has barely begun to enter it, and has a limited set of resources. Supervisor– 1) observer, inspector; 2) manager, leader. Terminal(English) terminal- “final”) - the final part of a certain system, which ensures the connection of the system with the external environment. In transport networks, a terminal is a point for boarding/disembarking passengers, loading/unloading goods, as well as their buffer accumulation. Tender(from English tender- proposal) - a competitive form of selection of proposals for the provision of services or performance of work according to pre-announced conditions within a specified time frame on the principles of competition and efficiency. Teenager– a teenager, boy or girl from 13 to 18 years old. Tolerant– showing tolerance towards others, conflict-free. Toaster– an electrical appliance for making toast (toasted or dried slices of bread). Total– universal. Training– system, training regimen. Trend– this is a direction, a trend, a tendency. Weekend– rest time from Saturday to Monday. Fast food- fast food. Forward– in football, hockey and some other team games: attacking player. Fake- fake, counterfeit. Freak is a club dancer who works in bright and large costumes. In modern society, this term is used to refer to people who dress in completely different costumes that are incomprehensible to traditional society. The behavior of freaks does not correspond to social norms. Franchisee- a company that buys the right to conduct business (franchise) under a name or trademark, training opportunities and assistance in creating a business from the franchisor and pays a service fee (royalty) for the use of the trademark, know-how and operating system of the franchisor. Hacker(English) hacker, from to hack- chop, shred) - “computer hacker”, a programmer who deliberately bypasses computer security systems. Holding– one of the types of business structures. Chat(m.r.) – direct conversation via the Internet. Hit- a fashionable, popular song, melody (usually pop). Shop- store. Shopping– shopping (on weekends). Show– a bright variety show and entertainment program. Show Business– a business related to the organization of pop performances, concerts, and entertainment programs. Showman– an artist leading a variety show; generally the one who hosts the entertainment program. Exclusive– exceptional. User– a user of a computer system. Yasha, Yashka– Yandex is a computer search system. The dictionary presents neologisms that have recently emerged in the Russian language, resulting from word-formation derivation, borrowing from other languages, contamination of two words or phrases, as well as mixing Cyrillic and Latin graphic designations. The meaning of the most actively used reasons for their implementation for the purpose of motivation is explained. Also in the dictionary, neologisms are classified according to areas of use and sources of borrowing. Offshore(from English offshore- located far from the coast, outside the country) - a financial center that attracts foreign capital by providing special tax and other benefits to foreign companies registered in the country where the center is located, offshore funds. Dumping(from English dumping- reset) - the sale of goods in foreign markets at prices lower than in the domestic or world market in order to displace competitors. Development company(from English development- development, construction, development) - an organization whose activities are related to the construction of real estate or its acquisition (purchase) with subsequent modernization, reconstruction in order to generate income from its operation or sale. Currently, two versions of the term are used: real estate development, similar to the English one, and a short version, development, which has the same meaning. Futures(from English futures- goods purchased for future use) a type of transaction on a stock or commodity exchange conducted for goods that have not yet been manufactured. Leasing(from English leasing (to lease- lease)) - a type of long-term lease or lending of machinery, equipment, goods. Freight(from German. fracht- carriage of goods) - freight charge for the carriage of goods. Hinterland(from German. hinterland- inland region of the country) - an area adjacent to an industrial, commercial center or port. Auction(from German. auction) - public sale. Truck(from German. fuhre- a long cart for heavy luggage) - a heavy-duty vehicle or trailer for long-distance and international transport. Devaluation(from German. devaluation- depreciation, revaluation towards decreasing the importance of something) - a method of stabilizing a currency after monetary inflation. Option(from English and German. option, from lat. optio- choice, desire, discretion) or an option contract is an agreement, an exchange privilege to receive goods within a specified period. Falsification(from German. falsification- fake) - counterfeit product. Carte blanche(from fr. carte blanche letters white/blank card, blank form) - unlimited powers granted by the principal to the authorized person when carrying out a business transaction on behalf of the principal. Anschluss(from German. anschluss- annexation) - a policy of forced annexation (for example, Austria by Germany). Brander(from German. brander) - a kamikaze ship filled with explosives and flammable substances. Municipality(from German. municipality- municipalities) - local government body. Nouveau riche(from fr. nouveau riche- the new rich man) - a person from a low class who quickly became rich during a period of social change by ruining others. gadget(from English gadget- device, device) - 1) a non-independent attached technical device (for example, a Bluetooth adapter, a USB modem, headphones with FM radio). 2) a technical device, most often a new product from the field of digital technology, with increased functionality but limited capabilities. Website(from English website: web- web, network and site- place, segment, part in a network) - a set of electronic documents (files) of a private person or organization in a computer network, united under one address (domain name or IP address). File(from English file) - a named area on a storage medium. Software(from English soft- soft, gentle, smooth, software- software) - software package. Fake(from English fake- fake) - the second or more account of one person registered on the resource. Flash drive(from English flash- flash quickly; dawn, come to mind) - a type of external storage medium for a computer. Redirect(from English redirect- redirection, redirection, redirection) is when a user, having entered a link to one site, is automatically redirected to another resource. Scanner(from English scanner) - a device that converts images into digital format - a digital copy of an image of an object. The process of obtaining a copy is called scanning. Printer(from English printer- printer) - a device for printing digital information onto a solid medium, usually paper. Mail, email(from English mail- mail, postal correspondence) - mail, e-mail. Repost(from English re- again, once again; post- report, announce something) - repeated publication of a message within one resource. There is also a doublet repost. IP address(IP address, abbreviation for English. Internet Protocol Address) - a unique network address of a node in a computer network built using the IP protocol. Roaming(from English roaming- distribution, possibility of wide use) - communication service with near and far abroad. Ringtone(from English ringtone, ring- call, sound, tone- musical accent) - a melody played on a cell phone to notify of an incoming call. Primetime(from English primetime- the most convenient, best time) - 1) the most active time of TV viewing/listening during the day. Typically, advertising at this time costs much more than at other times. 2) Mobile communication service related to the provision of services at a favorable price depending on time. Roaster(from English roast- fry) - a roaster, a compact electric oven for cooking fish, meat or vegetables, as well as hot sandwiches or toast, baking pies. Toast(from English toast) - a toasted or dried thin slice of bread. From here toaster(from English toaster) is an electrically powered device designed for quickly toasting flat pieces of bread. Shaker(from English shake- shake, shake) - a vessel for preparing cocktails in which all the components of the cocktail are well shaken and mixed. Nofrost(from English nofrost- without freezing) - a type of refrigeration equipment that does not require mechanical defrosting. Grill(from French. griller- fry) - a device for frying or baking with heat. Buffet(from French. fourche- fork) - a shared meal when invitees eat standing, freely choosing food and drinks. Travel bag(from French. necessaire, lit. necessary) - a set of toilet items. Box, casket, case with small accessories for the toilet, sewing, etc. Case(from fr. coffre- chest, box; lat. cophinus- basket, travel bag; Greek κόφινος
- basket) - a chest, suitcase or travel bag with several compartments. Lifting(from English lifting- lifting, tightening) is a cosmetic procedure associated with skin tightening. Peeling(from English peeling- peeling, peeling, cleansing, cleansing) - skin cleansing. Scrub(from English scrub- rub, scrape, clean, scratch) - cream for exfoliating, cleansing the skin of the face and body. Scraper(from German. schaber- scraper) - a hand-held cutting tool for manicure with a rounded blade. Full house(from German. anschlag- public announcement) - an announcement at the box office of a theater, circus, cinema, etc. that all tickets have been sold; large newspaper headline, header. Web writer(from English web- cobweb, writer- writer, author) - a writer who creates his works on the worldwide computer network. Grant(from French. GrandPrix- encouragement) - the main prize at the largest international competitions in the field of science, culture and sports; Grant(from the English grant - gift, donation) - 1) targeted funds in monetary or material form, issued on a competitive basis for conducting scientific research; 2) scholarship paid to students and graduate students from the state or local budget. Digest(from English digest- summary, summary) - 1) publication containing a brief adapted summary of a work of art; 2) a type of magazine that reprints materials from other publications in an abbreviated form. Karaoke(from Japanese karaoke- empty barrel) - an electronic music entertainment installation with a ticker tape, allowing each of those present to sing into a microphone to musical accompaniment. Casting(from English casting) - 1) competitive screening, selection of actors; 2) public viewing of girls (mainly during beauty contests), models, fashion models for subsequent demonstration of fashionable clothing samples. Clip(from English clip- newspaper clipping, film fragment; to clip- cut off, cut off) - a short-term artistically composed sequence of frames. Couturier(from fr. сouturier- tailor) - fashion designer, high-class cutter, creator of fashion in clothing. Presentation(English) presentation from lat. praesentatio- presentation) - a grand public opening, presentation of a new film, book, company, car brand, etc. Producer(from English-Amer. producer) - a financial manager who exercises organizational, ideological and artistic control over the creation of a video clip, the production of a film or a play. Promoter(from English promoter) - organizer of any events (sports competitions, shows, filming) by attracting investors and sponsors; founder, founder. Pro(from German. Profi- professional athlete) - an experienced specialist, professional in the field of music, sports, etc. Rave(from English rave- nonsense) - modern dance music in the style "techno" using lighting effects. Remake(from English remake- remake) - a new version of an old musical recording; a new version of a long-running production of an old film. Remix(from English re- again, again, mix- mix) - a new performance or arrangement (with additions and changes to the melody and text) of a well-known song. Reality show(from English realityshow, from reality- reality, reality and show- show) is a genre of television show that shows the real life of a team of participants who are in the frame of a video camera around the clock. Rap(from the English rap - light knock, blow) - a popular style of pop-dance music among some young people, accompanied by recitation or chanting of rhythmic verses in combination with a drummer or synthesizer. Session And Session(from English session) - an unofficial concert, a musical party for a narrow circle of people; party. Single(from English single - single) - a gramophone record or cassette with recordings of songs by one author or performer; song recorded separately. Showroom(from English showroom- showroom) - a showroom where samples from the collection of one or more brands are presented. Hit(from German. schlager- hit; hit) is a very popular work. Bowling(from English bowling< to bowl
- play bowls) - a sports type of skittles. Diving(from English diving< dive
- dive) - scuba diving. Ketch(from English catch) - professional wrestling that allows forbidden techniques. Skateboard(from English skate- skating, sliding and board- board) - roller skating. Snowboard(from English snow- snow and board- board) - riding a board in the snow. Snowblade(from English snowblade- trick skis) - skiing on snow on small-sized trick skis. Shaping(from English shaping- shaping) is a type of gymnastics, a special set of exercises, a physical culture and health system, the purpose of which is to increase tone, correct the figure and improve the functional state of the woman’s body. Short track(short track, short track player, short track rider) (from English. short track- short track) - speed skating on a short track. Halfpipe(halfpipe) (from English. nalfpipe- half pipe) - a special concave structure in which competitions in a number of sports are held, with two oncoming slopes and space between them, allowing athletes to move from one wall to another, making jumps and performing tricks with each movement. The discipline itself in these sports is also called a halfpipe. Mountainboarding(from English mountain- mountain, board- board) is a type of skateboarding. The board has larger wheels and can be ridden on natural terrain. Slopestyle(from English slopestyle, slope- slope (mountain for skiing), style- style) - a type of competition in winter sports such as freestyle, snowboarding, mountainboarding, consisting of performing a series of acrobatic jumps on springboards, pyramids, counter slopes, drops, railings, etc., located sequentially along the entire length of the route. Mogul(according to one version, it comes from the word mugl- in the Viennese dialect of German, meaning a small hill) is a type of freestyle skiing consisting of downhill skiing on a lumpy slope (on hummocks, or moguls) and performing jumps on springboards. Skiathlon(from English skiathlon(ski racing) > slip along- rush) is a technically difficult ski discipline. The athletes run the first part of the route in a classic manner, and on the second they switch to freestyle. Time trouble(from German. zeit(zeit) - time and not(not) - need) - lack of time to think about moves in a chess or checkers game. A word that has become more common in neutral speech to mean “a very strongly felt lack of time.” PR(from English abbr. PR (public relations)- public relations) - the practice of creating and introducing into people's consciousness an attractive image of someone or something. Also PR...the first part of complex words (cf.: PR campaign, PR technology, etc.). Media(from lat. medium- intermediate, intermediary, intermediary) - a means of communication between different groups, individuals and (or) delivery of any meaningful products to the audience. Hence the neologisms media planning(from English media planning) - the strategic process of developing advertising activity for a brand, product or service; media strategy and etc. Trend(from English trend- tendency, bias) - the prevailing tendency, the general direction of development of something (public opinion, fashion, etc.). B
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Neologisms of the 21st century
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Neologisms in the field of economics, trade and production
Neologisms in the field of politics and government
Neologisms in the field of computer technology
Neologisms in the field of communications
Neologisms in the field of gastronomy and everyday life
Neologisms in the beauty industry, cosmetology
Neologisms in the field of culture, art, theater, cinema, entertainment industry
Neologisms in the sports field
Neologisms in the field of advertising, journalism, fashion
