A concise presentation is the type of work that students will encounter when taking the OGE in the Russian language, so it is necessary to prepare for it in advance. It is good if students gradually master this type of presentation throughout their studies in grades 5-9. If not, then students should be familiarized with the basic rules for writing such types of work, shown techniques for compressing text, and practice the entire process of writing a condensed presentation.

This type of work allows you to test the depth of understanding of the text, the ability to highlight main and secondary information, and build a coherent statement based on an abbreviated text.

Basic requirements for a concise presentation:

• Information in the source text must be reduced and summarized;
• It is necessary to reflect the main thoughts of the author; distortion of the author's judgments is not allowed;
• The sequence of presentation of the content must be maintained;
• It is necessary to convey the micro-themes of the source text, there are three of them; omission of a micro-topic or violation of paragraph division leads to a decrease in grade.

Briefly summarizing a listened text is much more difficult than a read text, so when preparing to write a concise summary, it makes sense to practice shortening the read text, that is, the one that you perceived visually. The next stage will be to shorten the text perceived by ear; here you can use audio recordings of the texts.

Types of text compression

When working with text that is perceived visually, you can practice shortening the text in various ways. There are several methods of compression (that is, compression) of text:

Exception.

In this case, we remove unimportant details and secondary information from the proposal. We exclude repetitions, synonyms, introductory and inserted constructions, clarifications and explanations. For example: Last night, at sunset, I was sitting at the bus stop, waiting for the regular bus on which the guests were supposed to arrive. – Last night I was waiting at the bus stop to meet the guests.

You can replace homogeneous members of a sentence with a generalizing word, direct speech with an indirect one, a complex sentence with a simple one, a sentence or part of it with a demonstrative pronoun, etc. For example: Maria said: “Forgive me, I didn’t want to offend you. Come to the table.” – Maria apologized and invited the guests to the table.

The combination of two simple sentences or a complex and a simple one, often accompanied by replacement or exclusion. For example: We went fishing together. There, having cast our fishing rods, we talked for a long time about everything: about school, about the new editorial staff of the newspaper, about the latest books we read. “We went fishing together and talked for a long time about everything.

Basic principles of text compression:

• The result of the reduction should be a coherent, logical text, and not its outline or detailed retelling.

All micro-topics and the main idea of ​​the original text must be preserved in the new text.

When reading the text for the first time, try to focus on the perception of the text, identifying the main theme, micro-themes, ideas (main thought) of the text. You can limit yourself to just listening, but you can also start taking notes, then you need to pay attention to the first sentences of each of the three paragraphs (there is a noticeable pause between them when reading) and write them down briefly. The first sentence is the beginning of the paragraph; often it is the meaning of the micro-topic. Entries should be made, leaving space between the lines so that you can later enter the necessary information there.

Between the first and second reading, 5-7 minutes are allotted to comprehend the text. At this time, you need to briefly record the sequence of events and restore the author’s line of reasoning. You can draw up a plan in which to identify micro-topics.

During the second listening, check the correctness of the paragraphs, supplement and correct the recorded materials. Pay special attention to dates, proper names, quotes that are important for conveying the main idea of ​​the text. Record the sequence: in the narrative - the beginning of the event, its course, climax, end; in the description - the object and its essential features; in reasoning – thesis, evidence, conclusion.

Select compression methods for each part of the text and then, using these methods, shorten the text, preserving the main information and all micro-topics. After recording a concise presentation, check whether the connection between the parts and the author’s intent were preserved. Re-read the text and count the number of words. If there are less than 70, think about which part can be expanded.

After checking the content, carefully check your literacy (presence of grammatical, speech, spelling, punctuation errors), rewrite the condensed presentation into a clean copy.

Text compression example

Let us consider, as a text for a condensed presentation, a fragment of D. S. Likhachev’s article “Goal and Self-Esteem.”

Original text:

When a person consciously or intuitively chooses some goal or life task for himself in life, he at the same time involuntarily gives himself an assessment. By what a person lives for, one can judge his self-esteem - low or high. If a person sets himself the task of acquiring all the basic goods of life, he evaluates himself at the level of these material goods: as the owner of the latest brand of car, as the owner of a luxurious dacha, as part of his furniture set... If a person lives to bring good to people, to make them easier suffering from illness, giving people joy, then he evaluates himself at the level of his humanity. He sets himself a goal worthy of a person.

Only a super-personal goal allows a person to live his life with dignity and get real joy. Yes, joy! Think: if a person sets himself the task of increasing goodness in life, bringing happiness to people, what failures can befall him! Did you help the wrong person? But how many people don’t need help? If you are a doctor, then perhaps you misdiagnosed the patient? This happens even with the best doctors. But in total, you still helped more than you didn’t help. No one is immune from mistakes. But the most important mistake, the fatal mistake, is choosing the wrong main task in life. Didn't get promoted - disappointing. Someone has better furniture or a better car – that’s also a disappointment, and what a disappointment!

When setting the goal of a career or acquisition, a person experiences much more sorrows than joys, and risks losing everything. What can a person who rejoices in every good deed lose? It is only important that the good that a person does is his inner need, comes from the heart, and not just from the head, and is not a “principle” devoid of a sense of kindness. Therefore, the main task in life must necessarily be a superpersonal task, and not a selfish one. It should be dictated by kindness towards people, love for family, for your city, for your people, for your country, for its great past, for all humanity.

Using compression techniques

The fragment consists of three paragraphs-microthemes, which can be titled as follows:

• Life goal is a person’s self-esteem.
• A super-personal goal allows a person to live life with dignity.
• The main task in life should be superpersonal, dictated by kindness and love.

1st paragraph: Using elimination and substitution, we get:

2nd paragraph: As a result of compression by elimination method we get:

3rd paragraph: This paragraph contains the most important information, so we leave most of it, at the beginning of the paragraph we use a merger, we shorten the last sentence by replacing and deleting:

Brief summary:

When a person chooses a goal in life, he at the same time gives himself an assessment. If a person sets himself the task of acquiring all the basic goods of life, he evaluates himself at their level. If a person lives to bring good to people, then he evaluates himself at the level of his humanity. This is a goal worthy of man.

Only a super-personal goal allows a person to live his life with dignity. If a person sets himself the task of increasing goodness in life, what failures can befall him? No one is immune from mistakes. But the most important mistake is choosing the wrong main task in life.

When setting the goal of a career or acquisition, a person experiences more sorrows than joys, unlike a person who rejoiced in every good deed. It is only important that the good that a person does comes from the heart. Therefore, the main task in life should be a superpersonal task, and not a selfish one. It should be dictated by kindness and love.

Evaluating the result

Compression techniques are also assessed in relation to micro-themes: if one or more compression techniques were used in all micro-themes, then this gives a maximum of 3 points, respectively, in two micro-themes - 2 points, in one micro-theme - 1 point. If compression techniques were not used at all – 0 points.

The third criterion is the assessment of the semantic integrity, coherence and consistency of the resulting text. This takes into account the correct division of the text into paragraphs and the absence of logical errors. The maximum number of points is 2. One logical error or one violation of paragraph division allows you to get one point, if there are more violations - 0 points.

Thus, for the content of a concise presentation, the maximum number of points is 7.

Literacy is assessed according to criteria indicating the acceptable number of spelling, punctuation, grammatical, and speech errors. In addition, the actual accuracy of the statement is assessed. If the work contains no more than two spelling, two punctuation, two speech, one grammatical and there are no errors in the understanding and use of terms, and there are no factual errors, then according to these criteria the student receives a maximum of 10 points.

In general, in total, a student can receive a maximum of 17 points for writing an essay.

Basic requirements for presentation. Types of presentations.

Understanding and remembering text based on

recreating imagination

Presentation - one of the traditional types of written work in school - has been experiencing a real boom in recent years. It has become the most common form of final examination. Suffice it to say that in all three versions of the final assessment in the 9th grade, the presentation is the first part of the examination paper.

Most often, ninth-graders complain about their memory and inability to write quickly. Here is a typical answer: “The text is very large, but it is read only twice, I don’t have time to write anything down.” And only in one of the 120 works was there a completely “adult” approach to the matter: “To write an exposition, you need to understand the text, remember it and be able to highlight microthemes. This is the main difficulty."

The ability to write a summary, according to ninth-graders, can be useful “when passing the Unified State Exam”, “when taking notes at lectures at the institute”, “for journalists or reporters, if you need to quickly record what a “star” is saying, and the recorder breaks down”, “in the police when you need to write a protocol." Many people generally deny the need for such a skill. However, there are also quite mature judgments: presentation is a memory training, and every person needs a good memory.

The established practice of writing an exposition - a deliberately slow reading of the source text, often more reminiscent of a dictation, and permission to take notes during the second hearing - led to the fact that the main task for our students was the desire to write down as quickly and as much as possible. If students were deprived of this opportunity, less than 30% would cope with the presentation. Here is one of the typical answers: “I’m unlikely to write it, I’ve never tried this.” In fact, literal recording of a text is no better than ordinary cramming. Memorizing without understanding, which is typical for children of preschool and primary school age, practically returns ninth-graders to childhood.

First of all, the text you listen to needs to be understood, and only a few graduates have this skill. According to the results of a survey of 200 schools in 76 regions of the country, in which about 170 thousand schoolchildren in the first and tenth grades participated, more than 50% of tenth graders found it difficult to extract meaning from an elementary text, only 30% expressed their opinion in connection with what they read, 90% of high school students there is no full understanding of the meaning of the literary text.

Unfortunately, the teacher himself often underestimates the role of understanding when teaching presentation. Meanwhile, properly organized work in preparation for presentation is, first of all, work on understanding and memorizing the text. If a student misses some essential thoughts of the source text, distorts the main idea, or does not feel the author’s attitude, this means that the text is not understood or is not fully understood.

EXAMPLE 1. Original text “A discovery that was two hundred years late»

About a hundred years ago, in a city in Russia there lived a mathematician. All his life he patiently struggled to solve a complex mathematical problem. Neither strangers nor acquaintances could understand what the eccentric was tormenting over.

Some felt sorry for him, others laughed at him. He didn't pay attention to anyone or anything around him. He lived like Robinson on a desert island. Only his island was surrounded not by a sea of ​​water, but by a sea of ​​misunderstanding.

He rediscovered all the mathematical rules, except the most important ones, which he had learned during his short time at school.

And he built what he wanted to build from them the way Robinson built his boat. I suffered in the same way, made the same mistakes, did unnecessary work and started to redo everything all over again,

because no one could help or advise him.

Many years later. He finished his work and showed it to a math teacher he knew. The teacher spent a long time figuring it out, and when he figured it out, he transferred his work to the university. A few days later, the scientists invited the eccentric to their place. They looked at him with admiration and pity. There was something to admire and something to regret. The eccentric made a great mathematical discovery! The chairman of the meeting told him so. But, alas, two hundred years before him, this discovery had already been made by another mathematician - Isaac Newton.

At first the old man did not believe what he was told. They explained to him that Newton wrote his books on mathematics in Latin. And in his old age he sat down to Latin textbooks. Learned Latin. I read Newton’s book and found out that everything he was told at a meeting at the university was true. He really made a discovery. But this discovery has long been known to the world. Life was lived in vain.

This sad story was told by the writer N. Garin-Mikhailovsky. He called the story about the eccentric “Genius” and made a note to the story that this story was not made up, but happened in reality.

Who knows what discoveries this unknown genius could have given people if he had learned about Newton’s discovery earlier and directed his talent to discover what is not yet known to people!

(325 words) (S. Lvov)

Text of the presentation

There was once a mathematician who spent his whole life solving one problem. But no one wanted to help him, everyone just laughed at him. He lived like Robinson on a desert island. He himself discovered all the mathematical rules that are taught at school.

Many years later, the eccentric showed the solution to the problem to which he had devoted his entire life to a teacher he knew. The teacher could not figure out the problem for a long time and showed it to the scientists. The old man was invited to a meeting at the university. Everyone began to admire him because he, it turns out, had made an outstanding discovery.

One writer who told a story about an eccentric mathematician correctly titled his story “Genius.”

The work requires no comments. And this is not a matter of violations of logic or poverty of language. The problem is much more serious: the text is simply not understood, its main idea is not understood (“Mankind would have recognized the mathematician who made the great discovery as a genius if Newton had not made this discovery two hundred years before him.”) Key words and phrases were left unattended ( did not study at school for long, unnecessary work, rediscovered, looked with admiration and pity, the sad story has long been known to the world). Even such strong signals as a telling title and sentences that directly reveal the author’s position (they are highlighted in the text) missed the author of the presentation.

It must be admitted that more than half of the class failed to complete the task of formulating the main idea of ​​the text. Here are statements that indicate a complete misunderstanding of the text.

This man spent his whole life achieving everything on his own, and through his own labor he received an education. He was a genius and managed to discover Newton's own laws.

The point of this text is to show that there are people who evoke our sympathy and pity.

In life, geniuses are strange people, and it is difficult for them to communicate with people, to be in society, so no one recognizes our hero. But I believe that his suffering was not in vain, since this discovery was the goal of his life and he achieved everything that was planned.

I think that the main problem of this text is the reluctance of people to help each other, the reluctance to accept help, and in general the problem of relationships between people. If the mathematician had listened to others, he would not have lived his life in vain. He could have directed his mind to something more useful.

And only in some works did reading comprehension appear.

1. “The main idea of ​​the text can be formulated using the well-known expressions “reinventing the wheel” and “discovering America.” Indeed, why invent something that others did before you a long time ago?

Unfortunately, such cases are not uncommon today. Therefore, before you start inventing anything, you must first study your chosen field of science well. Understand what and to what extent others have done before you.”

2. “Sergei Lvov told us a sad story, or rather, retold it to us. I feel sorry for this eccentric, this “unknown genius,” who spent all his strength on the discovery made by Newton two hundred years before him.

In order not to discover what has already been discovered, you need to read a lot, study a lot, communicate with other scientists, and not surround yourself with a “sea of ​​misunderstanding.” This is precisely the main (it must be said, rather trivial) idea of ​​this text.

The hero of V. Shukshin’s story “Stubborn” found himself in a similar situation, who took up the invention of a perpetual motion machine. Of course, nothing came of this, because the creation of a perpetuum mobile, as is known, contradicts the laws of physics. Monya (that’s the name of Shukshin’s hero) did not believe this and “devoted himself completely to the great inventive task.” At the end of the story, the engineer directly addresses the “stubborn” Monet: “You have to study, my friend, then everything will be clear.” Despite all its banality, the advice is actually correct. If this “genius” mathematician had received a good mathematical education (most likely he simply did not have such an opportunity), he would have directed his talent to discovering something that is not yet known to people.”

Is it possible to put presentation at the service of understanding the text? What are modern approaches to writing expositions? What can be done to transform the presentation of the “boring” genre, as it is most often perceived by students, into an effective means of their development?

Exposition as a genre

But first, let’s find out the features of presentation as a genre.

Presentation - a type of educational work based on the reproduction of the content of someone else’s text, the creation of a secondary text. The words presentation and retelling are often used as synonyms, but the term retelling more often refers to the oral form of text reproduction.

The specificity of the presentation follows from its nature as a secondary text.

Let us turn to the class with the question: “What should not be confused with presentation?” The answer: “Of course, with an essay” will not follow immediately. We asked this “childish” question for a reason. It is necessary to explain to students once and for all that these genres have different tasks and different specifics. Unlike an essay, which is completely “led” by the author, nothing that is not in the source text should not be in the presentation. The appearance in “your” text of background knowledge, facts and details that are not contained in the text is by no means encouraged. On the contrary, any “creativity” or fantasy of this kind is regarded as a factual error and leads to a decrease in points.

Thus, in the presentation about Pushkin and Pushchin (text No. 1 from the famous collection), the student should not mention that the meeting took place on January 11, 1825 in Mikhailovskoye, and in the presentation about the Battle of Borodino (text No. 47) in the phrase “Kutuzov first intends was “to start a new battle in the morning and stand to the end” there is no need to indicate the authorship of the quote. As a rule, errors of this kind are more typical of strong, erudite students. Information about the specifics of presentation as a genre should be addressed to them first.

Types of presentations

Traditionally, the following types of presentation are distinguished.

By form of speech: oral, written.

By volume: detailed, condensed.

In relation to the content of the source text: complete, selective, presentation with an additional task (add the beginning/end, make inserts, retell the text from the 1st to 3rd line, answer the question, etc.).

According to the perception of the source text: presentation of a read, visually perceived text, presentation of a heard, aurally perceived text, presentation of a text perceived both aurally and visually.

Purpose: training, control.

The features of all these types of presentations are well known to the teacher. Let us only note that in the 9th grade you should not concentrate both your own efforts and the efforts of the students on any one type. In the practice of preparing for an exam, there must be different texts, different presentations and, of course, different types of work, otherwise boredom and monotony - the main enemy of any activity - cannot be avoided. But, since there is very little time for presentation in the graduate class (you also need to go through the program), it is best to select small texts for training and train one specific skill.

Requirements for texts

The texts of the presentations do not satisfy not only us teachers, but also the children: they seem monotonous, “pretentious”, incomprehensible, too long (“try to retell the text in 400-500 words yourself, and most of the collections contain such!”). A game called “If I were a text writer, I would suggest texts about...” turned out to be very effective: students named a variety of topics - about school, about problems that concern teenagers, about interesting people, about great discoveries, about technology, sports, music, relationships between people and even the future of humanity. “Anyone except the boring ones!”

Why do children name these particular topics? What is leading in their choice? Without realizing it themselves, they act according to one criterion - emotional, choosing texts that primarily evoke positive emotions.

The selection of non-boring - educational, fascinating, problematic, intelligent, and sometimes humorous - texts excites and maintains cognitive interest, creates a favorable psychological climate in the lesson. Popular science and some journalistic texts are best suited for this purpose, less often - and only with a specific educational task - fiction.

The question of whether it is possible to offer texts from classical works for presentation is controversial. Many methodologists believe that by conveying the content of an artistically impeccable fragment close to the text, students learn those turns of speech that belong to Lermontov, Gogol, Tolstoy... During the presentation, the mechanism of imitation is activated, which has a beneficial effect on the child’s speech. But what does it mean to “retell in detail” Lermontov or Gogol (for example, the texts “About Pechorin”, “About Gogol’s Thick and Thin” or “About Sobakevich”)? If the passage is not very long, which cannot be said about exam texts, you can, with incredible effort, remember it almost word for word. However, in this case, there is no need to talk about any kind of understanding and development of speech. The situation with a detailed presentation of the classics was parodied by the students themselves in the genre of “bad advice”: “... you must replace all the author’s words with your own and at the same time preserve his style” (school No. 57, Moscow, 7th grade, teacher - SV. Volkov).

How to present?

The question at first glance may seem rather strange: the methodology for conducting the presentation is known to any teacher.

But it’s worth abandoning some of the usual schemes and templates.

Let's talk about the presentation methodology proposed in our textbooks.

The teacher reads the text for the first time. Students, listening, try to understand and remember the text. After the first reading, they retell the text in order to understand what they did not remember. This work usually takes 5-7 minutes.

The teacher reads the text a second time. Students pay attention to those passages that they missed during the first reading. Then they retell the text again, make the necessary notes on the draft, draw up a plan, formulate the main idea, etc. And only after that they write an exposition.

Unlike the traditional method, during retelling, children note not what they already remember well, but what they missed while listening to the text. The new technique takes into account the psychological mechanisms operating in the process of text perception - the mechanisms of memorization and understanding. While reciting the text to himself, the student, albeit not immediately, realizes that he did not remember some parts of the text because he did not understand them. At the initial stage of learning, the text can be retold by one of the students. Control over memorization and understanding in this case is carried out externally - from other students: they note factual errors, omissions, logical inconsistencies, etc. As a result of such joint activity with the class, gradually even the weakest students learn to retell.

The role of such a mental process as the recreating imagination deserves a separate discussion.

Understanding and remembering text based on reconstructive imagination

As you know, in psychology there are different types of imagination: creative and recreative. Unlike creative imagination, which is aimed at creating new images, recreating is aimed at creating images that correspond to verbal descriptions. It is the recreating imagination that permeates the entire educational process; without it it is impossible to imagine full-fledged learning.

Its role is especially important when reading a literary text. “Of course, this does not apply to all reading. Such reading, which pursues only one goal - to find out “what is being said here and what will happen next,” writes a famous psychologist, “does not require active work of the imagination. But such reading, when you mentally “see and hear” everything that is being said speech, when you are mentally transported to the depicted situation and “live” in it - such reading is impossible without the most active work of the imagination.”

What has been said can be fully attributed to writing the presentation.

The teacher’s task is to make sure that when perceiving a literary text, the student mentally “sees and hears” what he is listening (reading). Achieving this, of course, is not easy. The reconstructive imagination of different people and children in particular is not developed to the same extent. Only a very few (according to our experiments, less than 10%) are able to see with their “mind's eye” the images created by writers.

EXAMPLE 2

Original text

In autumn, the whole house is covered with leaves, and in two small rooms it becomes light, like in a flying garden.

The stoves are crackling, there is a smell of apples and cleanly washed floors. Tits sit on branches, pour glass balls in their throats, ring, crackle and look at the windowsill, where there is a slice of black bread.

I rarely spend the night in the house. I spend most nights at the lakes, and when I stay at home I sleep in an old gazebo at the bottom of the garden. It is overgrown with wild grapes. In the mornings the sun hits it through the purple, lilac, green and lemon foliage, and it always seems to me that I wake up inside a lit tree.

It’s especially good in the gazebo on quiet autumn nights, when the slow, sheer rain is making a low noise in the garden.

The cool air barely moves the candle tongue. Angular shadows from grape leaves lie on the ceiling of the gazebo. A moth, looking like a lump of gray raw silk, lands on an open book and leaves shiny dust on the page.

It smells like rain - a gentle and at the same time pungent smell of moisture, damp garden paths.

(154 words) (K. Paustovsky)

We specifically took descriptive text for analysis. If the text has a dynamic plot and is full of dialogues, then when reading it, the imagination, as a rule, turns on involuntarily. With a descriptive text, the situation is different: its full understanding and memorization is impossible without the activity of the imagination, the inclusion of which requires certain volitional efforts.

The text by K. Paustovsky, proposed for presentation, cannot be understood and retold if the reader does not see the pictures created by the author, does not hear the described sounds, and does not smell the smells. Many students, after listening to the text for the first time, said that they did not remember anything. After they were asked to retell only what remained in their memory, some were able to recreate only individual elements of the depicted picture, while others imagined a picture that was far from the author’s. And most importantly, such children inevitably experienced failures in understanding.

Here are two examples of detailed presentations of this text. (As per work conditions, students were not allowed to write anything down during the hearing.)

First presentation

In autumn, the whole house is littered with leaves, and in two small rooms it is as bright as day. The house, like a leafless garden, smells of apples, lilacs, and washed floors. Tits are sitting on a branch outside the window, they are sorting glass balls on the windowsill and looking at the bread.

When I stay at home, I spend the night mostly in a gazebo overgrown with wild grapes. In the mornings I turn on the purple and lilac lights on the Christmas tree.

It’s especially good in the gazebo when it’s raining in autumn outside. It smells like rain and damp garden paths.”

Second presentation

In autumn, in a house covered with leaves, it is as light as in a leafless garden. You can hear the crackling sound of hot stoves, and the smell of apples and washed floors. Outside the window, tits sit on tree branches, sorting glass balls in their throats, ringing, crackling and looking at a slice of black bread lying on the windowsill.

I rarely spend the night in the house; I usually go to the lakes. But when I stay at home, I like to sleep in an old gazebo overgrown with wild grapes. The sun shines through the branches of the grapes in purple, green, lemon colors, and then I feel like I’m inside a lit Christmas tree. Angular shadows from wild grape leaves fall on the walls and ceiling of the gazebo.

It is especially wonderful in the gazebo when the quiet autumn rain rustles in the garden. A fresh breeze sways the tongue of the candle. A butterfly flies quietly, and, landing on an open book, this gray lump of raw neck leaves silver sparkles on the pages of the book.

At night I feel the quiet music of the rain, the gentle and pungent smell of moisture, wet garden paths.”

(142 words)

It is not difficult to guess which of the two presentations the author managed to use his imagination while listening to the text. And the point here is not in the completeness of the transfer of content and not in the richness and expressiveness of speech, but in the fact that the second student was able to recreate in visual, concrete sensory images the pictures described in the text; hear the sound of rain, sounds made by tits; smell apples, cleanly washed floors...

The first presentation, with the exception of the initial and last phrases, is a rather incoherent description. It captures individual details of the overall picture. It is unclear from the text where and when the action takes place. It seems that we are talking about autumn, but suddenly lilacs and a New Year tree appear; tits are either sitting outside the window, or on the windowsill, and at the same time sorting through glass balls - the author does not perceive metaphors and comparisons. Thus, we are talking about a misunderstanding of the text. And this case is far from the only one: out of 28 students who wrote an exposition on this text, failures in understanding were noted in twelve.

Psychologists do not yet fully understand the processes that arise during the work of the imagination. Often we cannot often control whether it works when perceiving text or not. One of the means of checking the inclusion of imagination is precisely retelling (exposition). If the imagination was active while reading (listening) to the text, then the retelling will be complete and accurate. If the imagination is not activated, students make a large number of inaccuracies, omitting the essential, distorting images, paying attention to minor details. (Of course, this does not apply to all texts, but only to those that allow the inclusion of a reconstructive imagination).

“Lazy” imagination makes it difficult to understand the text and often makes learning itself painful, since the child has to resort to mechanical memorization of the text, to elementary cramming.

Meanwhile, the recreating imagination, in the figurative expression of an outstanding artist and scientist, “this subjective field of vision, a mental screen,” “can be developed to an amazing degree.” It is only necessary for the teacher himself to realize the need to work in this direction.

This type of task is called "Turn on your imagination." It is formulated quite simply; “Imagine that everything you read about you see on your “mental screen.” Turn it on every time you encounter text.” In the future, you can briefly remind about the need to activate your imagination: “Turn on your “mental screen”,” “Try to see in your mind...”, “Let your imagination work,” etc.

The effectiveness of this technique has been confirmed by numerous experiments. The hard numbers speak for themselves: for those students who managed to use their imagination, text memorization improves four to five times.

The development of reconstructive imagination is important not only in itself, but also in connection with attention, memory, emotions, self-control, and most importantly, understanding. Without seeing the picture mentally created by the writer, the student in many cases cannot not only remember, but also understand the text.

What are the features of exposition as a genre? Which of them will you take into account in your work?

How do your students feel about presentation? Take the questionnaire suggested in the lecture in class or create one yourself. Tell us about the results of the survey. Do they coincide with the data we received?

What are the requirements for selecting texts for presentation? Find in collections of expositions or select two texts yourself that meet the specified requirements.

What is the role of comprehension and memory processes in teaching exposition?

5. If the techniques for developing the re-creative imagination described in the lecture caught your attention, try applying them in your class and share your observations and conclusions. This can be done in the form of a page from a pedagogical diary or in any other free form.

Detailed and concise presentation

Analysis of microthemes. Text compression methods. Technology of writing an essay based on the text of the presentation

Features of detailed and concise presentation

Whatever form of final assessment a ninth-grader chooses, he will have to write a statement: a detailed or condensed statement with elements of an essay (traditional form), detailed (version 2007), condensed (version 2008).

Analysis of the questionnaires shows that ninth-graders understand the difference between detailed and concise presentation quite well. Two-thirds of them believe that retelling close to the text is easier, since “you can rely on memory and the ability to write quickly.” Although in the questionnaires there are also arguments, mostly naive, in favor of a concise presentation: “it’s easier to write because you’ll make fewer mistakes,” “there are fewer descriptions and all sorts of different details,” “teachers like brevity more.”

“Condense” a text means “to shorten it, but at the same time preserve the main idea in each paragraph”; “remove everything unnecessary and leave only the main thing, and this is the most difficult thing”; "refuse to give details."

If we compare these statements with what methodologists write about detailed and concise presentation, it turns out that there are not so many differences.

The task of a detailed presentation is to reproduce the source text as completely as possible, preserving its compositional and linguistic features. The task of a concise presentation is to briefly, in a generalized form, convey the content of the text, select essential information, exclude details, and find verbal means of generalization. In a concise presentation, it is not necessary to preserve the stylistic features of the author's text, but the author's main thoughts, the logical sequence of events, the characters of the characters and the setting must be conveyed without distortion.

An interesting technique that helps students understand the features of detailed and concise presentation is offered by a Pskov methodologist. He compares the original text with a large matryoshka doll, a detailed presentation with a smaller doll, and a condensed presentation with the rest of the dolls. “These last three nesting dolls are a condensed summary of the text. In one case, for example, we were given three minutes for presentation (or 30 lines in a newspaper), in another - two minutes (20 lines), in a third - a minute (or 10 lines). This is how we ended up with texts and condensed presentations of varying degrees of compression, and we all created them based on the original one. Therefore, in some important ways they are similar to each other and, of course, to the first, original text.”1

If this explanation is accompanied by an appropriate picture or diagram, students will see that the text can be subjected to varying degrees of compression, but the secondary text must retain the main and essential elements of the original text.

Obviously, not every text is suitable for a condensed presentation, but only one that has something to compress. The volume of text for a condensed presentation should be larger than for a detailed one. (For some reason, this criterion is not taken into account by the compilers of the latest version of the examination paper, who propose texts with only 220-250 words for condensed presentation. The typical reaction of students to the task is: “There’s nothing to compress here!”; “How to shorten the text, where are two hundred words, up to ninety? Leave every second word?".)

A concise presentation is considered the most difficult type of presentation because many students do not know how to highlight the main and other important thoughts, and do not know how to distract from unimportant information.

According to psychologists, a brief retelling is a technique inorganic for children's nature. Children gravitate towards unnecessary details. And unless they are specifically taught, the task of retelling the text briefly is absolutely impossible for many. This is confirmed by experimental data: only 14% of students in grades 8-9 can make such a retelling2. Often the words short and short when applied to retelling are synonyms for schoolchildren: when retelling, the text may become shorter, but at the same time the main thing often disappears and essential information is missed.

The role of this type of presentation can hardly be overestimated. It is in a brief retelling that the degree of understanding of the text is revealed; it is a litmus test for understanding. If the text is not understood or partially understood, a brief retelling will reveal all the defects in perception.

How to teach schoolchildren to write a concise summary? What techniques can you use? What material is best to do this on? Here are the questions teachers usually ask.

Methods and techniques for text compression

A concise presentation requires special logical work. There are two main ways of compressing text3: 1) excluding details; 2) generalization. When excluding, you must first highlight the main thing and then remove the details (details). When summarizing the material, we first isolate individual essential facts (we omit the unimportant ones), combine them into one whole, select the appropriate linguistic means and compose a new text. Which compression method to use in each specific case will depend on the communicative task and the characteristics of the text.

Students are not equally proficient in the above methods of text compression. Some have difficulty identifying the main thing and finding the essential, getting bogged down in countless details; others, on the contrary, compress the text so much that there is nothing living left in it and it becomes more like a plan or diagram. In both cases we are dealing with the difficulties of the abstraction process. However, like any other ability of human thinking, the ability to abstract can be trained.

Here are the types of tasks aimed at text compression.

Reduce the text by one third (half, three quarters...).

Shorten the text by conveying its content in one or two sentences.

Remove unnecessary text from your point of view.

Compose a “telegram” based on the text, that is, highlight and very briefly (after all, every word in a telegram is precious) formulate the main thing in the text.

EXAMPLE 1

Exercise 1. Listen to the text, write a concise summary, cutting the text in half.

Original text

In addition to the legends about Hercules, the ancient Greeks also told about two twin brothers - Hercules and Iphicles. Despite the fact that the brothers were very similar from childhood, they grew up differently.

It's still very early and the boys want to sleep. Iphicles pulls the blanket over his head to watch interesting dreams longer, and Hercules runs to wash himself in a cold stream.

The brothers are walking along the road and see: on the way there is a large puddle. Hercules steps back, runs up and jumps over the obstacle, and Iphicles, grumbling displeasedly, looks for a workaround.

The brothers see a beautiful apple on a high tree branch. “Too high,” Iphicles grumbles. “I don’t really want this apple.” Hercules jumps - and the fruit is in his hands.

When your legs are tired and your lips are dry from thirst, and it’s still a long way to rest, Iphicles usually says: “Let’s rest here, under the bush.” “We’d better run,” Hercules suggests. “That way we’ll get through the road sooner.”

Hercules, who at first was an ordinary boy, later becomes a hero, the conqueror of monsters. And all this is only because since childhood he has been accustomed to winning daily victories over difficulties, over himself.

This ancient legend contains the deepest meaning: will is the ability to control oneself, the ability to overcome obstacles.

(From the magazine) (176 words)

Concise text

The ancient Greeks have a legend about Hercules and Iphicles. Although they were twins, the brothers grew up differently.

Early in the morning, when Iphicles is still sleeping, Hercules runs to wash himself to a cold stream.

Seeing a puddle on the way, Hercules jumps over it, and Iphicles goes around the obstacle.

An apple hangs high on a tree. Iphicles is too lazy to go after it, but Hercules easily gets the fruit.

When there is no more strength to walk, Iphicles suggests taking a break, and Hercules suggests running forward.

Although Hercules, like Iphicles, was at first an ordinary boy, he became a hero because from childhood he learned to overcome difficulties and cultivated will.

This simple example can be used to show students specific techniques for compressing text:

1) exclusion of details, minor facts (pulling a blanket over his head to watch interesting dreams longer);

2) exclusion of direct speech or translation of direct speech into indirect speech (4th and 5th paragraphs, someone else’s speech is conveyed using simple sentences with an addition indicating the topic of speech).

When teaching concise presentation, a certain sequence of actions is followed, which can be written in the form of the following instructions.

Instructions “How to write a concise summary”

Highlight essential (i.e. important, necessary) thoughts in the text.

Find the main idea among them.

Break the text into parts, grouping it around significant ideas.

Give each part a title and make an outline.

Think about what can be excluded in each part, what details to refuse.

What facts (examples, cases) can be combined and generalized in adjacent parts of the text?

Consider means of communication between parts.

Translate the selected information into “your” language.

Write this abbreviated, “squeezed out” text on your draft.

Practice writing statements with elements of an essay

Before moving on to a specific analysis of texts, let us make one general remark. In our opinion, presentation “in its pure form” does not have the developmental effect that presentation with elements of an essay and the preceding work on understanding the text provide. Starting from about the 8th grade, students no longer find it interesting to write “just an exposition.” But the presentation, complicated by additional tasks aimed at highlighting the main idea, working with the title, creative processing of the text, etc., students write with much more interest, since it allows, firstly, a deeper understanding of the text, and secondly secondly, to include the knowledge obtained from the text into an already existing system of knowledge, to demonstrate one’s erudition, and to show creative abilities. With this approach, the presentation in the 9th grade can be considered as a certain stage of preparation for the Unified State Exam (writing part C) in the 11th grade. By retelling the text (first of all, briefly), the student is already doing serious work to comprehend its content; a correctly “squeezed out” text is the basis for writing an essay.

Here are several types of tasks, based on which you can create tasks for a variety of texts. Each group of tasks aims to train a specific technique for working with text.

I. Tasks aimed at the ability to predict the content of a text.

1. Read the title and try to guess what (who) the text will be about.

After listening to the text, check your guesses.

Examples of titles: “A discovery that was two hundred years late”, “Sad collection”, “Fifteen Louis Fifteenths” - titles of texts by S. Lvov; “The Man from the Moon” (about Miklouho-Maclay), “Raphael of Violin Mastery” (about Stradivarius).

2. Listen or read the beginning of the text (the first sentence, the first paragraph) on which you will write a summary, and try to guess what will be discussed next (what events will follow, what thoughts will be expressed...).

The heroes of Lewis Carroll's fairy tale "Alice in Wonderland" the Hatter and the March Hare, as you know, were constantly busy drinking tea. When the dishes became dirty, they did not wash them, but simply moved to another place.

“And what will happen when you reach the end? - Alice dared to ask.

Isn't it time we changed the subject? - suggested the March Hare...

(Continuation of the text: “This dialogue is given in one of his books by the founder of cybernetics, the American scientist Norbert Wiener, speaking about the use of nature by man, the limitations of its resources...” The text is taken from the “Encyclopedia for Children” (volume “Biology”) and is dedicated to environmental problems.)

Exercise. Read the beginning of two texts that talk about the same thing, but in different ways. Find questions hidden in the text. Express your assumptions about the further content of each text. (Between reading the first and second text, time is given to complete the task.)

Bent over a geographical atlas, the German geophysicist Alfred Wegener made an outstanding discovery at the turn of the 20th century: the eastern shores of South America and the western shores of Africa can be combined as accurately as the corresponding parts of a children's dissected puzzle picture.

In 1913, geophysicist Wegener published the book “The Origin of Continents and Oceans.” In it, he outlined his famous hypothesis, which was called the theory of movement, or the theory of continental drift.

(What kind of hypothesis is this? What facts support it?)

3. Exposition with continuation: “Read a text that does not have an ending. Come up with your own continuation of the story, and then compare it with the author’s”4. (Options. Continue the story so that it becomes clear why the author gave the story such a title. Try to complete the text by proposing a possible scenario for the unfolding of events.)

II. Tasks aimed at the ability to highlight the main thing in a text (concept*).

Find sentences that contain the main idea of ​​the text, or formulate it yourself.

Find the main event.

Rank events in order of importance.

4. Put the most important information first, at the beginning of the presentation. Convey the content of the remaining parts of the text concisely (or selectively).

III. Tasks aimed at interpreting the text.

1.Explain how you understand the statement that...

3. Express your opinion in connection with what you read (write about your understanding of the event).

4. Relate the text you read with others or select one that is similar in meaning.

5.Give a reasoned answer to the question asked by the author.

IV. Tasks aimed at creative processing of text.

Make inserts in the text: enter a description of your favorite game (favorite season...), a discussion about the actions of the hero, a story about... .

Complete the text with similar examples.

Find general and specific elements in the text. First tell about the particular, and then retell the fragment that represents the general reasoning.

Find the parts in the text that are the cause and the parts that are the effect.

Put the information that is most interesting to you first and retell it in detail. Retell the remaining parts of the text concisely6.

Whatever creative task we propose for presentation, it is important that the student reflects on the text, asks himself questions, makes assumptions and tests them during the reading process, and after reading is able to express the main idea, draw up a plan, and answer questions.

However, the “dialogue with the text” does not end there. The next important stage is thinking about the text (reflection, reflection). At this stage, the student asks himself questions like these:

What new did I learn from the text?

What facts were unexpected for me?

What do I think about this?

How does this relate to what I already know?

What thoughts do these facts lead me to think about?

Have I encountered anything similar before - in life, in literature, in cinema?

What facts, examples, cases can I use in my essay?

A chain of such questions is essentially an algorithm for the student’s internal work with the text. Of course, this is not the essay itself, but the stage of thinking, comprehending the text and taking inventory of one’s knowledge and ideas is very important on the path to creating the text of the future essay.

Such tasks pursue the following goals:

firstly, to update previous knowledge: after all, what we learn is determined by what we already know;

secondly, to give learning an active character: knowledge cannot be “invested”, it can only be appropriated;

EXAMPLE 2 Source text

Exercise. Read an excerpt from the book Magellan by Austrian writer Stefan Zweig. This is the beginning of an artistic biography of the great navigator. Title the text and retell it in detail. »

In the beginning there were spices. Since the Romans, in their travels and wars, first learned the charm of hot and intoxicating oriental seasonings, the West can no longer and does not want to do without Indian spices, without spices, despite the fact that they were expensive and were constantly rising in price.

At the beginning of the second millennium, the same pepper that now stands on the kitchen shelf

any housewife, was counted by grains and was valued at its weight in gold. Its value was so constant that many cities and states paid with it instead of precious metals. Ginger, cinnamon, and cinchona peel were weighed on jewelry and apothecary scales, while tightly closing the windows so that the draft would not blow away the precious speck of dust. No matter how absurd, in modern opinion, such a price is, it becomes understandable when you remember the difficulties of their delivery and the risk associated with it.

What kind of dangers did ships, caravans and convoys with spices have to overcome on the way before they got from the green bush of the Malay Archipelago to their last pier - the counter of a European trader! How many hands has a product passed through until it reaches the final buyer across seas and deserts! Modern researchers have calculated that Indian spices had to pass through no less than twelve predatory hands before ending up on the European table.

A long, incredibly long way! Is there another, shorter and easier way to achieve your cherished goal? Seafarers began to look for the answer to this question together with monarchs and merchants. The courage that prompted Columbus and Magellan to move west, and Vasco da Gama to the south, was born, first of all, from a focused desire to find a new route to the east.

No matter how strange it may seem at first glance, it was spices that became the completely earthly, material reason for all those great discoveries that were made in the heroic 16th century. Monarchs and merchants would never have equipped a fleet for the brave conquistadors if these expeditions to unknown countries did not at the same time promise a thousandfold reimbursement of the funds spent.

In the beginning there were spices.

(According to S. Zweig) (306 words)

Creative task. Write how you feel about the author’s idea that “it was spices that became the completely earthly, material reason” for great geographical discoveries.

The text evoked a variety of reactions from ninth-graders: from “interesting, fascinating, beautiful, I’ve never read anything like it!” to “strange, incomprehensible, somehow abnormal.”

Here are some statements from students who worked using the method proposed above: I learned a lot of interesting facts. For example, the fact that pepper was worth its weight in gold and that when it was weighed, the doors and windows in the house were closed; It turns out that spices traveled a long way before reaching Europe; What seemed most unexpected was that the author considers spices to be the main, “material” reason for all great geographical discoveries. One can hardly agree with this. I read about the expeditions of Columbus and Magellan, but nothing was said about it. They were looking for something completely different. What does spice have to do with it? The text is, of course, interesting, but Zweig’s idea is somehow strange, I would say paradoxical. Although, maybe there is something in this; This makes you look at known facts from an unusual side, prompts different thoughts; It is probably no coincidence that the text begins and ends with the same phrase; I would like to read something else about the great navigators, perhaps Zweig himself, if the book is not very long. I'll look on the Internet. (The students gave answers to questions in writing, hence the book turns and expressions.)

Whatever assessment the students gave to the text, the main thing is that it made them think, actively discuss what they read, confront different opinions, take nothing for granted, and finally made them want to learn more about the subject of discussion, turn to other books, sources of information. But these are precisely the goals we are achieving.

PRIMEZ » Source text*

Sad collection

Have you heard the name Galvani? Yes, yes, the same Italian scientist who did experiments with a frog's leg and electric current.

Now they seem to us like hoary old science, but they were once an important page in the study of electricity.

When Galvani told his fellow scientists about his experiments, he was laughed at.

In 1873, the French Academy of Sciences by a majority vote refused to accept Darwin as a member of the Academy, and five years later they ridiculed Edison's invention.

When the physicist de Moncel, at the request of Edison, showed at a meeting of the Academy how the apparatus he had invented for recording and reproducing sounds works, one of the academicians jumped up and shouted at him:

Scoundrel! You dare to come here to fool us with the tricks of a pathetic ventriloquist! Will any of us really agree to believe that a pathetic piece of metal can repeat the noble sound of the human voice?

And the majority of those present supported his angry speech.

Jenner, the scientist who proposed vaccination against smallpox, was ridiculed and reviled. And the doctor who offered pain relief during operations.

The inventor of the steamboat was persecuted. They made fun of the inventor of the steam locomotive. The inventor of the car was teased.

These are just a few excerpts from a very long and very sad collection. A person who made a discovery or invented something new often saw against him not just one opponent, but many. And his opponents usually told him this:

You are wrong, because there are more of us.

Sometimes they said it politely. Sometimes sharply. Sometimes angry. But always with the confidence that if there are more of them, those who say that this cannot be, than those who believe that this is possible, then they are right, and the one who persists is a stubborn person, opposing himself to the majority. It cannot be that the whole company is out of step, and he alone is in step!

Do you think that all these sad stories date back to distant times, when electricity lived only in Leyden jars, steam locomotives and cars were just learning to run, and no one thought about radio?

Of course, it would be more pleasant for us, people of the 21st century, to think that all this is in the past. But that's not true.

(S. Lvov) (310 words)

After reading the text, a conversation is held:

How many different facts of persecution of inventors are mentioned in the text? (Eight. Words and phrases containing these facts are highlighted in bold in the text.)

What is the meaning of the title?

Imagine that the content of the text needs to be presented in the form of a note of 90-100 words. Write a concise summary.

Creative task. Do you know of other similar examples? If known, write about it. If not, explain in writing the meaning of the title of the text and formulate the main idea.

Concise text

Galvani, who is known to us for his experiments with electric current and the frog's leg, was once ridiculed by the French Academy of Sciences. Later, fellow scientists did not accept Darwin as a member of the Academy and ridiculed Edison’s invention.

Then Jenner, who proposed vaccination against smallpox, and the inventors of the steamboat, steam locomotive, and automobile were also misunderstood... They were ridiculed, poisoned, and reviled.

Extracts from this sad collection can be made endlessly. Unfortunately, the situation when the majority believes that it is right, and one person is wrong, often happens today.

Here are the essays of two students who chose the first topic.

1. The text by Sergei Lvov is devoted to the problem of non-recognition of scientists and their inventions. Not only in former times, but even today, many discoveries do not meet with understanding, and those who invented them are ridiculed and persecuted.

Imagine this picture: what would have happened if Newton had not been recognized with his discovery of gravity? It’s absolutely true that humanity would be many centuries behind, there wouldn’t be many other inventions, and man wouldn’t fly to the stars.

For some reason, scientists are often recognized as geniuses only after their death. For example, Giordano Bruno, who claimed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, was recognized as a heretic and, by order of the Catholic Church, was burned at the stake. And now we bow to the power of his mind and talk about him as a fighter for the truth in science.

There have always been many such stories, and, unfortunately, they will never end, since there will always be people who do not want “the whole company to keep pace, and he alone to keep pace.”

Evaluating the presentation

Evaluation criteria. Types of errors. Analysis of students' written work

1. Evaluation of detailed presentation

Checking presentations - despite the familiarity of this work - causes serious difficulties for many wordsmiths. The greatest difficulties are associated with assessing the content of the work. And although the criteria for assessing the presentation have been developed in great detail, this does not eliminate the problem of subjectivity when checking students’ written work: the same presentation (and not just an essay!), checked by different teachers, is assessed by them differently - from 5 to 3.

The current practice of assessing presentations is complicated by the fact that the teacher evaluates ordinary presentations according to one system - traditional1, and examinations (new forms of certification) - according to another, to which he is not psychologically accustomed2.

If you compare the old criteria with the new ones, it turns out that at their core they remain the same. The content of a detailed presentation is assessed from the point of view of: 1) the accuracy of the transmission of the source text and the presence of factual errors (from 3 to O points); 2) semantic integrity, speech coherence and consistency of presentation (1-0 points); 3) accuracy and clarity of speech (2-0 points).

Let's look at specific examples of how the proposed criteria work.

EXAMPLE 1 (examination version 2008 - the second model of certification work).

Original text

On New Year's Eve, the old Wolf felt his loneliness especially acutely. Getting stuck in the snow, making his way through the tenacious fir trees, he wandered through the forest and thought about life.

Yes, he was never lucky. The best pieces were snatched from under his nose by others. The she-wolf also left him because he did not bring many hares.

And how many troubles there were in his life because of these hares! In the wolf world, hares decide everything. Those who have a lot of hares stand on their hind legs, but those who have few...

The thorny trees continued to scratch the Wolf. “You can’t escape these trees, even if you run from the forest!” - thought the Wolf. “When will all this end?”

And suddenly... The wolf even sat down on his tail and rubbed his eyes: is it really true? A real, lively hare sits under the tree. He sits with his head raised and looks up somewhere, and his eyes burn as if they are showing him who knows what.

“I wonder: what did he see there? - thought the Wolf. “Let me take a look.” And he looked up at the tree.

He had seen so many Christmas trees in his lifetime, but he had never seen one like this. She's all sparkling

it shimmered with snowflakes, shimmered with moonlight, and it seemed as if it had been specially removed for the holiday, although there was not a single Christmas tree decoration on it. The wolf was so shocked by this beauty that he froze with his mouth open.

There can be such beauty in the world! You look at her and you feel something turning inside of you. And the world seems to be becoming cleaner and kinder3.

So the Hare and the Wolf sat side by side under the New Year tree, looked at this beauty, and something turned over inside them.

And for the first time the Hare thought that there was something in the world stronger than wolves, and the Wolf thought that, to be honest, happiness does not lie in hares...

(According to F. Krivin) (276 words)

The text for the detailed presentation is taken from F. Krivin’s collection “Scholarly Tales” (section “Naive Tales”) and, in addition to the author’s title “Wolf on the Christmas Tree,” has a subtitle “New Year’s Tale.” Since the presentation was complicated by the task of titling the text, it is natural that all these pre-text elements were not communicated to the students.

An analysis of the presentations shows that the majority of students did not understand the author’s intention and “did not notice” the allegorical form and stylistic features of the work. Many perceived the text as “too simple” and sighed with relief after the first reading: “Lucky! It was quite easy!”, “There’s nothing to understand here!”

Meanwhile, the text is not as simple as it seems at first glance. And the point is not only in its punctuation design, which is quite complex for ninth-graders (methods of conveying improperly direct speech are not included in the basic school curriculum), but also in those genre and linguistic features, thanks to which the fairy tale becomes “learned”, “naive”, “New Year’s” " It was they who, in most cases, were beyond the perception of ninth-graders.

Here are some student works.

The beauty of New Year's Eve

On New Year's Eve, the old Wolf felt lonely. He wandered through the forest and thought about life. He's never had any luck. The she-wolf left him because he did not bring many hares. In the wolf world, hares decide everything.

The thorny branches scratched the Wolf. “You can’t escape these trees,” thought the Wolf.

Suddenly the Wolf even sat down on his tail and rubbed his eyes. A real hare is sitting under the tree. He looks up. “I wonder: what did he see there?” - thought the Wolf. He looked up at the tree.

The tree sparkled with snowflakes and shimmered with moonlight. The wolf was so shocked that he froze with his mouth open.

So the Hare and the Wolf sat next to each other. For the first time, the hare thought that there was something stronger in the world than wolves. The wolf thought that happiness does not lie in hares.

(121 words)

The work conveys only factual information from the text. The content of the fairy tale as a whole is presented without distortion, but the general tone of the narrative - tinged with humor, the author's mockingly kind attitude towards the characters, the “naivety” of the story told - is not understood by the student. Since criterion I1 does not indicate the completeness of the transmission of the content of the text, then according to this criterion the student should have received 2 points. However, even without any special calculations, it is clear that the text of the presentation is extremely simplified (a little more than 40% of the content of the original text has been preserved) and there is nothing to give two points here for. The presentation itself is written in a “telegraphic style”, simple uncomplicated sentences predominate in it (13 out of 17), and complicated sentences - sentences with homogeneous members. Obviously, criterion I1 should be supplemented with an indication not only of the accuracy of the transfer of content, but also of completeness.

The question of how many points should be given according to criterion I2 is controversial. There are no obvious logical errors in the work, the paragraphs (taking into account the general “telegraphic” style) are arranged correctly. However, the presentation does not have semantic integrity, so it is impossible to give the highest score.

Only the last criterion does not cause discrepancies. “The work is distinguished by the poverty of its vocabulary and the monotony of the grammatical structure of speech.” And then strictly according to the document: “The speech features of the source text are not conveyed in the work” - About points.

As we see, the proposed criteria for assessing presentation do not always “work”. If you follow them formally, the work can be rated 3 or 4 points (out of 6). However, it is clear to the naked eye that the work is weak and that instead of a detailed one, the student wrote a concise summary, which means he failed the task.

To avoid the “scissors” effect, the inconsistency of the developed criteria with the traditional practice of analyzing and evaluating presentation that has developed over the years, I think the following approach can help: after reading the work, you first need to evaluate it as a whole, albeit in the most imprecise terms: “good / bad, strong / weak ”, then apply the criteria, and at the end re-check the initial submission and - if necessary - adjust the scores.

Second presentation

Forest on New Year's Eve

On New Year's Eve, the old Wolf felt his loneliness especially acutely. Getting stuck in the snow, making his way through the fir trees, he wandered through the forest and thought about life.

Yes, he was never lucky, the best pieces went to others, and the she-wolf left him because he brought few hares.

And how much trouble these hares caused him! In the wolf world, hares decide everything. Those who have a lot of them stand in front of them on their hind legs, and those who have few...

The thorny trees kept scratching and scratching the Wolf. “You can’t get away from them, even if you run from the forest!” - thought the Wolf. “When will all this end?”

And suddenly the Wolf even sat down on his tail and rubbed his eyes: a real, living hare was sitting under the tree. He sits with his head raised and looks as if he knows what they are showing him.

“I wonder: what did he see there? - thought the Wolf. “Let me take a look.” And he raised his head and looked at the tree.

No matter how many Christmas trees he had seen in his lifetime, but this one!.. It all sparkled and shimmered in the moonlight, and it seemed as if it had been specially removed for the holiday, although there was not a single toy on it. The wolf was so shocked that he sat with his mouth open for a long time.

How beautiful it was in the New Year's forest! There is such unearthly beauty in the world that you look at it and everything inside you immediately turns upside down. And the world seems to be becoming cleaner and kinder, and people and animals are becoming better.

So the Wolf and the Hare sat side by side under the tree, and something was turning over inside them. And the Hare thought that there was something stronger in the world than wolves, and the Wolf thought that happiness does not lie in hares.

(264 words)

At first glance, it seems that this work can be given an immediate five. The presentation is very detailed and retains the stylistic features of the text. There are no logical errors, and the paragraphs are also fine. The richness of the vocabulary, the variety of syntactic structures used - all this can and should be assessed by an expert.

What is alarming, however, is the discrepancy between the title and the main idea of ​​the text. And this alone may indicate a possible misunderstanding, or rather, misunderstanding of the text.

On the second reading, attention is drawn to the penultimate paragraph: “How beautiful it was in the New Year’s forest! There is such unearthly beauty in the world that you look at it and everything inside you immediately turns upside down. And the world seems to be becoming cleaner and kinder, and people and animals -

better". The fact is that there are no highlighted sentences and parts of sentences in F. Krivin’s text. The first is a figment of the imagination of the author of the presentation, the rest are clearly borrowed from the reading text (see task 3 in the test). According to the laws of the genre, the presentation should not contain anything that is not in the source text. The appearance in “your” text of background knowledge, thoughts, facts and details that are not contained in the text is regarded as a factual error.

The noted shortcomings do not make it possible to give the work an initial high score, although overall it makes a good impression.

2. Evaluating condensed presentation

When checking a compressed presentation, one more criterion is added to the criteria proposed above - the quality of text compression. In the total score, the weight of this criterion is small: if the examinee knows text compression techniques, he receives 1 point, if he does not, 0 points.

Let us recall the two main methods (techniques) of text compression: 1) exclusion of details, 2) generalization. When eliminating, the student must first highlight the main thing and then remove the details. When generalizing, he combines several significant facts into a single whole, using linguistic means of generalization. It is not necessary to preserve the stylistic features of the author's text in a condensed presentation.

EXAMPLE 2 (option of trial certification work 2008)

Original text

Waking up at dawn to the quacking of ducks, I crawled out of the tent one day and looked around. But then I had to sit down and crawl back to get my binoculars: a large flock of pelicans was swimming about a hundred meters from the island. It is not often that you have the opportunity to observe these rare birds in nature.

For the first time I see such a huge flock of pelicans, there are at least a hundred birds in it. Taking a closer look, I understand that a flock of Dalmatian Pelicans and Roseate Pelicans is feeding on the water. The Dalmatian pelican is slightly larger than the pink pelican, its “mane” is clearly visible - elongated and curled feathers on the head, and the plumage does not have the pink tint characteristic of its fellow. Cormorants swim around the pelicans, and seagulls fly screaming in the air. Cormorants rush after the fish, quickly diving, and pelicans grab it, plunging only their head, neck and front part of the body into the water. All you can hear is the splashing of water and the cries of seagulls.

But now the hunt is over, the birds head to the sandy shore, heavily slapping their webbed feet, and climb out onto land. On the ground they move awkwardly, waddling. And suddenly one pelican rises into the air. Alarmed by something, he pushes off from the water with both paws at the same time and, heavily flapping his wings, flies away from the island. The birds sitting on the shore immediately follow his example. After a few seconds, all the birds were in the air. They randomly circle over the lake, then line up in one wavy line and, having made two large circles with the whole flock, fly away to the east, towards the sun.

I had a chance to see all this quite a long time ago. Nowadays, there are significantly fewer pelicans, their numbers continue to fall catastrophically, it is not for nothing that they are listed in the Red Book. The reason is the mowing and burning of reed beds, the disturbance that humans cause during bird nesting.

How can we help pelicans? His intolerant attitude towards poaching, his understanding of his responsibility for the existence of rare birds on the planet. And also - human delicacy: you just need to take care of the pelicans’ nesting sites and not disturb the birds, especially during the most difficult time for them - when laying eggs, incubating and hatching chicks.

(By) (311 words)

Statement one We must help our feathered friends!

Waking up at dawn to the quacking of ducks, I crawled out of the tent, but immediately returned on all fours for binoculars. A large flock of pelicans swam near the island. These birds are rarely seen in nature.

For the first time I see such a large flock of pelicans, in which at least a hundred birds have gathered. Taking a closer look, I noticed that there was a flock of Dalmatian and pink pelicans. Unlike their cousins, Dalmatian Pelicans have a “mane” of long, curling feathers and no pink tint to their plumage. Cormorants swam and seagulls flew next to the pelicans. When catching fish, cormorants dived completely, while pelicans submerged only their heads, necks and front parts of their bodies into the water. Occasionally the splashing of waves and the cries of seagulls could be heard.

The hunt has come to an end. Birds began to come to land. One pelican, frightened by something, pushed off the water with both paws and soared into the sky. The rest of the birds followed his example. A flock of birds lined up in one wavy line and, having made two large circles, flew east, towards the sun.

The events I described took place quite a long time ago. Currently, the number of pelicans is sharply declining. It’s not for nothing that these birds are listed in the Red Book. The population decline is due to the mowing and burning of reed beds.

We can help our feathered friends if we take care of them.

Even with the naked eye it is clear that the student did not cope with his task - to write a concise presentation: instead of a concise one, he ended up with a detailed presentation. This is evidenced, in particular, by the number of words in the presentation - 199 words, or 64% of the content of the source text. This is precisely the parameter that characterizes a detailed presentation.

How to evaluate such work? If you follow the developed criterion base, it turns out that you can give a lot of points for it. “The examinee conveyed the main content of the text he listened to, reflecting... all the micro-topics important for his perception” (3 points); “used one or more text compression techniques” - the presentation, albeit clumsily, actually used one such technique - in the last paragraph (1 more point); the work “has no logical errors and no violations of paragraph division of the text” (2 points). So, if you formally follow the criteria, then you can give the maximum number of points for the content - 6. (Marked (underlined) speech, mainly stylistic, errors are taken into account on another scale - “for literacy.”)

Another thing is that such a presentation cannot be considered concise. The student did not demonstrate the ability to highlight the main thing in the text, select essential information, or find linguistic means of generalization. Namely, it is from these positions that a condensed presentation should be assessed first of all. So the criteria are criteria, and most teachers would not give more than a C for this work.

Second presentation

Pelicans are rare birds

"Waking up at dawn to the quacking of ducks, I took my binoculars.

For the first time I saw a huge flock of Dalmatian and pink pelicans. They fed in the water and fished. The curly ones are slightly larger than the pink ones. They have a clearly visible “mane” - curled feathers on the head, and there is no pink tint in the plumage. Pelicans, plunging their heads, necks and front parts of their bodies into the water, caught fish.

Birds move awkwardly on the ground. One pelican took off into the air, and the rest also took off. Lined up in a wavy line, the birds flew away to the east.

The number of pelicans is rapidly falling. They are listed in the Red Book. The reason for the decline in the number of pelicans is the mowing and burning of reed beds, which serve as their nests.

How to help pelicans? Understand the responsibility for the existence of rare birds, protect the nesting places of pelicans and not disturb them while laying eggs and hatching chicks.

(124 words)

What is the main disadvantage of this work? In the absence of semantic integrity and verbal coherence of the narrative. The student obviously believes that he must write a short summary (and thereby makes a common mistake, perceiving the words brief and short as synonyms), but he does not know what to abbreviate and does not know how to compress the text. Where it is necessary to convey essential information, he excludes it (in this sense, the 1st paragraph is typical: it is unclear for what purpose the camera was taken and what actually happened), and where it is necessary to exclude details, for example, a description of two types of pelicans in 2nd paragraph, he carefully preserves these details. (In the text of the presentation, details that should be excluded are highlighted in light italics.)

Let us note another typical mistake - the lack of a logical connection between two parts of the text, which is carried out using the sentence. The events I described took place quite a long time ago. Without it, the text loses its integrity, the narrative about a long-standing meeting with pelicans (the first three paragraphs) and the discussion about their preservation in our days (the 4th and 5th paragraphs) are torn apart, it seems that we have two different texts. Restoring the missing semantic link makes the text more understandable. The logic of the development of thought here is as follows: once upon a time you could see a flock of pelicans consisting of a hundred birds, but now there are significantly fewer of them and they need protection.

In general, the presentation is weak, however, it has one small plus: the not very clear phrase Reason for mowing and burning reed beds is supplemented by a subordinate clause that serve as nests for them. This information is not clearly expressed in the source text (the so-called semantic well), but the student brings this information to the surface, which indicates his understanding of this sentence.

Exposition three

Rare birds

Waking up at dawn, I left the tent and looked around. But then I had to crawl back to get the binoculars. A flock of pelicans swam a hundred meters from the shore. [Missing paragraph] This is the first time I have seen such a large flock. Looking closely, I realize that it is a flock of Dalmatian and Pink Pelicans feeding.

[No paragraph needed.] Cormorants swim around the pelicans. They rush after the fish, and the pelicans quickly dive and grab it. [Factual error.]

Now the hunt is over. The birds head towards the shore, paws plopping heavily. One pelican rises into the air. The birds sitting on the shore follow his example. Soon the whole flock was in the air and flew east, towards the sun.

These days their [speech error] numbers are falling. Therefore, they are listed in the Red Book. The reason is the pumping Lexical error] and burning of reed beds, the disturbance caused by humans during nesting birds. [Missing paragraph] How can we help birds?

[Paragraph not needed.] The main thing is to protect their nesting sites and not disturb them while the chicks are incubating and hatching.

Using the example of this work, we can clearly show ninth-graders such a common logical error as a violation of the paragraph division of the text. One gets the impression that, having written the presentation, the student at the end arranged the paragraphs simply at random; he has no idea about the logic of the presentation.

You can prevent this logical error by introducing students to the rules of paragraph construction:

In one paragraph, as a rule, only one micro-topic is presented.

The arrangement of sentences within a paragraph follows a pattern: beginning, development of thought, ending.

The most important sentence of a paragraph (the sentence that expresses its topic or main idea) is usually placed at the beginning or end of the paragraph.

The development of thought in a paragraph is carried out in one of the following ways: detailing, giving examples, comparison or contrast, analogy, explanation, justification of the thesis, etc.5]

We invite students to independently compile a table for the text about pelicans that reflects the content of microtopics (similar to the one given in the instructions for experts). In educational presentation, such work is absolutely necessary, although it cannot be called easy. To isolate microthemes means to reduce part of the text to one or two sentences, when “each part of the text appears to be some kind of “semantic point”, “semantic point”, in which the entire content of the part seems to be compressed”6.

Here is an example of such work done by one of the students.

Paragraph no.	Micro theme
	One morning I saw a large flock of pelicans
	The flock consisted of Dalmatian and pink pelicans that were hunting for fish
	After the hunt, the pelicans came to land. Suddenly one pelican took off, the rest flew away after it
	All this was a long time ago. There are fewer and fewer pelicans these days due to human intervention in their lives.
	Pelicans can be helped, but for this it is necessary for people to realize their responsibility for the preservation of these rare birds on earth

So, the most typical content errors when writing a concise presentation are the omission of one or more microtopics, the lack of text compression techniques, and logical errors.

When analyzing and evaluating presentations, the main attention was paid to the content side. As observations and experience (including our own) show, it is this part of the work that causes the greatest difficulties and doubts for teachers. When checking ordinary statements, statements not intended for the prying eye, written not for an expert, we, often without realizing it ourselves, first of all begin to count speech, grammatical, spelling and other errors - those that are easier to count and count. Content errors are more complicated. However, they are the litmus test for understanding the text - a skill that, unfortunately, only a few students possess.

Productive communication skills: 1. Structured perception of text. 2. The ability to identify micro-topics. 3. Highlight the main thing, cut off the unimportant. The purpose of the work is information processing of the text, selection of lexical and grammatical means to convey brief information.

Students' mistakes 1. Inability to recognize words and expressions in the text that mark key points of content. 2. Gravitation towards a complete presentation, which does not require analysis of the content of the source text. 3. Omission of micro-topics or expansion of information in the source text - lack of adequacy of listening comprehension of the text.

Text for a condensed presentation Let's think about how often we get upset that we didn't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that people do not understand us? Of course, the latter happens more often. When they don’t understand us, we feel offended. We are upset that our parents, teachers, and classmates do not understand us. We worry to tears that those we like and respect do not understand us. We are confident that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand all of them, but here they are... But while we are confident that while we judge ourselves less strictly than others, misunderstanding is born. Maybe we should start with ourselves, with what we ourselves lack? Perhaps this is the first step towards understanding? Do we, for example, have enough imagination? After all, imagination, as one of the writers accurately noted, is not needed at all in order to come up with something non-existent or unrealizable. Imagination is needed in order to capture with the mind's eye the hidden corners of the human soul. Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in which we are surrounded only by models and diagrams, and not by real people. But to understand a person, imagination alone is not enough; you also need close attention to people, the desire to peer, listen with benevolent sympathy, with heartfelt participation. We need compassion, which encourages us to listen not only to words, but also to intonation, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. With such an attitude, the difference in views and feelings never turns into misunderstanding. (Based on materials from Internet sites)

Micro-themes of the text: 1. We often worry because they do not understand us, but we are sure that we ourselves understand those around us. 2. Perhaps misunderstanding arises from the fact that we judge ourselves less strictly than others, and do not notice that we ourselves lack something. 3. The role of imagination in understanding the world and man. 4. To understand a person, in addition to imagination, attention and compassion are needed.

IC 1 – 3 points “We are rarely upset that we did not understand someone, but we often worry that we were not understood. We always think that we can understand others, but they cannot understand us. Or maybe this is why misunderstanding arises, because everyone judges himself less strictly than others? Probably the first step to understanding is to think about what we ourselves lack. For example, do we have enough imagination, which is exactly what is needed to understand all the richness and diversity of human life and soul? After all, without imagination there is no image of the world around us. Without this, life becomes flat and people become sketchy. But imagination alone is not enough to understand. We also need attention and compassion for people. Then understanding is possible, even if people have different views.” (116 words)

IR1 – 3 points “Often we are upset by misunderstanding on the part of loved ones, friends, acquaintances: it seems to us that we understand others perfectly, but others do not understand us. This is natural, since a person rarely thinks about the reasons for his misunderstanding, looking for a problem in someone else. Wouldn't it be better to start with ourselves, by thinking about what we ourselves lack? One of the most important criteria for mutual understanding is imagination - not the one that generates in thoughts the non-existent and unrealizable, but the one that allows you to embrace with your mind and heart all the wealth of feelings and emotions, all the richness of life, its joys and tragedies...”

IR1 – 2 points “But it’s not only imagination that helps us understand another person. You also need close attention, compassion, the desire to peer, listen, to notice not only words, but also intonations, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. And then the difference in views and feelings will never develop into misunderstanding. Only by knowing yourself, and then those around you, can you reflect on mutual understanding, look for the causes of problems in relationships and solve these problems.”

IR1 -1 point “People often do not understand each other. We are upset that we are not understood. But that's because we lack imagination. And imagination is not only what is associated with fantasy. Imagination helps to imagine the image of a person, to look into his soul, into the most hidden corners. Without imagination, it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person; everything will turn out to look like a diagram. But imagination alone is not enough to create an image of a person and understand him. You also need to treat him carefully and with compassion. Then there will be no misunderstanding." (79 words)

IR1 -0 points “Very often we ask the question: “Are we understood?” The answer is usually no. And sometimes it hurts to the point of tears because even our closest friends don’t understand us. But does the reason for this lie within us, in the confidence that we understand, try to understand others? Probably, before blaming others, you need to look into yourself, figure out how I treat others. But most of all, attention to people is needed, participation in their problems, compassion for their grief. It is necessary not only to understand the meaning of words, but also to feel the mood and emotions of a person. If a person understands himself, then he will be understood by those around him.” (113 words)

IR1- 0 points The first micro-theme is reflected only partially, an important idea is missed: “We are confident that we ourselves understand those around us.” The second micro-theme has been replaced by another; Speaking about imagination, the author does not identify its function, which in the source text is emphasized as the most important: imagination is necessary for understanding the world and man. Having missed 3 microthemes, the author adds a microtheme that does not exist in the source text (the last sentence of the presentation)

IR2 -1 point The examinee used 1 or several text compression techniques (content, language). “People often do not understand each other. We are upset that we are not understood. But that's because we lack imagination. And imagination is not only what is associated with fantasy. Imagination helps to imagine the image of a person, to look into his soul, into the most hidden corners. Without imagination, it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person; everything will turn out to look like a diagram. But imagination alone is not enough to create an image of a person and understand him. You also need to treat him carefully and with compassion. Then there will be no misunderstanding." (79 words)

2. Replacement of part of the sentence with a defining pronoun with a general meaning (“everything”), elimination of repetitions and simultaneous merging of two sentences into one (“Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in it we are surrounded just models and diagrams, not real people” - “Without imagination it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person, everything will turn out to be similar to a diagram”). Compression methods - language tools

Compression techniques 1). Exclusion of secondary information (content-based technique); 2). Merging two sentences into one (“We are rarely upset that we did not understand someone, but we often worry that we were not understood”); 3). Exclusion of a sentence fragment, different types of substitutions (“We always think that we can understand others, but they cannot understand us”).

SG2 – 0 points “Misunderstanding between people arises unnoticed. Many people think that they understand their close friends well. And their friends don't really understand them. The second example often occurs in life. When our parents, teachers, and classmates don’t understand us, we get upset. And if those people whom we like and whom we respect do not understand us, then we are upset to the point of tears.”

Concise summary Let's think about how often we get upset that we didn't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that people do not understand us? Of course, the latter happens more often. When they don’t understand us, we feel offended. We are upset that our parents, teachers, and classmates do not understand us. We worry to tears that those we like and respect do not understand us. We are sure that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand them all, but here they are...

Concise summary Let's think about how often we get upset that we didn't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that people do not understand us? Of course, the latter happens more often. When they don’t understand us, we feel offended. We are upset that our parents, teachers, and classmates do not understand us. We worry to tears that those we like and respect do not understand us. We are sure that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand all of them, but here they are...

Concise summary Do we, for example, have enough imagination? After all, imagination, as one of the writers accurately noted, is not needed at all in order to come up with something non-existent or unrealizable. Imagination is needed in order to embrace with the mind and heart all the richness of life, its situations, its turns, in order to see with the mind’s eye the hidden corners of the human soul. Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in which we are surrounded only by models and diagrams, and not by real people.

Concise presentation But to understand a person, imagination alone is not enough; you also need close attention to people, the desire to look closely, listen with benevolent sympathy, with heartfelt participation. We need compassion, which awakens us to listen not only to words, but also to intonation, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. With such an attitude, the difference in views and feelings never turns into misunderstanding.

Preparing students to perform
text tasks in the final certification
in Russian language in grades 9–11

authors: N.A. Borisenko, A.G. Narushevich, N.A. Shapiro

Syllabus

Newspaper no.	Lecture title
17	Lecture No. 1. Types of final certification in the Russian language in grades 9 and 11. General methodological approaches to working with text in Unified State Examination tasks. Regulatory documents for the Unified State Exam
18	Lecture No. 2.Modern approaches to writing expositions. Basic requirements for presentation. Types of presentations. Understanding and remembering text based on reconstructive imagination
19	Lecture No. 3 . Detailed and concise presentation. Analysis of microthemes. Text compression methods. Technology of writing an essay based on the text of the presentation
20	Lecture No. 4. Evaluation of presentation. Evaluation criteria. Types of errors. Analysis of students' written work Test No. 1
21	Lecture No. 5.Requirements for the content of part C of the Unified State Exam in Russian. Ways to identify the problem of the text and the author's position. Commenting as analytical and synthetic work with text
22	Lecture No. 6 . Methods of argumentation. Arguing your own opinion: logical, psychological and illustrative arguments. Analysis of student work. Working on the composition. Main types of introductory and final parts Test No. 2
23	Lecture No. 7 . General principles of writing essays. Topic analysis. Composition of the essay. Checking and editing. Exam time allocation
24	Lecture No. 8 . Varieties of essays on literary topics. Analysis of poetic and prose works. Analysis of an excerpt from the work. Essay on a problematic topic Final work

LECTURE No. 2.
Modern approaches to writing expositions.

Basic requirements for presentation. Types of presentations.
Understanding and remembering text based on
recreating imagination

Presentation, one of the traditional types of written work in school, has been experiencing a real boom in recent years. It has become the most common form of final examination. Suffice it to say that in all three versions of the final assessment in the 9th grade, the presentation is the first part of the examination paper.

According to the secondary school program, students write statements from the 1st grade, so this type of work is familiar to both ninth-graders and teachers. However, despite the apparent ease of the exam, many students fail due to a fundamentally incorrect approach to presentation: “I listened twice, memorized and wrote it down. The main thing is no mistakes.”

But, before starting a detailed conversation about presentation, we suggest you answer a few questions that inevitably arise before every teacher if he is not satisfied with the current practice of teaching presentation.

1. What is more difficult for your students: presentation or composition?

2. Why is the presentation written? What skills do we develop by teaching children to reproduce someone else’s text?

3. Which texts are “suitable” for presentation and which are not? What is good exposition text?

Presentation: a student’s perspective

It’s even better if these questions are answered not by the teacher, but by the students themselves. Therefore, at the beginning of the school year, we will offer the class a short questionnaire that allows them to freely express their attitude to the presentation.

Questionnaire for Students, or Seven Questions about Presentation

1. Do you like writing expositions?

2. What is more difficult for you to write - an essay or a presentation? Explain why.

3. Why do you need to learn how to write expositions? Where can this skill be useful to you now and later?

4. What texts would you choose to present: about nature, about love for one’s native country, about outstanding people, about historical events, about school, about problems that concern teenagers, about...?

5. If it were forbidden to take notes while listening to the text, would it be more difficult for you to write a summary?

6. Which presentation is easier to write - detailed or concise? What does it mean to “compress” text?

7. What difficulties do you experience when writing an exposition?

If you have an average class, then most likely you will get the same answers as we did.

Only every fifth 9th grader likes to write an essay. Most students find this activity very tedious, boring and difficult, especially “if you write a summary every week.”

70% of respondents answered that it is more difficult for them to write an essay than an exposition, since “in an exposition you simply need to retell someone else’s text, but an essay requires your own thoughts”; “in an essay you come up with your own, but the presentation is almost dictated, you just have to have time to write it down,” “you don’t have to think about the presentation.” And yet, there are also many who have difficulty reproducing other people’s thoughts. Here are excerpts from the questionnaires: “I don’t remember the text well,” “for presentation you need an auditory memory bordering on the fantastic, but I have zero,” “I’m inattentive, often distracted when listening to the text,” “I suffer from a lack of logic,” “I don’t understand well.” what they read”, “I don’t remember the end”, “I have a small vocabulary”, “I can’t express a thought”, “I get confused in endless repetitions”, “I write illiterately”, etc.

Most often, ninth-graders complain about their memory and inability to write quickly. Here is a typical answer: “The text is very large, but it is read only twice, I don’t have time to write anything down.” And only in one of the 120 works was there a completely “adult” approach to the matter: “To write an exposition, you need to understand the text, remember it and be able to identify micro-topics. This is the main difficulty."

The ability to write a summary, according to ninth-graders, can be useful “when passing the Unified State Exam”, “when taking notes on lectures at the institute”, “for journalists or reporters, if you need to quickly record what a “star” is saying, and the recorder breaks down”, “in the police when you need to write a protocol." Many people generally deny the need for such a skill. However, there are also quite mature judgments: presentation is memory training, and every person needs a good memory.

The established practice of writing expositions - deliberately slow reading of the source text, often more reminiscent of dictation, and permission to take notes during the second hearing - led to the fact that the main task for our students was the desire to write down as quickly and as much as possible. If students were deprived of this opportunity, less than 30% would cope with the presentation. Here is one of the typical answers: “I’m unlikely to write it, I’ve never tried this.” In fact, literal recording of a text is no better than ordinary cramming. Memorizing without understanding characteristic of children of preschool and primary school age, practically returns ninth-graders to childhood.

First of all, the text you listen to needs to be understood, and only a few graduates have this skill. According to the results of a survey of 200 schools in 76 regions of the country, in which about 170 thousand schoolchildren in the first and tenth grades participated, more than 50% of tenth graders found it difficult to extract meaning from an elementary text, only 30% expressed their opinion in connection with what they read, 90% of high school students do not have a complete understanding the meaning of a literary text.

Unfortunately, the teacher himself often underestimates the role of understanding when teaching presentation. Meanwhile, properly organized work in preparation for presentation is, first of all, work on understanding and memorizing the text. If a student misses some essential thoughts of the source text, distorts the main idea, or does not feel the author’s attitude, this means that the text is not understood or is not fully understood.

EXAMPLE 1

Original text

A discovery that was two hundred years late

Here's a cautionary tale.

About a hundred years ago, in a city in Russia there lived a mathematician. All his life he patiently struggled to solve a complex mathematical problem. Neither strangers nor acquaintances could understand what the eccentric was tormenting over.

Some felt sorry for him, others laughed at him. He didn't pay attention to anyone or anything around him. He lived like Robinson on a desert island. Only his island was surrounded not by a sea of ​​water, but by a sea of ​​misunderstanding.

He rediscovered all the mathematical rules, except the most important ones, which he had learned during his short time at school.

And he built what he wanted to build from them the way Robinson built his boat. He suffered in the same way, made the same mistakes, did unnecessary work and started to redo everything all over again, because no one could help or advise him.

Many years later. He finished his work and showed it to a math teacher he knew. The teacher spent a long time figuring it out, and when he figured it out, he transferred his work to the university. A few days later, the scientists invited the eccentric to their place. They looked at him with admiration and pity. There was something to admire and something to regret. The eccentric made a great mathematical discovery! The chairman of the meeting told him so. But, alas, two hundred years before him, this discovery had already been made by another mathematician - Isaac Newton.

At first the old man did not believe what he was told. They explained to him that Newton wrote his books on mathematics in Latin. And in his old age he sat down to Latin textbooks. Learned Latin. I read Newton’s book and found out that everything he was told at a meeting at the university was true. He really made a discovery. But this discovery has long been known to the world. Life was lived in vain.

This sad story was told by the writer N. Garin-Mikhailovsky. He called the story about the eccentric “Genius” and made a note to the story that this story was not made up, but happened in reality.

Who knows what discoveries this unknown genius could give people, if I learned about Newton's discovery earlier and I would direct my talent to discovering something that is not yet known to people!

(325 words)
(S. Lvov)

Text of the presentation

There was once a mathematician who spent his whole life solving one problem. But no one wanted to help him, everyone just laughed at him. He lived like Robinson on a desert island. He himself discovered all the mathematical rules that are taught at school.

Many years later, the eccentric showed the solution to the problem to which he had devoted his entire life to a teacher he knew. The teacher could not figure out the problem for a long time and showed it to the scientists. The old man was invited to a meeting at the university. Everyone began to admire him because he, it turns out, had made an outstanding discovery.

One writer who told a story about an eccentric mathematician correctly titled his story “Genius.”

The work requires no comments. And this is not a matter of violations of logic or poverty of language. The problem is much more serious: the text is simply not understood, its main idea is not understood (“Humanity would have recognized the mathematician who made the great discovery as a genius if Newton had not made this discovery two hundred years before him.”) Key words and phrases left unattended (studied at school for a short time, unnecessary work, rediscovered, looked with admiration and pity, the world has long known, a sad story). Even such strong signals as a telling title and sentences that directly reveal the author’s position (they are highlighted in the text) missed the author of the presentation.

It must be admitted that more than half of the class failed to complete the task of formulating the main idea of ​​the text. Here are statements that indicate a complete misunderstanding of the text.

1. This man has achieved everything on his own all his life and received an education through his own labor. He was a genius and managed to discover Newton's own laws.

2. The point of this text is to show that there are people who evoke our sympathy and pity.

4. In life, geniuses are strange people, and it is difficult for them to communicate with people, to be in society, so no one recognizes our hero. But I believe that his suffering was not in vain, since this discovery was the goal of his life and he achieved everything that was planned.

5. I think that the main problem of this text is the reluctance of people to help each other, the reluctance to accept help, and in general the problem of relationships between people. If the mathematician had listened to others, he would not have lived his life in vain. He could have directed his mind to something more useful.

And only in some works did reading comprehension appear.

1. “The main idea of ​​the text can be formulated using the well-known expressions “reinventing the wheel” and “discovering America.” Indeed, why invent something that others did before you a long time ago?

Unfortunately, such cases are not uncommon today. Therefore, before you start inventing anything, you must first study your chosen field of science well. Understand what and to what extent others have done before you.”

2. “Sergei Lvov told us a sad story, or rather, retold it to us. I feel sorry for this eccentric, this “unknown genius”, who spent all his strength on the discovery made by Newton two hundred years before him.

In order not to discover what has already been discovered, you need to read a lot, study a lot, communicate with other scientists, and not surround yourself with a “sea of ​​misunderstanding.” This is precisely the main (it must be said, rather trivial) idea of ​​this text.

The hero of V. Shukshin’s story “Stubborn” found himself in a similar situation, who took up the invention of a perpetual motion machine. Of course, nothing came of this, because the creation of a perpetuum mobile, as is known, contradicts the laws of physics. Monya (that’s the name of Shukshin’s hero) did not believe this and “devoted himself entirely to the great inventive task.” At the end of the story, the engineer directly addresses the “stubborn” Monet: “You have to study, my friend, then everything will be clear.” Despite all its banality, the advice is actually correct. If this “genius” mathematician had received a good mathematical education (most likely he simply did not have such an opportunity), he would have directed his talent to discovering something that is not yet known to people.”

Is it possible to put presentation at the service of understanding the text? What are modern approaches to writing expositions? What can be done to transform the presentation of the “boring” genre, as it is most often perceived by students, into an effective means of their development?

Exposition as a genre

But first, let’s find out the features of presentation as a genre.

Presentation– a type of educational work based on the reproduction of the content of someone else’s text, the creation of a secondary text. Words presentation And retelling are often used as synonyms, but the term retelling more often refers to the oral form of text reproduction.

The specificity of the presentation follows from its nature as secondary text.

Let us turn to the class with the question: “What should not be confused with presentation?” The answer: “Of course, with an essay” will not follow immediately. We asked this “childish” question for a reason. It is necessary to explain to students once and for all that these genres have different tasks and different specifics. Unlike an essay, which is entirely “led” by the author, nothing that is not in the source text should not be in the presentation. The appearance in “your” text of background knowledge, facts and details that are not contained in the text is by no means encouraged. On the contrary, any “creativity” or fantasy of this kind is regarded as a factual error and leads to a decrease in points.

Thus, in the presentation about Pushkin and Pushchin (text No. 1 from the famous collection), the student should not mention that the meeting took place on January 11, 1825 in Mikhailovskoye, and in the presentation about the Battle of Borodino (text No. 47) in the phrase “Kutuzov first intends was “to start a new battle in the morning and stand to the end” there is no need to indicate the authorship of the quote. As a rule, errors of this kind are more typical of strong, erudite students. Information about the specifics of presentation as a genre should be addressed to them first.

Types of presentations

Traditionally, the following types of presentation are distinguished.

1. According to the form of speech: oral, written.

2. By volume: detailed, concise.

3. In relation to the content of the source text: complete, selective, presentation with an additional task (add the beginning/end, make inserts, retell the text from the 1st–3rd line, answer the question, etc.).

4. According to the perception of the source text: presentation of a read, visually perceived text, presentation of a heard, aurally perceived text, presentation of a text perceived both aurally and visually.

5. By purpose: training, control.

The features of all these types of presentations are well known to the teacher. Let us only note that in the 9th grade you should not concentrate both your own efforts and the efforts of the students on any one type. In the practice of preparing for an exam, there must be different texts, different presentations and, of course, different types of work, otherwise boredom and monotony - the main enemy of any activity - cannot be avoided. But, since there is very little time for presentation in the graduate class (you also need to go through the program), it is best to select small texts for training and train one specific skill.

Requirements for texts

The texts of the presentations do not satisfy not only us teachers, but also the children: they seem monotonous, “pretentious”, incomprehensible, too long (“try to retell a text of 400–450 words yourself, and most of the collections contain such!”). A game called “If I were a text writer, I would suggest texts about...” turned out to be very effective: students named a variety of topics - about school, about problems that concern teenagers, about interesting people, about great discoveries, about technology, sports, music, about relationships between people and even about the future of humanity. “Anyone except the boring ones!”

Why do children name these particular topics? What is leading in their choice? Without realizing it themselves, they act according to one criterion - emotional, choosing texts that primarily evoke positive emotions.

The selection of non-boring texts - informative, fascinating, problematic, smart, and sometimes humorous - arouses and maintains cognitive interest, and creates a favorable psychological climate in the lesson. Popular science and some journalistic texts are best suited for this purpose, less often - and only with a specific educational task - fiction.

The question of whether it is possible to offer texts from classical works for presentation is controversial. Many methodologists believe that by conveying the content of an artistically impeccable fragment close to the text, students learn those figures of speech that belong to Lermontov, Gogol, Tolstoy... During the presentation, the mechanism of imitation is activated, which has a beneficial effect on the child’s speech. But what does it mean to “retell in detail” Lermontov or Gogol (for example, the texts “About Pechorin”, “About Gogol’s Thick and Thin” or “About Sobakevich”)? If the passage is not very long, which cannot be said about exam texts, you can, with incredible effort, remember it almost word for word. However, in this case there is no need to talk about any understanding and development of speech. The situation with a detailed presentation of the classics was parodied by the students themselves in the genre of “bad advice”: “... you must replace all the author’s words with your own and at the same time preserve his style” (school No. 57, Moscow, 7th grade, teacher - S.V. Volkov).

How to present?

The question at first glance may seem rather strange: the methodology for conducting the presentation is known to any teacher.

But it’s worth abandoning some of the usual schemes and templates.

Let's talk about the presentation methodology proposed in our textbooks.

The teacher reads the text for the first time. Students, listening, try to understand and remember the text. After the first reading, they retell the text in order to understand what they did not remember. This work usually takes 5–7 minutes.

The teacher reads the text a second time. Students pay attention to those passages that they missed during the first reading. Then they retell the text again, make the necessary notes on the draft, draw up a plan, formulate the main idea, etc. And only after that they write the presentation.

Unlike the traditional method, during retelling children note not what they already remember well, but what they missed listening to the text. The new technique takes into account the psychological mechanisms operating in the process of text perception - the mechanisms of memorization and understanding. While reciting the text to himself, the student, albeit not immediately, realizes that he did not remember some parts of the text because he did not understand them. At the initial stage of learning, the text can be retold by one of the students. Control over memorization and understanding in this case is carried out externally - from other students: they note factual errors, omissions, logical inconsistencies, etc. As a result of such joint activities with the class, gradually even the weakest students learn to retell.

The role of such a mental process as the recreating imagination deserves a separate discussion.

Understanding and remembering text based on reconstructive imagination

As you know, in psychology there are different types of imagination: creative and recreative. Unlike creative imagination, aimed at creating new images, recreating aimed at creating images that correspond to verbal descriptions. It is the recreating imagination that permeates the entire educational process; without it it is impossible to imagine full-fledged learning.

Its role is especially important when reading a literary text. “Of course, this does not apply to all reading. Such reading, which has only one goal - to find out “what is being said here” and “what will happen next,” writes the famous psychologist B.M. Teplov - does not require active imagination. But such reading, when you mentally “see and hear” everything that is being discussed, when you are mentally transported to the situation being depicted and “live” in it - such reading is impossible without the most active work of the imagination.”

What has been said can be fully attributed to writing the presentation.

The teacher’s task is to make sure that when perceiving a literary text, the student mentally “sees and hears” what he is listening (reading). Achieving this, of course, is not easy. The reconstructive imagination of different people and children in particular is not developed to the same extent. Only a very few (according to our experiments, less than 10%) are able to see with their “mind's eye” the images created by writers.

EXAMPLE 2

Original text

In autumn, the whole house is covered with leaves, and in two small rooms it becomes light, like in a flying garden.

The stoves are crackling, there is a smell of apples and cleanly washed floors. Tits sit on branches, pour glass balls in their throats, ring, crackle and look at the windowsill, where there is a slice of black bread.

I rarely spend the night in the house. I spend most nights at the lakes, and when I stay at home I sleep in an old gazebo at the bottom of the garden. It is overgrown with wild grapes. In the mornings the sun hits it through the purple, lilac, green and lemon foliage, and it always seems to me that I wake up inside a lit tree.

It’s especially good in the gazebo on quiet autumn nights, when the slow, sheer rain is making a low noise in the garden.

The cool air barely moves the candle tongue. Angular shadows from grape leaves lie on the ceiling of the gazebo. A moth, looking like a lump of gray raw silk, lands on an open book and leaves shiny dust on the page.

It smells like rain - a gentle and at the same time pungent smell of moisture, damp garden paths.

(154 words)
(K. Paustovsky)

We specifically took for analysis descriptive text. If the text has a dynamic plot and is full of dialogues, then when reading it, the imagination, as a rule, turns on involuntarily. With a descriptive text, the situation is different: its full understanding and memorization is impossible without the activity of the imagination, the inclusion of which requires certain volitional efforts.

The text by K. Paustovsky, proposed for presentation, cannot be understood and retold if the reader does not see the pictures created by the author, does not hear the described sounds, does not smell the smells. Many students, after listening to the text for the first time, said that they did not remember anything. After they were asked to retell only what remained in their memory, some were able to recreate only individual elements of the depicted picture, while others imagined a picture that was far from the author’s. And most importantly, such children inevitably experienced failures in understanding.

Here are two examples of detailed presentations of this text. (As per work conditions, students were not allowed to write anything down during the hearing.)

First presentation

In autumn, the whole house is littered with leaves, and in two small rooms it is as bright as day. The house, like a leafless garden, smells of apples, lilacs, and washed floors. Tits are sitting on a branch outside the window, they are sorting glass balls on the windowsill and looking at the bread.

When I stay at home, I spend the night mostly in a gazebo overgrown with wild grapes. In the mornings I turn on the purple and lilac lights on the Christmas tree.

It’s especially good in the gazebo when it’s raining in autumn outside. It smells like rain and damp garden paths.”

Second presentation

In autumn, in a house covered with leaves, it is as light as in a leafless garden. You can hear the crackling sound of hot stoves, and the smell of apples and washed floors. Outside the window, tits sit on tree branches, sorting glass balls in their throats, ringing, crackling and looking at a slice of black bread lying on the windowsill.

I rarely spend the night in the house; I usually go to the lakes. But when I stay at home, I like to sleep in an old gazebo overgrown with wild grapes. The sun shines through the branches of the grapes in purple, green, lemon colors, and then I feel like I’m inside a lit Christmas tree. Angular shadows from wild grape leaves fall on the walls and ceiling of the gazebo.

It is especially wonderful in the gazebo when the quiet autumn rain rustles in the garden. A fresh breeze sways the tongue of the candle. A butterfly flies quietly, and, landing on an open book, this gray lump of raw silk leaves silver sparkles on the pages of the book.

At night I feel the quiet music of the rain, the gentle and pungent smell of moisture, wet garden paths.”

(142 words)

It is not difficult to guess which of the two presentations the author managed to use his imagination while listening to the text. And the point here is not in the completeness of the transfer of content and not in the richness and expressiveness of speech, but in the fact that the second student was able to recreate in visual, concrete sensory images the pictures described in the text; hear the sound of rain, sounds made by tits; smell apples, cleanly washed floors...

The first presentation, with the exception of the initial and last phrases, is a rather incoherent description. It captures individual details of the overall picture. It is unclear from the text where and when the action takes place. It seems that we are talking about autumn, but suddenly lilacs and a New Year tree appear; tits are either sitting outside the window, or on the windowsill, and at the same time sorting through glass balls - the author does not perceive metaphors and comparisons. Thus, we are talking about misunderstanding text. And this case is far from the only one: out of 28 students who wrote an exposition on this text, failures in understanding were noted in twelve.

Psychologists do not yet fully understand the processes that arise during the work of the imagination. Often we cannot often control whether it works when perceiving text or not. One of the means of checking the inclusion of imagination is precisely retelling (exposition). If the imagination was active while reading (listening) to the text, then the retelling will be complete and accurate. If the imagination is not activated, students make a large number of inaccuracies, omitting the essential, distorting images, paying attention to minor details. (Of course, this does not apply to all texts, but only to those that allow the inclusion of a reconstructive imagination).

“Lazy” imagination makes it difficult to understand the text and often makes learning itself painful, since the child has to resort to mechanical memorization of the text, to elementary cramming.

Meanwhile, the recreating imagination, in the figurative expression of the outstanding artist and scientist N.K. Roerich, “this subjective field of vision, a mental screen,” “can be developed to an amazing degree.” It is only necessary for the teacher himself to realize the need to work in this direction.

Let us describe one of the effective techniques that develop the reconstructive imagination.

This type of task is called "Use your imagination." It is formulated quite simply : “Imagine that everything you read about you see on your “mental screen.” Turn it on every time you meet with text" In the future, you can briefly remind about the need to activate the imagination: “Turn on your “mental screen”, “Try to see in your mind...”, “Let your imagination work,” etc.

The effectiveness of this technique has been confirmed by numerous experiments. The hard numbers speak for themselves: for those students who managed to use their imagination, text memorization improves four to five times.

The development of reconstructive imagination is important not only in itself, but also in connection with attention, memory, emotions, self-control, and most importantly, understanding. Without seeing the picture mentally created by the writer, the student in many cases cannot not only remember, but also understand the text.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are the features of exposition as a genre? Which of them will you take into account in your work?

2. How do your students feel about presentation? Take the questionnaire suggested in the lecture in class or create one yourself. Tell us about the results of the survey. Do they coincide with the data we received?

3. What are the requirements for the selection of texts for presentation? Find in collections of expositions or select two texts yourself that meet the specified requirements.

4. What is the role of the processes of understanding and memorization in teaching exposition?

5. If the techniques for developing the re-creative imagination described in the lecture caught your attention, try applying them in your class and share your observations and conclusions. This can be done in the form of a page from a pedagogical diary or in any other free form.

Literature

1. Antonova E.S.. Methods of teaching the Russian language: communicative-activity approach. M.: KNORUS, 2007.

2. Granik G.G., Bondarenko S.M., Kontsevaya L.A.. How to teach to work with a book. M., 1995. pp. 145–200.

3. Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.. Development of reconstructive imagination in Russian language lessons // Russian language at school. 2006. No. 6. P. 3–10.

4. Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.. Understanding the text in lessons of Russian language and literature // Russian language. 2007. No. 23. pp. 23–28.

5. Evgrafova E.M.. Understanding and imagination // Russian language, No. 5/2003. P. 14.

6. Methods of speech development in Russian language lessons / Ed. T.A. Ladyzhenskaya. M.: Education, 1991.

Soboleva O.V.. Understanding the text: why, whom, what and how to teach? // Russian language No. 23/2007. P. 29.

Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.
pp. 3–10.

Teplov B.M.. Psychological issues of artistic education // News of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, 1947. Vol. 11. pp. 7–26.

For more on re-creative imagination, see: Granik G.G., Bondarenko S.M., Kontsevaya L.A.. How to teach to work with a book. M., 1995. S. 145–200; Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.. Development of reconstructive imagination in Russian language lessons // Russian language at school. 2006. No. 6.
pp. 3–10.

ON THE. BORISENKO,
Korolev

(The material is presented in question and answer form)

1.Were you previously familiar with the method of developing a reconstructive imagination? If yes, from what sources? Have you used this technique or its individual techniques in your lessons?

I became acquainted with the method of recreating (mostly creative) imagination during my student years at the pedagogical institute at lectures on the methods of Russian language and literature from experienced teachers and mentors.

She systematically used certain techniques of reconstructive imagination in the lessons of preparation for presentation. The presentation was an exam task for ninth-graders almost all years of study, so it was necessary to prepare children for this type of work, starting from the fifth grade, relying on teaching aids that were offered to help the teacher. With the Internet connection, a variety of electronic materials became available to prepare students for the final exam in the form of the State Examination, the tasks of which included a concise presentation. Various pedagogical websites contain materials from the experience of the best teachers in preparing students for the State Examination, which significantly facilitated the teaching job and improved the quality of graduates’ knowledge.

Many programmatic texts for presentation, placed on the pages of school textbooks, allow the use of certain techniques of reconstructive imagination in their content. In recent years, it has become possible to develop students' recreative imagination on visual and musical images through presentations.

2. How did students perceive the new type of task? In which class did you use the technique? Have you been able to teach students to “turn on their imagination” and write a narrative based on it?

It is necessary to develop the student’s recreating imagination, and this is not an easy task. There are different children in front of the teacher in the lesson, and their reconstructive imagination is not developed to the same extent.

A new type of task called “Turn on your imagination”, when the teacher, addressing the children, says quite simply: “Imagine that everything you read about, you see on your “mental screen”, is perceived with pleasure.

It was necessary to use the method of reconstructive imagination in almost all grades, from 5 to 11, when working with texts where the content allowed it, and not only in Russian language lessons, but also in literature lessons when reading and analyzing works of fiction.

Here are some examples:

Preparation for a detailed presentation in grade 5 based on the text by G. Snegirev “The Brave Little Penguin.”

Preparation for a condensed presentation in 6th grade on the text

“Collector of Russian words” (about V.I. Dal).

Preparation for selective presentation in 7th grade based on the text by M.A. Sholokhov "The Fate of Man".

Preparation for a presentation with elements of an essay in grade 7 based on the text by K.G. Paustovsky “Creaky Floorboards”.

Preparation for a concise presentation in grade 8 based on a text from the newspaper “But there was a case.”

In 9th grade, when preparing for an exam condensed presentation and essay on a linguistic topic based on texts (mainly artistic style), an open bank of tasks on the FIPI website.

In grades 10-11, when preparing for an essay - reasoning for the Unified State Exam based on texts (mainly artistic style) of an open bank of tasks on the FIPI website.

In literature lessons, when compiling characteristics of the main characters based on an analysis of the most important episodes from the text.

Let us give examples of such works: I. S. Turgenev “Mumu”, L.N. Tolstoy “Childhood. Adolescence. Youth”, N.V. Gogol “Taras Bulba”, I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”, L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, M. A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita” and others.

An effective method for developing a reconstructive imagination that helps in work is watching episodes or an entire film adaptation of a read work (A.N. Tolstoy’s Fairy Tale “The Snow Maiden”, I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”, F.M. Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment” ”, M.A. Sholokhov “Quiet Don” L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, M.A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”, as well as documentaries about the life and work of this or that author (“In Yesenin’s Homeland ", V.M. Shukshin "Writer and Director").

Only recreation in visual, concrete sensory images of what the student reads, sees, hears contributes to the full perception of educational material.

3.Have you and your students experienced any difficulties in their work? What were they connected with?

Of course, there were difficulties. Tasks for the development of creative imagination had to be selected taking into account the individual characteristics of the students.

When preparing for presentation, presentations with ready-made visual images must be used very carefully. Slides should not contain images that are not related to the content of the text, as children begin to make factual errors and introduce episodes into the presentation that are not in the source text.

CONCRETE TEXT

based on recreative imagination

Baikal.

Baikal water! It is well known that it is the purest, most transparent, almost distilled. I didn’t know: this water, in its kilometer thickness, is the most beautiful. Its shades are countless. On a quiet summer morning in the shade of the shore, the water is blue, thick and juicy. As the sun rises higher, the color also changes; more delicate pastel colors are used. A breeze blew - someone suddenly added blue to the lake. It blew harder - the gray strokes lined this blue with foamy stripes. The lake seems to be alive: it breathes, changes, rejoices, gets angry.

What's going on here in the evening? The sun quietly sank behind the mountains, threw up a farewell green ray, and Baikal instantly reflected this delicate greenery. Old man Baikal is as receptive as a young man. The next day, the dawn painted half the sky with red strokes of long, high clouds - Baikal was burning, it was hot.

Winter on Lake Baikal is no less colorful. The ice hummocks turn blue, then green, and then, like a prism, they cast the sun's ray like a seven-color rainbow. It’s nice to wander along the shores of the lake at this time: it has its own microclimate, the winters are milder, the summers are cooler. Snowy taiga, mountains and sun, sun! A wonderful setting for Lake Baikal!

(According to R. Armeev, 152 words)

Slide 1

Work on mistakes

Slide 2

WILL BE - FUTURE NEXT - NEXT
WRITE CORRECTLY!
I

Slide 3

Grammar mistake
From the verb nesov. type  gerund participle nes. type From the verb owl. type  gerund participle owls. type Error: not anticipating deception

Slide 4

Gross spelling errors
The art of participating

Slide 5

Concise presentation
Text and compression option

Slide 6

Listening text

Slide 7

Imagination
This is the most valuable ability, thanks to which we can imagine the future and are able to model and build it.
How the ability to reflect life in images of the inner world
How the ability to transform the world in consciousness with the help of fantasy
All people and even animals are endowed
Only man is endowed
1 part of text (1 paragraph)
Part 2 of the text (paragraph 2)
Part 3 of the text (3 paragraph)
In one meaning
In a different meaning
The structure of the presentation, the semantic connection of its parts

Slide 8

Listening text. General (key) information.

If we understand imagination as the ability to reflect life in images of the inner world, then we must admit that not only people of creative professions are endowed with this ability. Imagination in this sense of the word is inherent in every person; moreover, even animals are endowed with it. It’s a completely different matter if we are talking about the ability to transform the world in the mind with the help of fantasy, that is, about the ability to see with our inner gaze what is not yet in real life. Such imagination is the main condition for creativity, and it is unique to humans. It is this kind of imagination that gives birth to brilliant scientific discoveries and great works of art. The importance of this human ability cannot be overstated. It not only opens a window for us into the world of the future, but allows us to directly participate in the formation, modeling of this world, and build it according to our desire. What is a figment of human imagination today will become reality tomorrow. Imagination is the beginning of the path to achieving a great goal, the first step towards realizing a dream. (141 words) (based on Internet materials)

Slide 9

1 paragraph
If we understand imagination as the ability to reflect life in images of the inner world, then we must admit that not only people of creative professions are endowed with this ability. Imagination in this sense of the word is inherent in every person; moreover, even animals are endowed with it. 37 words
If by imagination we mean the ability to reflect life in images of the inner world, then not only people of creative professions have this. All people and even animals have such an imagination. 27 words

Slide 10

2 paragraph
It’s a completely different matter if we are talking about the ability to transform the world in the mind with the help of fantasy, that is, about the ability to see with our inner gaze what is not yet in real life. Such imagination is the main condition for creativity, and it is unique to humans. It is this kind of imagination that gives birth to brilliant scientific discoveries and great works of art. 50 words
If we talk about the ability to transform the world in one’s mind with the help of imagination, then such imagination is inherent only to man. And it is the main condition for creativity. Such imagination gives birth to brilliant scientific discoveries and great works of art. 34 words
If we talk about the ability to transform the world in one’s consciousness with the help of imagination, then such imagination, being the main condition for creativity, is inherent only to man. It is this that gives birth to brilliant scientific discoveries and great works of art. 32 words
We exclude the clarifying construction (begins with the words THAT IS)

Slide 11

3 paragraph
The importance of this human ability cannot be overstated. It not only opens a window for us into the world of the future, but allows us to directly participate in the formation, modeling of this world, and build it according to our desire. What is a figment of human imagination today will become reality tomorrow. Imagination is the beginning of the path to achieving a great goal, the first step towards realizing a dream. 54 words
Thanks to this ability, the importance of which is difficult to overestimate, ... OR Thanks to this most valuable ability, we can not only imagine the future, but are also able to model it at will in order to bring it to life tomorrow. Imagination is the first step to making your dreams come true. 32 words

Slide 12

Logical errors
A logical error is a violation of the rules or laws of logic, a sign of the formal inconsistency of definitions, reasoning, evidence and conclusions. Logical errors include a wide range of violations in the construction of a detailed monologue on a given topic, ranging from deviations from the topic, omission of necessary parts of the work, lack of connection between parts and ending with individual logical inconsistencies in the interpretation of facts and phenomena. Typical logical errors of examinees include: 1) violation of the sequence of statements; 2) lack of connection between parts of the utterance; 3) unjustified repetition of a previously expressed thought; 4) fragmentation of a micro-theme by another micro-theme; 5) disproportionality of parts of the statement; 6) absence of necessary parts of the statement, etc.; 7) violation of cause-and-effect relationships; 8) violation of the logical-compositional structure of the text. The text is a group of sentences that are closely interrelated in meaning and grammatically, revealing one micro-topic. The text, as a rule, has the following logical-compositional structure: beginning (beginning of thought, formulation of the topic), middle part (development of thought, topic) and ending (summarizing). It should be noted that this composition is typical, typical, but not mandatory. Depending on the structure of the work or its fragments, texts without any of these components are possible. The text, unlike a single sentence, has a flexible structure, so when constructing it there is some freedom in choosing forms. However, it is not unlimited. When writing a presentation or essay, it is necessary to logically and reasonably construct a monologue statement and make generalizations. When writing a presentation, it is necessary to logically and consistently construct a monologue statement.

Slide 13

Measure -ryu, -rish to measure (colloquial) -yay, -yay; nesov., pereh.

Slide 14

Errors associated with violation of speech and grammatical norms
Speech errors A speech (including stylistic) error is an error not in the construction, not in the structure of a linguistic unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word. These are mainly violations of lexical norms, for example: Stolz is one of the main characters of Goncharov’s novel of the same name “Oblomov”; They lost their only two sons in the war. The word eponymous (or unique) itself does not contain an error; it is only used poorly, does not “fit” into the context, and does not fit in meaning with its immediate surroundings.

Slide 15

Speech (including stylistic) errors include:
using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it; use of foreign words and expressions; inappropriate use of expressive, emotionally charged words; unmotivated use of dialect and colloquial words and expressions; mixing vocabulary from different historical eras; violation of lexical compatibility (words in the Russian language are combined with each other depending on their meaning; on the traditions of use caused by language practice (words with limited compatibility); the use of an extra word (pleonasm); repetition or double use in a verbal text of synonyms that are close in meaning without justified necessity (tautology); unjustified omission of a word; poverty and monotony of syntactic structures; word order leading to an ambiguous understanding of the sentence.

Slide 16

Distinguishing between types of speech (including stylistic) errors is especially important when assessing works of excellent and good level. At the same time, it should be remembered that maintaining unity of style is the highest achievement of a writer. Therefore, individual stylistic errors made by schoolchildren are proposed to be considered stylistic shortcomings. Speech errors should be distinguished from grammatical errors (see below for more on this). Speech errors: disorders associated with underdeveloped speech: pleonasm, tautology, speech cliches, unmotivated use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; unsuccessful use of expressive means, clerical stuff; non-distinction (mixing) of paronyms; errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, polysemy not eliminated by the context.

Slide 17

The most common speech errors include the following:
1) Non-distinction (mixing) of paronyms: Predatory (instead of predatory) destruction of forests led to the formation of ravines; At the end of the meeting, the floor was introduced (instead of given) to a famous scientist; In such cases, I look in the “Philosophical Dictionary” (the verb look usually has an addition with the preposition on: to look at someone or something, and the verb look, which must be used in this sentence, has an addition with the preposition c) .

Slide 18

Slide 19

No. Type of error Examples
1 Use of a word in an unusual meaning We were shocked by the excellent acting. The idea develops throughout the entire text.
2 Failure to distinguish shades of meaning introduced into a word by prefixes and suffixes. My attitude to this problem has not changed. Effective measures were taken.
3 Non-distinction of synonymous words In the final sentence, the author uses gradation.
4 The use of words of a different stylistic coloring The author, addressing this problem, tries to direct people into a slightly different direction.
5 Inappropriate use of emotionally charged words and phraseological units Astafiev now and then resorts to the use of metaphors and personifications.
6 Unjustified use of colloquial words Such people always manage to bully others.
7 Violation of lexical compatibility The author increases the impression. The author uses artistic features (instead of a medium).
8 The use of unnecessary words, including pleonasm The author conveys the beauty of the landscape to us with the help of artistic techniques. A very handsome young man.
9 The use of cognate words in a close context (tautology) This story tells about real events.
10 Unjustified repetition of a word The hero of the story does not think about his actions. The hero does not even understand the full depth of what he has done.

Slide 20

The most common speech errors are shown in the table:
11 Poverty and monotony of syntactic structures When the writer came to the editorial office, the editor-in-chief received him. When they talked, the writer went to the hotel.
12 Unsuccessful use of pronouns This text was written by V. Belov. It refers to an artistic style. I immediately had a picture in my mind.

Slide 21

Grammatical errors
A grammatical error is an error in the structure of a language unit: in the structure of a word, phrase or sentence; This is a violation of any grammatical norm - word formation, morphological, syntactic. To detect a grammatical error, no context is needed, and this is what distinguishes it from a speech error, which is detected in context. You should also not mix grammatical and spelling errors. Grammatical errors consist of erroneous word formation, erroneous formation of forms of parts of speech, violation of agreement, control, type-temporal correlation of verb forms, violation of the connection between subject and predicate, erroneous construction of sentences with adverbial or participial phrases, homogeneous members, as well as complex sentences, in mixing direct and indirect speech, violating the boundaries of the sentence. For example: slip instead of slip, nobility instead of nobility (here an error was made in the word-formation structure of the word, the wrong prefix or suffix was used); without comment instead of without comment, go instead of go, easier (the form of the word is incorrectly formed, i.e. the morphological norm is violated); pay for the rent, awarded (the structure of the phrase is violated: management standards are not followed); After skating on the skating rink, my legs hurt; In the essay, I wanted to show the importance of sports and why I love it (sentences with participles (1) and homogeneous members (2) are constructed incorrectly, i.e. syntactic norms are violated).

Slide 22

The most typical grammatical errors associated with the use of verb forms, adverbs, particles:
1) errors in the formation of personal forms of verbs: He is driven by a feeling of compassion (the norm for the meaning of the verb used in the text is driven); 2) incorrect use of tense forms of verbs: This book gives knowledge about the history of the calendar, teaches you how to make calendar calculations quickly and accurately (should...give..., teach... or...gives..., teaches...) ; 3) errors in the use of active and passive participles: Streams of water flowing down struck the author of the text (should flow down); 4) errors in the formation of gerunds: Having walked onto the stage, the singers bowed (the norm was when they came out); 5) incorrect formation of adverbs: The author here was wrong (the norm here); 6) errors associated with violation of patterns and rules of grammar, arising under the influence of vernacular and dialects.

Slide 23

In addition, typical grammatical errors include syntactic errors, namely:
1) a violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate: The main thing that I now want to pay attention to is the artistic side of the work (correctly this is the artistic side of the work)", To benefit the Motherland, you need courage, knowledge, honesty (instead you need courage, knowledge, honesty )", 2) errors associated with the use of particles: It would be nice if the artist’s signature was on the picture", separation of a particle from the component of the sentence to which it relates (usually particles are placed before those parts of the sentence that they should highlight , but this pattern is often violated in essays): In the text, two problems are revealed (the restrictive particle of everything must stand before the subject: ... only two problems)", 3) unjustified omission of the subject (ellipsis): His courage, (?) to stand the author of the text is attracted for honor and justice", 4) incorrect construction of a complex sentence: The author of the text understands intelligence not only as enlightenment, intelligence, but also with the concept of “smart” the idea of ​​freethinking was associated.

Slide 24

No. Type of error Examples
1 Erroneous word formation Hardworking, mock
2 Erroneous formation of the noun form Many miracles of technology, not enough time
3 Erroneous formation of the adjective form More interesting, more beautiful
4 Erroneous formation of the numeral form With five hundred rubles
5 Erroneous formation of the form of the pronoun Their pathos, their children
6 Erroneous formation of the verb form They travel, they want, writing about the life of nature
7 Violation of coordination I know a group of guys who are seriously interested in jazz.
8 Violation of management We need to make our nature more beautiful. Tells the readers.
9 Disruption of the connection between the subject and the predicate The majority objected to such an assessment of his work.
10 Violation of the way of expressing the predicate in individual constructions He wrote a book that is epic. Everyone was glad, happy and cheerful.
11 Errors in constructing sentences with homogeneous members The country loved and was proud of the poet. In the essay I wanted to talk about the importance of sports and why I love it.
12 Errors in constructing sentences with participial phrases Reading the text, you get this feeling...
13 Errors in constructing sentences with participial phrases The narrow path was covered with falling snow underfoot.
11

Slide 25

Russian language. 9th grade GVE (oral form)
14 Errors in constructing a complex sentence This book taught me to value and respect friends, which I read as a child. The man thought it was a dream.
15 Mixing direct and indirect speech The author said that I do not agree with the reviewer’s opinion.
16 Violation of sentence boundaries When the hero came to his senses. It was too late.
17 Violation of the types of temporal correlation of verb forms The heart freezes for a moment and suddenly starts beating again.
The most common grammatical errors are shown in the table:

Slide 26

Converting points to grade:
0-14 points - mark "2" 15-24 points - mark "3" 25-33 points (of which at least 4 points according to the criteria of GK1-GK4) - mark "4" 34-39 points (of which at least 6 points according to the criteria of GK1-GK4) - mark “5”

Slide 27

Sequence of work on the exam
Recommendations

Make a summary! Imagination, a unique ability of our mind, is based primarily on memory. Under the influence of will or spiritual impulse, fragments of Our memories form an amazing, often fantastic mosaic. A moment - and now a magical carpet of imagination unfolds before our inner gaze. In order for the movie screen of the imagination to begin its work, it needs a reason. Usually the imagination turns on, starting from one or another detail of the surrounding reality. Often the reason that gives rise to a dream movement is the most insignificant. “Accidentally find a speck of dust from distant countries on your pocket knife - their murmur will appear strange, wrapped in a colored fog.” Yes, yes, often the indomitable work of the imagination begins with such specks of dust. Starting from reality, the imagination itself is capable of influencing it, forming our ideals, dictating our actions. After all, a person who dreams believes in his dream. This belief in a dream is the force that makes a person look for the imaginary in life, fight for its implementation, and finally - embody the imaginary.

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1 Types of presentations. Understanding and memorizing text based on reconstructive imagination Types of presentation Traditionally, the following types of presentation are distinguished. By form of speech: oral, written. By volume: detailed, condensed. In relation to the content of the source text: complete, selective, presentation with an additional task (add the beginning/end, make inserts, retell the text from the 1st to 3rd page, answer the question, etc.). According to the perception of the source text: presentation of a read, visually perceived text, presentation of a heard, aurally perceived text, presentation of a text perceived both aurally and visually. Purpose: training, control. The features of all these types of presentations are well known to the teacher. Let us only note that in the 9th grade you should not concentrate both your own efforts and the efforts of the students on any one type. In the practice of preparing for an exam, there must be different texts, different presentations and, of course, different types of work, otherwise boredom and monotony - the main enemy of any activity - cannot be avoided. But, since there is very little time for presentation in the graduating class (you also need to go through the program), it is best to select small texts for training and train one specific skill. Requirements for texts The texts of presentations do not satisfy not only us, teachers, but also children: they seem monotonous, “pretentious”, incomprehensible, too long (“try to retell the text in words yourself, and most of them are in the collections!”). A game called “If I were a text writer, I would suggest texts about...” turned out to be very effective: students named a variety of topics - about school, about problems that concern teenagers, about interesting people, about great discoveries, about technology, sports, music, relationships between people and even the future of humanity. “Anyone except the boring ones!” Why do children name these particular topics? What is leading in their choice? Without realizing it themselves, they act according to one criterion - emotional, choosing texts that primarily evoke positive emotions. The selection of non-boring - educational, fascinating, problematic, intelligent, and sometimes humorous - texts excites and maintains cognitive interest, creates a favorable psychological climate in the lesson. Popular science and some journalistic texts are best suited for this purpose, less often - and only with a specific educational task - fiction. The question of whether it is possible to offer texts from classical works for presentation is controversial. Many methodologists believe that by conveying the content of an artistically impeccable fragment close to the text, students learn those figures of speech that belong to Lermontov, Gogol, Tolstoy... During the presentation, the mechanism of imitation is activated, which has a beneficial effect on the child’s speech. But what does it mean to “retell in detail” Lermontov or Gogol (for example, the texts “About Pechorin”, “About Gogol’s Thick and Thin” or “About Sobakevich”)? If the passage is not very long, which cannot be said about exam texts, you can, with incredible effort, remember it almost word for word. However, in this case, there is no need to talk about any kind of understanding and development of speech. The situation with a detailed presentation of the classics was parodied by the students themselves in the genre of “bad advice”: “... you must replace all the author’s words with your own and at the same time preserve his style.” How to carry out the presentation? The question at first glance may seem rather strange: the methodology for conducting the presentation is known to any teacher. But it’s worth abandoning some of the usual schemes and templates.

2 The teacher reads the text for the first time. Students, listening, try to understand and remember the text. After the first reading, they retell the text in order to understand what they did not remember. This work usually takes 5-7 minutes. The teacher reads the text a second time. Students pay attention to those passages that they missed during the first reading. Then they retell the text again, make the necessary notes on the draft, draw up a plan, formulate the main idea, etc. And only after that they write the presentation. Unlike the traditional method, during retelling, children note not what they already remember well, but what they missed while listening to the text. The new technique takes into account the psychological mechanisms operating in the process of text perception - the mechanisms of memorization and understanding. While reciting the text to himself, the student, albeit not immediately, realizes that he did not remember some parts of the text because he did not understand them. At the initial stage of learning, the text can be retold by one of the students. In this case, control over memorization and understanding is carried out externally by other students: they note factual errors, omissions, logical inconsistencies, etc. As a result of such joint activities with the class, gradually even the weakest students learn to retell. The role of such a mental process as the recreating imagination deserves a separate discussion. Understanding and memorizing text based on recreating imagination As is known, in psychology there are different types of imagination: creative and recreating. Unlike creative imagination, which is aimed at creating new images, recreating is aimed at creating images that correspond to verbal descriptions. It is the recreating imagination that permeates the entire educational process; without it it is impossible to imagine full-fledged learning. Its role is especially important when reading a literary text. “Of course, this does not apply to all reading. Such reading, which pursues only one goal - to find out “what is being said here and what will happen next,” writes the famous psychologist B.M. Teplov, “does not require active work of the imagination. But such reading, when you mentally “see and hear” everything what we are talking about when you are mentally transported into the depicted situation and “live” in it - such reading is impossible without the most active work of the imagination." What has been said can be fully attributed to writing an exposition. The teacher’s task is to make sure that when perceiving artistic text, the student mentally “saw and heard” what he was listening (reading). Achieving this, of course, is not easy. The reconstructive imagination of different people and children in particular is not developed to the same extent. tracks.. Detailed and concise presentation Analysis of microthemes. Text compression methods. Technology for writing an essay based on the text of the presentation Features of a detailed and concise presentation Whatever form of final certification a ninth-grader chooses, he will have to write a statement: a detailed or condensed presentation with elements of an essay (traditional form), detailed (version 2007), condensed (version 2008) G.). Analysis of the questionnaires shows that ninth-graders understand the difference between detailed and concise presentation quite well. Two-thirds of them believe that retelling close to the text is easier, since “you can rely on memory and the ability to write quickly.” Although in the questionnaires there are also arguments, mostly naive, in favor of a concise presentation: “it’s easier to write because you’ll make fewer mistakes,” “there are fewer descriptions and all sorts of different details,” “teachers like brevity more.” To “compress” a text means “to shorten it, but at the same time preserve the main idea in each paragraph”; “remove everything unnecessary and leave only the main thing, and this is the most difficult thing”; "refuse to give details." If we compare these statements with what is written about detailed and concise

3 as presented by methodologists, it turns out that there are not so many differences. The task of a detailed presentation is to reproduce the source text as completely as possible, preserving its compositional and linguistic features. The task of a concise presentation is to briefly, in a generalized form, convey the content of the text, select essential information, exclude details, and find verbal means of generalization. In a concise presentation, it is not necessary to preserve the stylistic features of the author's text, but the author's main thoughts, the logical sequence of events, the characters of the characters and the setting must be conveyed without distortion. An interesting technique that helps students understand the features of detailed and concise presentation is offered by Pskov methodologist F.S. Marat. He compares the original text with a large matryoshka doll, a detailed presentation with a smaller doll, and a condensed presentation with the rest of the dolls. “These last three nesting dolls are a condensed summary of the text. In one case, for example, we were given three minutes for presentation (or 30 lines in a newspaper), in another - two minutes (20 lines), in a third - a minute (or 10 lines). This is how we ended up with texts and condensed presentations of varying degrees of compression, and we all created them based on the original one. Therefore, in some important ways they are similar to each other and, of course, to the first, original text.”1 If this explanation is accompanied by an appropriate picture or diagram, students will see that the text can be subjected to varying degrees of compression, but the secondary text must retain the main and essential elements of the original text. Obviously, not every text is suitable for a condensed presentation, but only one that has something to compress. The volume of text for a condensed presentation should be larger than for a detailed one. (For some reason, this criterion is not taken into account by the compilers of the latest version of the examination paper, who offer texts containing only words for a condensed presentation. The typical reaction of students to the task is: “There’s nothing to compress here!”; “How to shorten a text with two hundred words , up to ninety? Leave every second word?".) Concise presentation is considered the most difficult type of presentation because many students do not know how to highlight the main and other important thoughts, and do not know how to distract from unimportant information. According to psychologists, a brief retelling is a technique inorganic for children's nature. Children gravitate towards unnecessary details. And unless they are specifically taught, the task of retelling the text briefly is absolutely impossible for many. This is confirmed by experimental data: only 14% of students in grades 8-9 can make such a retelling2. Often the words short and short when applied to retelling are synonyms for schoolchildren: when retelling, the text may become shorter, but at the same time the main thing often disappears and essential information is missed. The role of this type of presentation can hardly be overestimated. It is in a brief retelling that the degree of understanding of the text is revealed; it is a litmus test for understanding. If the text is not understood or partially understood, a brief retelling will reveal all the defects in perception. How to teach schoolchildren to write a concise summary? What techniques can you use? What material is best to do this on? Here are the questions teachers usually ask. Methods and techniques for compressing text Compressed presentation requires special logical work. There are two main ways of compressing text3: 1) excluding details; 2) generalization. When excluding, you must first highlight the main thing and then remove the details (details). When summarizing the material, we first isolate individual essential facts (we omit the unimportant ones), combine them into one whole, select the appropriate linguistic means and compose a new text. Which compression method to use in each specific case will depend on the communicative task and the characteristics of the text. Students are not equally proficient in the above methods of text compression. Some have difficulty identifying the main thing and finding the essential, getting bogged down in countless details; others, on the contrary, compress the text so much that nothing remains in it

4 alive and it becomes more like a plan or diagram. In both cases we are dealing with the difficulties of the abstraction process. However, like any other ability of human thinking, the ability to abstract can be trained. Here are the types of tasks aimed at text compression. Reduce the text by one third (half, three quarters...). Shorten the text by conveying its content in one or two sentences. Remove unnecessary text from your point of view. Compose a “telegram” based on the text, i.e. highlight and very briefly (after all, every word in a telegram is precious) formulate the main thing in the text. EXAMPLE 1 Task 1. Listen to the text, write a concise summary, cutting the text in half. Source text In addition to the legends about Hercules, the ancient Greeks also told about two twin brothers - Hercules and Iphicles. Despite the fact that the brothers were very similar from childhood, they grew up differently. It's still very early and the boys want to sleep. Iphicles pulls the blanket over his head to watch interesting dreams longer, and Hercules runs to wash himself in a cold stream. The brothers are walking along the road and see: on the way there is a large puddle. Hercules steps back, runs up and jumps over the obstacle, and Iphicles, grumbling displeasedly, looks for a workaround. The brothers see a beautiful apple on a high tree branch. “Too high,” Iphicles grumbles. “I don’t really want this apple.” Hercules jumps - and the fruit is in his hands. When your legs are tired and your lips are dry from thirst, and it’s still a long way to rest, Iphicles usually says: “Let’s rest here, under the bush.” “We’d better run,” Hercules suggests. “That way we’ll get through the road sooner.” Hercules, who at first was an ordinary boy, later becomes a hero, the conqueror of monsters. And all this is only because since childhood he has been accustomed to winning daily victories over difficulties, over himself. This ancient legend contains the deepest meaning: will is the ability to control oneself, the ability to overcome obstacles. (From the magazine) (176 words) Condensed text The ancient Greeks have a legend about Hercules and Iphicles. Although they were twins, the brothers grew up differently. Early in the morning, when Iphicles is still sleeping, Hercules runs to wash himself to a cold stream. Seeing a puddle on the way, Hercules jumps over it, and Iphicles goes around the obstacle. An apple hangs high on a tree. Iphicles is too lazy to go after it, but Hercules easily gets the fruit. When there is no more strength to walk, Iphicles suggests taking a break, and Hercules suggests running forward. Although Hercules, like Iphicles, was at first an ordinary boy, he became a hero because from childhood he learned to overcome difficulties and cultivated will. (90 words) Using this simple example, you can show students specific techniques for compressing text: 1) excluding details, secondary facts (pulling a blanket over your head to watch interesting dreams longer); 2) exclusion of direct speech or translation of direct speech into indirect speech (4th and 5th paragraphs, someone else’s speech is conveyed using simple sentences with an addition indicating the topic of speech). When teaching concise presentation, a certain sequence of actions is followed, which can be written in the form of the following instructions.

5 Instructions “How to write a concise summary” - Highlight essential (i.e. important, necessary) thoughts in the text. -Find the main idea among them. -Break the text into parts, grouping it around significant ideas. -Title each part and make an outline. -Think about what can be excluded in each part, what details to refuse. -What facts (examples, cases) can be combined and generalized in adjacent parts of the text? -Consider means of communication between parts. -Translate the selected information into “your” language. -Write this abbreviated, “squeezed out” text on a draft. Starting from about the 8th grade, students no longer find it interesting to write “just an exposition.” But the presentation, complicated by additional tasks aimed at highlighting the main idea, working with the title, creative processing of the text, etc., students write with much more interest, since it allows, firstly, a deeper understanding of the text, and secondly secondly, to include the knowledge obtained from the text into an already existing system of knowledge, to demonstrate one’s erudition, and to show creative abilities. With this approach, the presentation in the 9th grade can be considered as a certain stage of preparation for the Unified State Exam (writing part C) in the 11th grade. By retelling the text (first of all, briefly), the student is already doing serious work to comprehend its content; a correctly “squeezed out” text is the basis for writing an essay. I will give several types of tasks, based on which you can create tasks for a variety of texts. Each group of tasks aims to train a specific technique for working with text. I. Tasks aimed at the ability to predict the content of a text. 1. Read the title and try to guess what (who) the text will be about. After listening to the text, check your guesses. Examples of headings: “A discovery that was two hundred years late”, “Sad collection”, “Fifteen Louis Fifteenths” - titles of texts by S. Lvov; “The Man from the Moon” (about Miklouho-Maclay), “Raphael of Violin Mastery” (about Stradivarius). 2. Listen or read the beginning of the text (the first sentence, the first paragraph) on which you will write a summary, and try to guess what will be discussed next (what events will follow, what thoughts will be expressed...). Example The heroes of Lewis Carroll's fairy tale “Alice in Wonderland”, the Hatter and the March Hare, as you know, were constantly busy drinking tea. When the dishes became dirty, they did not wash them, but simply moved to another place. “And what will happen when you reach the end? - Alice dared to ask. - Isn't it time for us to change the topic? - suggested the March Hare "... (Continuation of the text: "This dialogue is given in one of his books by the founder of cybernetics, the American scientist Norbert Wiener, speaking about the use of nature by man, the limitations of its resources...." The text is taken from the "Encyclopedia for Children" (volume “Biology”) and is dedicated to environmental problems.) (83 words) Evaluating the presentation Evaluation criteria. 1. Evaluating a detailed presentation Checking presentations - despite the familiarity of this work - causes serious difficulties for many wordsmiths. The greatest difficulties are associated with assessing the content of the work. And although the criteria for assessing the presentation have been developed in great detail, this does not eliminate the problem of subjectivity when checking students’ written work: the same presentation (and not just an essay!), checked by different teachers, is assessed by them differently - from 5 to 3.

6 The current practice of assessing presentations is complicated by the fact that the teacher evaluates ordinary presentations according to one system - traditional1, and examinations (new forms of certification) - according to another, to which he is not psychologically accustomed2. If you compare the old criteria with the new ones, it turns out that at their core they remain the same. The content of a detailed presentation is assessed from the point of view of: 1) the accuracy of the transmission of the source text and the presence of factual errors (from 3 to O points); 2) semantic integrity, speech coherence and consistency of presentation (1-0 points); 3) accuracy and clarity of speech (2-0 points).

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1. Theoretical part

1.1 Brief description of imagination

1.2 Imagination, its essence, forms of expression of imagination, forms of synthesis of ideas in the process of imagination

1.3 Types of imagination

1.4 Development of imagination, conditions for the development of imagination

1.5 Imagination, expression, bodily dialogue

2. Practical part

2.1 Who has a richer imagination: an adult or a child

2.2 Test to identify the child’s development level

2.3 Solving imagination problems

2.4 Tests for studying the development of imagination

1. Theoretical part

1.1 Brief description of imagination

Imagination– the mental process of creating an image of an object or situation by restructuring existing ideas. Imagination has objective reality as its source. And in turn, the products of imagination find objective material expression. It is connected with the characteristics of the individual, her interests, knowledge and skills.

The physiological basis of imagination is the formation of new combinations from temporary connections that have already been formed in past experience.

Functions of the imagination

Representing activities in images and creating the opportunity to use them when solving problems;

Regulation of emotional relationships;

Voluntary regulation of cognitive processes and human states;

Formation of a person’s internal plan;

Planning and programming of human activities.

Forms of expression of imagination

1. Construction of the image, means and final result of the activity.

2. Creation of a behavior program in an uncertain situation.

3. Creation of images corresponding to the description of the object, etc.

Forms of synthesis of representations in imagination processes

Agglutination is the combination of qualities, properties, parts of objects that are not connected in reality;

Hyperbolization or emphasis - increasing or decreasing an object, changing the quality of its parts;

Sharpening – emphasizing any features of objects;

Schematization – smoothing out differences between objects and identifying similarities between them;

Typification is the selection of the essential, repeating in homogeneous phenomena and its embodiment in a specific image.

Types of imagination

1. Active imagination is controlled by the efforts of the will. Images passive imaginations arise spontaneously, apart from the desire of a person.

2. Recreating Imagination– a presentation of something new for a given person, based on a verbal description or conventional image of this new thing. Creative- imagination, giving new, original, first-time images. The source of creativity is the social need for a particular new product. It determines the emergence of a creative idea, a creative plan, which leads to the emergence of something new.

3. Fantasy- a type of imagination that produces images that do not correspond to reality. However, fantasy images are never completely divorced from reality. It has been noticed that if any product of fantasy is decomposed into its constituent elements, then among them it will be difficult to find something that does not really exist. Dreams- a fantasy associated with a desire, most often a somewhat idealized future. Dream It differs from a dream in that it is more realistic and more connected with reality. Dreams- passive and involuntary forms of imagination, in which many vital human needs are expressed. Hallucinations– fantastic visions, usually the result of mental disorders or painful conditions.

1.2 Imagination, its essence, forms of expression of imagination, forms of synthesis of ideas in the process of imagination

Everyone probably knows what imagination is. We very often say to each other: “Imagine such a situation...”, “Imagine that you...” or “Well, come up with something!” So, in order to do all this - “imagine”, “imagine”, “invent” - we need imagination. This laconic definition of the concept of “imagination” needs to be added only a few strokes.

A person can imagine something that he has never perceived before, that he has never encountered in his life, or something that will be created in a more or less distant future. Such representations are called representations of the imagination or simple imagination.

Imagination- a higher cognitive process, a psychological activity consisting in the creation of ideas and mental situations that are never generally perceived by a person in reality.

The imagination reflects the external world in a unique and unique way; it allows you to program not only future behavior, but also imagine the possible conditions in which this behavior will be carried out.

Imagination is not the ability to fantasize without a goal, but an intuitive ability to see the essence of parameters - their natural logic. It combines images of what does not yet exist from materials of memory and feelings, creates an image of the unknown as known, that is, creates its objective content and meaning, considers them valid. Therefore, imagination is the self-movement of sensory and semantic reflections, and mechanism imagination unites them into integrity, synthesizes feelings into thought, as a result of which a new image or judgment is created about the unknown as about the known. And all this does not happen materially - in the mental plane, when a person acts without practically working.

A person’s imagination is his ability to look ahead and consider a new object in its future state.

Therefore, the past at every moment of a person’s life must exist in accordance with one or another purposefulness towards the future. If memory claims to be active and effective, and not just a repository of experience, it must always be aimed at the future, at the form of the future self, one’s abilities and what a person strives to achieve. Such imagination always works: a person transforms objects and raw materials not just in the imagination, but actually with the help of imagination, paving the way to the desired object. Of great importance in activating the work of the imagination is astonishment.Surprise in turn is caused by:

¨  novelty of the perceived “something”;

¨  awareness of it as something unknown and interesting;

¨  an impulse that sets in advance the quality of imagination and thinking, attracts attention, captures the feelings and the whole person.

Imagination, together with intuition, is capable of not only creating an image of a future object or thing, but also finding its natural measure - a state of perfect harmony - the logic of its structure. It gives rise to the ability to make discoveries, helps to find new ways to develop technology and technology, ways to solve problems and problems that arise before a person.

The initial forms of imagination first appear at the end of early childhood in connection with the emergence of plot-based role-playing games and the development of the sign-symbolic function of consciousness. The child learns to replace real objects and situations with imaginary ones, to build new images from existing ideas. Further development of imagination goes in several directions.

Þ Along the lines of expanding the circle of replaced objects and improving the substitution operation itself, connecting with the development of logical thinking.

Þ Along the lines of improving the operations of the recreating imagination. The child gradually begins to create increasingly complex images and their systems based on existing descriptions, texts, and fairy tales. The content of these images develops and enriches. A personal touch is introduced into the images; they are characterized by brightness, richness, and emotionality.

Þ Creative imagination develops when the child not only understands some techniques of expressiveness, but also independently applies them.

Þ Imagination becomes mediated and intentional. The child begins to create images in accordance with the set goal and certain requirements, according to a predetermined plan, and control the degree of compliance of the result with the task.

Imagination is expressed:

1. In constructing the image of the means and the final result of the subject’s objective activity.

2. In creating a behavior program when the problem situation is uncertain.

3. In the production of images that are not programmed, but replace activity.

4. Creation of images that correspond to the description of the object.

The most important importance of imagination is that it allows you to imagine the result of work before it begins (for example, a table in its completed form as a finished product), thereby orienting a person in the process of activity. Creating, with the help of imagination, a model of the final or intermediate product of labor (those parts that must be sequentially produced in order to assemble a table) contributes to its objective embodiment.

The essence of imagination, if we talk about its mechanisms, is the transformation of ideas, the creation of new images based on existing ones. Imagination is a reflection of reality in new, unusual, unexpected combinations and connections.

There are 4 types of imagination:

Representations of what exists in reality, but which a person has not previously perceived;

Representations of the historical past;

Ideas of what will happen in the future and what never happened in reality.

No matter how new what is created by a person’s imagination, it inevitably comes from what exists in reality and is based on it. Therefore, imagination, like the entire psyche, is a reflection of the surrounding world by the brain, but only a reflection of what a person did not perceive, a reflection of what will become reality in the future.

Physiologically, the process of imagination is the process of formation of new combinations and combinations from already established temporary nerve connections in the cerebral cortex.

The process of imagination always occurs in inextricable connection with two other mental processes - memory and thinking. Just like thinking, imagination arises in a problem situation, that is, in cases where it is necessary to find new solutions; just like thinking, it is motivated by the needs of the individual. The real process of satisfying needs may be preceded by an illusory, imaginary satisfaction of needs, that is, a living, vivid representation of the situation in which these needs can be satisfied. But the anticipatory reflection of reality, carried out in the processes of fantasy, occurs in a concrete form. Imagination works at that stage of cognition when the uncertainty of the situation is very great. The more familiar, precise and definite a situation is, the less scope it gives for imagination. However, in the presence of very approximate information about the situation, on the contrary, it is difficult to obtain an answer with the help of thinking - this is where fantasy comes into play. Speaking of imagination, we only emphasize the predominant direction of mental activity. If a person is faced with the task of reproducing representations of things and events that were previously in his experience, we are talking about memory processes. But if the same ideas are reproduced in order to create a new combination of these ideas or create new ideas from them, we are talking about the activity of the imagination.

The activity of imagination is closely related to a person’s emotional experiences. Imagining what is desired can evoke positive feelings in a person, and in certain situations, a dream about a happy future can bring a person out of extremely negative states, allowing him to escape from the situations of the present moment, analyze what is happening and rethink the significance of the situation for the future. Consequently, imagination plays a very significant role in the regulation of our behavior.

Imagination is also connected with the implementation of our volitional actions. Thus, imagination is present in any form of our work activity, since before creating anything, it is necessary to have ideas about what we are creating.

Imagination, due to the characteristics of the systems responsible for it, is to a certain extent associated with the regulation of organic processes and movement. Imagination influences many organic processes: the functioning of the glands, the activity of internal organs, metabolism, etc. For example: the idea of ​​a delicious dinner causes us to salivate profusely, and by instilling in a person the idea of ​​a burn, one can cause real signs of a “burn” on the skin.

We can conclude that imagination plays a significant role both in the regulation of processes in the human body and in the regulation of his motivated behavior.

The main tendency of imagination is the transformation of ideas (images), which ultimately ensures the creation of a model of a situation that is obviously new and has not previously arisen.

Every new image, new idea is correlated with reality and, in case of discrepancy, is rejected as false or corrected

The synthesis of ideas in the processes of imagination is carried out in various forms:

- agglutination - connection (“gluing”) of various qualities, properties, parts of objects that are not combined in reality, the result can be a very bizarre image, sometimes far from reality, many fairy-tale images are built by agglutination (mermaid, hut on chicken legs, etc.), it used in technical creativity (for example, accordion is a combination of piano and button accordion);

- hyperbolization or accentuation - a paradoxical increase or decrease in an object (Tom Thumb, Gulliver), a change in the number of its parts, any detail or part of the whole is highlighted and becomes dominant, bearing the main load (dragons with seven heads, etc.);

- sharpening – emphasizing any features of objects, with the help of this technique cartoons and evil caricatures are created;

- schematization – smoothing out the differences between objects and identifying similarities between them, for example, the artist’s creation of an ornament, the elements of which are taken from the plant world;

-typing - highlighting the essential, repeating in homogeneous phenomena and its embodiment in a specific image, bordering on the creative process, widely used in fiction, sculpture, painting.

1.3 Types of imagination

The simplest form of imagination is those images that arise without special intention or effort on our part.

Any exciting, interesting teaching usually evokes a vivid, involuntary imagination. An extreme case of voluntary imagination is dreams, in which images are born unintentionally and in the most unexpected and bizarre combinations. The activity of the imagination, which unfolds in a half-asleep, drowsy state, for example, before falling asleep, is also involuntary at its core.

Voluntary imagination is of much greater importance to a person. This type of imagination manifests itself when a person is faced with the task of creating certain images, outlined by himself or given to him from the outside. In these cases, the process of imagination is controlled and directed by the person himself. The basis of such work of imagination is the ability to arbitrarily evoke and change the necessary ideas.

Depending on the severity of activity, they differ:

1) passive imagination; 2) active imagination.

According to the degree of independence of imagination and the originality of its products, two types of imagination are distinguished - re-creative and creative.

Recreating Imagination– presentation of objects new to humans in accordance with their description, drawing, diagram. This type of imagination is used in a wide variety of activities. We encounter this type of imagination when we read descriptions of geographical places or historical events, as well as when we get acquainted with literary characters. The study of geographical maps serves as a kind of school for recreating imagination. The habit of wandering around the map and imagining various places in your imagination helps you see them correctly in reality. Spatial imagination, necessary when studying stereometry, develops by carefully examining drawings and natural volumetric bodies from different angles. It should be noted that the reconstructive imagination forms not only visual ideas, but also tactile, auditory, etc.

Most often we are faced with recreating imagination when it is necessary to recreate some idea from a verbal description. However, there are times when we recreate an idea about an object not using words, but on the basis of diagrams and drawings. In this case, the success of recreating an image is largely determined by a person’s abilities for spatial imagination, that is, the ability to recreate an image in three-dimensional space. Consequently, the process of creative imagination is closely related to human thinking and memory.

The next type of imagination is creative. It is characterized by the fact that a person transforms ideas and creates new images (which are implemented in original and valuable products of activity) not according to an existing model, but independently outlining the contours of the created image and choosing the necessary materials for it.

In this case, they differ:

objective novelty– if the images and ideas are original and do not repeat anything existing about the experience of other people;

subjective novelty– if they repeat previously created ones, but for a given person they are new and original.

The creative imagination that arises in work remains an integral part of technical, artistic and any other creativity, taking the form of active and purposeful manipulation of visual ideas in search of ways to satisfy needs.

Creative imagination, like recreating, is closely related to memory, since in all cases of its manifestation a person uses his previous experience. Therefore, there is no hard boundary between the creative imagination that recreates.

The source of creative activity is social necessity, the need for one or another new product.

It is wrong to think that creativity is a free play of the imagination that does not require much and sometimes hard work. The so-called inspiration - the optimal concentration of a person’s spiritual powers and abilities - is the result of a lot of previous work.

A special form of imagination is dream. The essence of this type of imagination is the independent creation of new images. At the same time, a dream has a number of significant differences from creative imagination. Firstly, in a dream a person always creates an image of what he wants, while in creative images the desires of their creator are not always embodied. In dreams, what attracts a person and what he strives for finds its figurative expression. Secondly, a dream is a process of imagination that is not included in creative activity, that is, it does not immediately and directly produce an objective product in the form of a work of art, a scientific discovery, a technical invention, etc.

The main feature of a dream is that it is aimed at future activities, that is, a dream is an imagination aimed at the desired future. Moreover, several subtypes of this type of imagination should be distinguished.

Most often, a person makes plans for the future and in his dreams determines the ways to achieve his plans. In this case, the dream is an active, voluntary, conscious process.

But there are people for whom the dream acts as a substitute for activity. One of the reasons for this phenomenon, as a rule, lies in the failures in life that they constantly suffer. As a result of a series of failures, a person abandons the fulfillment of his plans and plunges into a dream. In this case, the dream acts as a conscious, voluntary process that has no practical completion.

There are situations when a dream acts as a unique form of psychological defense, providing temporary escape from problems that have arisen, which contributes to a certain neutralization of a negative mental state and ensuring the safety of regulatory mechanisms while reducing a person’s overall activity.

Imagination is passive– characterized by the creation of images that are not brought to life; programs that are not implemented or cannot be implemented at all. In this case, imagination acts as a substitute for activity, its surrogate, because of which a person refuses the need to act.

It could be:

1) deliberate– creates images (dreams) unrelated to the will, which could contribute to their implementation; the predominance of dreams in the processes of imagination indicates certain defects in personality development. All people tend to dream about something joyful, pleasant, and tempting. In dreams, the connection between fantasy products and needs is easily revealed. But if dreams predominate in a person’s imaginative processes, then this is a defect in the development of personality, it indicates its passivity. If a person is passive, if he does not fight for a better future, and his present life is difficult and joyless, then he often creates for himself an illusory, fictitious life, where his needs are fully satisfied, where he succeeds in everything, where he occupies a position that he cannot hope for in the present. time and in real life;

2) unintentional– observed when the activity of consciousness, the second signaling system, is weakened, during temporary inactivity of a person, during his pathological disorders, half asleep, in a dream, in a state of passion.

Types of imagination can be represented in a diagram

1.4 Development of imagination, conditions for the development of imagination

A person is not born with a developed imagination. The development of imagination occurs during human ontogenesis and requires the accumulation of a certain stock of ideas, which in the future can serve as material for creating images of the imagination. It develops in close connection with the development of the entire personality, in the process of learning and upbringing, as well as in unity with thinking, memory, will and feelings.

It is very difficult to determine any specific age limits that characterize the dynamics of imagination development.

Despite the difficulty of determining the stages of human imagination development, certain patterns in its formation can be identified. So the first manifestations of imagination are closely related to the process of perception. For example, children aged one and a half years are still unable to listen to even the simplest fairy tales; they are constantly distracted or fall asleep, but listen with pleasure to stories about what they themselves have experienced. In this phenomenon, the connection between imagination and perception is quite clearly visible. The child listens to a story about his experiences because he clearly understands what is being said. The connection between perception and imagination continues to the next stage of development, when the child, in his games, begins to process the impressions received, modifying previously perceived objects in his imagination. The chair turns into a cave or an airplane, the box into a car. It should be noted that the first images of a child’s imagination are always associated with activity. The child does not dream, but embodies the processed image in his activity, even though this activity is a game.

An important stage in the development of imagination is associated with the age when the child acquires speech. Speech allows you to include in the imagination not only specific images, but also more abstract ideas and concepts. Moreover, speech allows the child to move from expressing images of imagination in activity to their direct expression in speech.

The stage of mastering speech is accompanied by an increase in practical experience and the development of attention, which allows the child to more easily identify individual parts of an object, which he perceives as independent and with which he increasingly operates in his imagination.

However, the synthesis occurs with significant distortions of reality. Due to the lack of sufficient experience and insufficient critical thinking, the child cannot create an image that is close to reality. The main feature of this stage is the involuntary nature of the emergence of images of the imagination. Most often, images of imagination are formed in a child of this age involuntarily, in accordance with the situation in which he finds himself.

The next stage in the development of imagination is associated with the emergence of its active forms. At this stage, the process of imagination becomes arbitrary. The emergence of active forms of imagination is initially associated with stimulating initiative on the part of an adult. Later, the child begins to use his own imagination without any adult participation. This leap in the development of imagination is reflected, first of all, in the nature of the child’s games. They become focused and story-driven. The object of a child's play often exists only in the imagination, just as for adults, the element of imagination is an important transition from the world of work to the world of play and leisure. The things surrounding the child become not just incentives for the development of objective activity, but act as material for the embodiment of the image of his imagination.

Another major shift in imagination occurs during school age. The need to understand educational material determines the activation of the process of recreating imagination. In order to assimilate the knowledge that is given at school, the child actively uses his imagination, which causes the progressive development of the ability to process images of perception into images of imagination.

Another reason for the rapid development of imagination during school years is that in the process of learning, the child actively receives new and diverse ideas about objects and phenomena of the real world. These ideas serve as a necessary basis for imagination and stimulate the student’s creative activity.

We can conclude that the main meaning of imagination is that without it any human work would be impossible, since it is impossible to work without imagining the final result and intermediate results. The activity of the imagination is always related to reality.

Conditions for the development of imagination

The child’s imagination is connected in its origins with the sign function of consciousness that emerges towards the end of early childhood. One line of development of the sign function leads from the replacement of objects with other objects and their images to the use of speech, mathematical and other signs and to the mastery of logical forms of thinking. The other line leads to the emergence and expansion of the ability to supplement and replace real things, situations, imaginary events, to build from the material of accumulated ideas new images.

The child’s imagination develops in the game. At first, it is inseparable from the perception of objects and the performance of play actions with them. The child is riding on a stick, and at this moment he is the rider, and the stick is the horse. But he cannot imagine a horse in the absence of an object suitable for galloping, and he cannot mentally transform a stick into a horse at a time when he is not acting with it.

In the play of three- and four-year-old children, the similarity of the substitute object with the object that it replaces is essential.

In older children, imagination can also rely on objects that are not at all similar to those being replaced.

From the diary of V.S. Mukhina

Game on the floor.

Toys: a dog, a squirrel, a badger, two nesting dolls and a key. Ole-Lukoje's key. Two Matryoshka-Thumbelina. Kirill puts everyone to bed. Ole Lukoje comes up to everyone and blows on the back of their heads. (Kirill blows himself.) The animals woke up and began to jump: from the bookshelf to the painting, from the painting to the bookshelf. And so 18 times. Then the animals went to drink the nectar that Thumbelina had prepared. Then there was the wedding of Ole-Lukoye (the little key) and two Thumbelina. Then everyone got tired and went to their usual place - on the shelf.

In this case, the key served as sufficient support for the child to imagine a wizard.

Gradually the need for external supports disappears. Interiorization occurs - a transition to playful action with an object that does not actually exist, and to a playful transformation of the object, giving it a new meaning and imagining actions with it in the mind, without real action. This is the emergence of imagination as a special mental process.

From the observations of K. Stern

Gunther's much-loved hopscotch game. A plan with numbered cells is drawn on the floor; then you need to throw a pebble into one of the cells and, jumping on one leg, knock it out of the cell without touching the line with your foot. Gunther sometimes plays this game in his room, without any equipment. He imagines a drawing on the floor, imagines throwing a pebble, is happy that he got into “100” (obviously, the drawing is very vividly drawn before his inner vision), jumps carefully so as not to touch the features, etc.

On the other hand, play can occur without visible actions, entirely in terms of presentation.

From the diary of V.S. Mukhina

Kirilka arranges toys around her. Lies down among them. He lies quietly for about an hour.

- What are you doing? Are you sick?

- No. I'm playing.

- How do you play?

- I look at them and wonder what’s happening to them.

Formed in play, imagination moves into other activities of the preschooler. It manifests itself most clearly in drawing and in the child’s writing of fairy tales and poems. Here, just as in a game, children first rely on directly perceived objects or those that appear under their strokes on paper.

From the observations of K. and V. Shternov

We managed to overhear the boy while he was drawing on the board. At first he wanted to draw a camel; he probably drew the head protruding from the body. But the camel was already forgotten; the side protrusion reminded him of the wing of a butterfly. He said: “Shall I draw a butterfly?”, erased the parts of the vertical line that protruded at the top and bottom and drew a second wing. Then came: “Another butterfly... Now I’ll draw another bird. Anything that can fly. Butterflies, birds, and then a fly will come.” Depicts a bird. “Now the moon! Flies, however, know how to bite,” and he put two dots (two pricks) on the board. The vertical line between them is also included in the image of the fly, but after drawing it, he exclaimed: “Oh, a fly! Let me draw the sun!” - I drew.

When writing fairy tales and poems, children reproduce familiar images and often simply repeat remembered phrases and lines. At the same time, preschoolers of three or four years old usually do not realize that they are reproducing what is already known. So, one boy once said: “Listen to how I composed: “A swallow flies towards us with spring in the canopy.” They are trying to explain to him that it was not he who composed it. But after a while the boy declares again: “I composed: “A swallow flies towards us with spring in the canopy.” Another child was also sure that he was the author of the following lines: “I am not afraid of anyone except my mother”... Do you like how I composed it? “They are trying to get him out of his delusion: “It was not you who composed this, but Pushkin: you are not afraid of anyone except God alone.” The child is disappointed, “And I thought that I composed this.”

In such cases, children's compositions are based entirely on memory, not including the work of imagination. However, more often the child combines images, introduces new, unusual combinations.

From the diary of E.I. Stanchinskaya

Yura composed a fairy tale: “Once upon a time there were two little devils. They had a small house, there were little devils. They lived far, far away, beyond the sea, beyond the forest, beyond hot countries, in a large dark forest. Here was an old man riding on a golden-winged horse, riding and not knowing where his black horse was. The wolf said: “Go into the dark forest, and there is a step down, there are three doors: one, second, third.”

The wolf went with him, opened the doors, took the black horse, tied the golden-maned horse, sat on the black one, and the two horses rushed off. Etc.

It is not difficult to trace the origin of all the elements included in the fairy tale. These are images of familiar fairy tales, but their new combination creates a fantastic picture, not similar to the situations perceived by the child or told to him.

The transformation of reality in the child’s imagination occurs not only by combining ideas, but also by giving objects properties that are not inherent to them. Thus, children in their imaginations excitedly exaggerate or understate objects. One wants a tiny globe with everything on it “for real”: rivers and oceans, tigers and monkeys. Another tells how he built a “house up to the ceiling!” No, up to the seventh floor! No, to the stars!“

There is an opinion that a child’s imagination is richer than the imagination of an adult. This opinion is based on the fact that children fantasize for a variety of reasons. A three-year-old boy, drawing a corner, added a small hook to it and, amazed at the resemblance of this squiggle to a sitting human figure, suddenly exclaimed: “Oh, he’s sitting!” Another child, at the same age, one day playing tag and not catching up with the children, littered the ground. A moment later, he sat down on a bench and cried: “Now she will always make me greasy!” - “Who?” - they asked. - “Greasy Earth.” Another boy sincerely believed that stones could think and feel. He considered the cobblestones very unfortunate, because They are forced to see the same thing every day. Out of pity, the child carried them from one end of the road to the other.

However, the child's imagination is actually not richer, but in many respects poorer, than the imagination of an adult. A child can imagine much less than an adult, since children have more limited life experience and, therefore, less material for imagination. The combinations of images that the child constructs are also less varied.

At the same time, imagination plays a greater role in the life of a child than in the life of an adult, it manifests itself much more often and allows for a much easier departure from reality, a violation of life reality. The tireless work of imagination is one of the paths leading to children’s knowledge and mastery of the world around them, going beyond the limits of narrow-minded experience.

But this work requires constant supervision from adults, under whose guidance the child acquires the ability to distinguish the imaginary from reality.

The relationship between involuntary and voluntary imagination.

The imagination of preschool children is largely involuntary. The subject of imagination becomes something that greatly excites the child. Under the influence of feelings, children compose their own fairy tales. Very often, a child does not know in advance what his poem will be about: “I’ll tell you, then you’ll hear, but for now I don’t know,” he calmly declares.

Deliberate imagination, guided by a predetermined goal, is still absent in preschoolers of younger and middle age. It is formed by older preschool age in the process of developing productive types of activities, when children master the ability to build and implement a certain plan in a design.

The development of voluntary, intentional imagination, as well as the development of voluntary forms of attention and memory, is one of the aspects of the general process of formation of speech regulation and behavior of a child. Setting goals and guiding the construction of plans in productive activities is carried out with the help of speech. (1; p.257-261)

At primary school age, a child can already create a wide variety of situations in his imagination. Formed in playful substitutions of one object for another, imagination moves into other types of activity.

Under the conditions of educational activity, special demands are placed on the child’s imagination, which defeat him for voluntary actions of the imagination. In the classroom, teachers invite children to imagine a situation in which certain transformations of objects, images, and signs occur. These educational requirements stimulate the development of imagination, but they need to be reinforced with special tools - otherwise the child finds it difficult to advance in voluntary actions of the imagination. These can be real objects, diagrams, layouts, signs, graphic images and others.

By writing all kinds of stories, rhyming “poems,” inventing fairy tales, portraying various characters, children can borrow plots, stanzas of poems, and graphic images known to them, sometimes without noticing it at all. However, often a child deliberately combines well-known plots, creates new images, hyperbolizing certain aspects and qualities of his heroes. A child, if his speech and imagination are sufficiently developed, if he enjoys reflecting on the meaning and meaning of words, verbal complexes and images of the imagination, can come up with and tell an entertaining story, can improvise, enjoying his improvisation himself and including other people in it.

In the imagination, the child creates dangerous, scary situations. The main thing is overcoming, finding a friend, coming into the light, for example, joy. Experiencing negative tension in the process of creating and unfolding imaginary situations, managing the plot, interrupting images and returning to them trains the child’s imagination as a voluntary creative activity.

In addition, imagination can act as an activity that brings a therapeutic effect.

A child who has experienced difficulties in real life, perceiving his personal situation as hopeless, can go into an imaginary world. So, when there is no father, and this brings unspeakable pain, in the imagination you can acquire the most wonderful, most extraordinary, generous, strong, courageous father.

Imagination, no matter how fantastic it may be in its storyline, is based on the standards of real social space. Having experienced good or aggressive motives in his imagination, the child can thereby prepare for himself the motivation for future actions.

Imagination plays a greater role in the life of a child than in the life of an adult, manifesting itself much more often, and more often allowing for a violation of life reality.

The tireless work of imagination is the most important way for a child to learn and master the world around him, a way to go beyond the limits of personal practical experience, the most important psychological prerequisite for the development of creativity and a way to master the normativity of social space, the latter forces the imagination to work directly on the reserve of personal qualities.

Eiji Kamiya, famous Japanese teacher, professor at Bukyo University (Kyoto)

Specialist in the field of studying problems of imagination, thinking, emotions, play, environmental education of preschoolers

1.5 Imagination, expression, bodily dialogue

Preschool age can be considered as a transitional stage from the “natural” imagination to the “cultural” elements. Of course, for these elements to arise, the guidance of the educator is necessary. However, this guidance should be of a soft nature. The gentleness of guidance should be understood this way: without imposing the products of his imagination on children, the teacher proceeds from the embryonic forms of the imagination of the children themselves.

This is achieved through a variety of means. The teacher organizes dialogues in which each child expresses his or her vision of the subject. In this he is helped not only by the word, but by a physical image. Finally, the teacher initiates the group's "shared imagination" by including his or her own. Thus, the gentleness of the leadership ensures the unity of children’s interest with targeted pedagogical support.

This corresponds to the idea of ​​L.S. Vygotsky, who defined learning in preschool age as “spontaneous-reactive”, in contrast to “spontaneous” at an early age and “reactive” at school age / see. footnote/.

Let's consider this situation using an example environmental education of children. The theme of one of the lessons is dedicated to the swallow. During its course, children are faced with the need to physically portray a character, which makes the images of their imagination more meaningful and underlies soft pedagogical guidance. The teacher, together with the children, examines the swallow chicks in the nest and the parents “raising” them several times. The teacher, first of all, tries to identify the uniqueness of the child’s vision of the situation and how the children develop their own assessment of the situation. Two types of views can be distinguished.

First - "actual" The child only describes the situation: " Baby swallows have eyes";"Their bodies are black". Answering the question of what the nest is made of, the child says: " From stones"; "From straws"etc. These assessments relate to the visible properties of objects that appear to children from a purely external perspective.

But children have another view - let's call it "human". It is based on imagination and allows you to see objects from the inside, allows you to penetrate into them on an emotional and sensory level. For example, by examining adult swallows in a nest, one is convinced that the birds are communicating with their children: “The Swallow took turns feeding her children, she is a gentle mother”; “The parents just said something to the kids” etc.

Children seem to penetrate into the “secret life” of swallows. This view reveals what the outstanding Swiss psychologist J. Piaget called childhood animism - the desire to endow the inanimate with a soul, emotions, feelings, etc. the child empathizes with the swallow as a creature equal in rights to all living things, including people, and himself. The “human” view can be correlated with what D.B. Elkonin called the “semantic field” in contrast to the “visible field”, which, according to our typology, corresponds to the “factual” view. The child, as it were, transfers to the chick the feeling that he himself experienced when he found himself in a similar situation.

Interpretation of reality through imagination

The “human” view is the interpretation of real phenomena through the imagination. It allows us to form a semantic “approach” to reality, within the framework of which future scientific knowledge will acquire a truly meaningful character. The teacher can show and develop a “human” view during special work, for example, on the topic “The Swallow Parents Have Arrived.”

Educator.Why did swallows land on electrical wires and not immediately into the nest?

Children. Answer A.They are a little tired and are resting there.

The swallows fly into the nest, but then return to the wires.

Answer B. They show the little ones how to fly.

Indeed, real - not imaginary - swallow parents teach their chicks to fly in this way. Children's imagination is in maximum contact with reality. However, the imagination is egocentric, animistic in nature.

With appropriate guidance, children's "human" perspective can develop towards expanding the creative potential of their imagination. Let's give another example.

Educator.Parent swallows often flew in, sat on the edge of the nest, looked at the chicks and flew away again.

Children. Answer A.Now the parents said something to the little ones.

Educator.What did they say?

Answer B. They asked, can you fly already?

This is how the transition from the visible to the “invisible” situation occurs, as evidenced by version B. When comprehending the picture of reality, the possibilities of the imagination expand. It becomes more and more mediated, less and less “tied” to the observed specific situation.

This is the transformation of the “natural” imagination into a “cultural”, truly creative one. But this transformation does not happen spontaneously. It is provided by gentle pedagogical guidance. It is aimed primarily at supporting children's expressive actions. Expressive and effective feeling for an object is simultaneously expressed and experienced by the child himself.

Deepening the Imagination through Expression

In order to pedagogically organize such feeling, the teacher uses a palette of means: observations of real objects, conversations about what he saw, a bodily image of his own understanding and emotional assessment of what he observed, singing, drawing, listening to a fairy tale related to the children’s experiences, free play. In addition to the last resort, the rest receive specification in a comprehensive lesson. The central elements from the point of view of the development of imagination are “conversation” and “bodily image”, although they are closely related to other elements. Let us give an example of discussion and bodily image from this practice.

Start of class. Children talk about the swallows they saw in the morning.

Answer A. The child swallows reached for the edge of the nest (when their parents arrived).

Answer B. When the mother swallow brought food, the children moved their wings.

Educator.Imagine that this is a nest. Show how the baby swallows behaved when their parents appeared.

Children begin to create a physical image. They imitate different reactions of chicks: A. wants to jump out of the nest at all costs; V., demanding food, sings loudly.

In this example, the bodily image of the children represents a memory of what they saw. Consequently, its form is reproductive in nature. Words and a bodily image, reproducing reality, are necessary to create a picture of the situation. This provides the necessary material for

In the future, the teacher creates conditions for in-depth bodily image. An example from this practice.

The game is unfolding.

Child A.The role of the mother swallow

Child V. The role of the baby swallow

A. Depicts how a swallow flies to its baby, feeds it, and then says something to it.

Educator. IN., Mom told you what? Remember.

Child V. Mom told me, fly yourself.

Educator. Dad and mom, look what your kids are doing.

Then the playing roles of parents and children are distributed among other children. The chicks move their wings and try to fly to their swallow parents. Parents contribute to this, for example, supporting children with wings (hands) until they learn to fly.

Body image allows children to make images of their imagination visible to others and to tell them about their emotions. Here children practically do not use external speech. They physically convey the feelings of swallows - children or parents, feelings that they were able to penetrate and empathize with (based on real experiences and listening to fairy tales).

Thus, the imagination deepens and expands through bodily imagination. This image presents the main elements and characteristics of imagination in general: the unity of “fantasy and reality”, orientation to the position of another “person”, creative processing of memories, activation of (non-external) speech.

Body image and dialogue in an imaginary situation

Over the course of two or three days, the children were engaged in drawing, showing how a family of swallows flies over the sea to the southern island. This was represented by a bodily image simulating travel. The children depicted waves that suddenly grew and tried to overtake the travelers. At first, the family of swallows seemed to be flying through the waves, but as the waves grew, they began to try to fly upward (the nature of their movements changed).

The main task was not to convey the actual picture of the “pursuit,” but the emotional state that the swallows experienced during this process. In a conditional situation, it is the creative imagination that should manifest itself, and not a simple memory of what was seen. This does not mean a separation of imagination from reality. The depiction of emotions and their experience by children themselves makes the reproduction of reality more complete and adequate.

But the most important thing is that a dialogue that is unique and varied in its forms arises here. The dialogue between the “wave children” and the “swallow children” simultaneously evokes a dialogue between the children playing and the children watching. A special place is occupied by the dialogue between the teacher and the children. The first and second dialogues are practically non-linguistic, physical in nature. Moreover, from the point of view of emotional expression, physical dialogue in preschool age can be richer and more meaningful than linguistic dialogue. Whose speech cannot depict everything (the writer V. Nabokov spoke about the “delights of the unnamed world”).

Firstly, bodily dialogue is possible only in an imaginary situation. The children really did not observe swallows over the sea without delving into their “relationship” with the waves. However, on an emotional level, this is exactly what needed to be imagined.

The remarkable Russian psychologist V.V. Davydov, the founder of the theory of developmental education, said that the activity of a preschool child should be desirable and joyful (see footnote). It is important to emphasize: these are not external or “background” attributes (“accompaniment”), but key, essential features of children’s activity. Well-known provisions about the unity of affect and intelligence (L.S. Vygotsky), the role of “smart” emotions and emotional anticipation (A.V. Zaporozhets) in the activities of preschool children serve as a concretization of this general understanding. Thus, only partial assistance, which develops into empathy, underlies the child’s familiarization with the human and humane. This is brilliantly demonstrated in the classic works of A.V. Zaporozhets. For example, while watching a play in a kindergarten, younger preschoolers jump up from their seats, run onto the stage, and begin to “assist” and “empathize” with the characters. In the same way, modern kids watch TV.

The effective-expressive form of experience is the original form of human emotion. It, like subsequent developed forms of emotionality, is internally connected with the imagination.

Secondly, bodily dialogue must be accompanied by an attempt to take the position of another “person”. As shown in the works of V.V. Davydov, V.T. Kudryavtsev, this is the most important, fundamental characteristic of the human imagination. By becoming another “person”, expressing his imaginary thoughts and emotions, the child simultaneously expresses his own thoughts and emotions. At the same time, children physically depict the inner meaning of the situation richer than verbally.

Thirdly, the bodily dialogue between playing children is closely related to other dialogues. As noted, a special dialogue begins not only between the players, but also between the children playing and the child spectators (and adults). If the bodily movements of children actually depict the thoughts and emotions of another “person” in an imaginary situation, the audience not only carefully observes what is happening, but also sympathizes with the characters and the players themselves, without separating the former from the latter, penetrate into the states they experience, and become infected with their emotional energy. When such “sympathy” arises from the audience, the players, in turn, receive emotional support from the child spectators. Only the teacher takes his specific place in this situation. He is verbally involved in an imaginary situation. The role of the teacher is to verbally recreate the picture, capture fairy-tale images, express the emotional state of the characters in words, and activate the joint imagination of children. Thus, the physical dialogue between the players creates the basis for other dialogues, more precisely, polylogues, which enriches the possibilities of both joint and individual imagination.

Children easily give in to their emotions, and are often even encouraged to do so. While for adults one of the main components of existence is work, children express themselves through play. As a result, the child expresses his feelings and emotions much more freely than adults. Imagination determines the nature of the impact of these feelings and emotions on thoughts and behavior; it enriches the child’s life. Endowing things and objects with magical and fantastic properties, he becomes so interested in them that he learns a lot of useful things about the world around him.

In a word, with the help of imagination, the baby develops his abilities with interest, learns and acquires a sense of his own importance. Fantasies give him a joyful opportunity to express himself creatively. Imagination is harmless, and often beneficial, for a child. If a child has a wild, cheerful, free imagination, this is a sign of health.

2. Practical part2.1 Who has a richer imagination: an adult or a child?

Why do preschoolers need to develop their imagination? It is already much brighter and more original than an adult’s imagination. Many people think so.

This is not entirely true. Psychologists' studies show that a child's imagination develops gradually as he accumulates certain experience. All images of the imagination, no matter how bizarre they may be, are based on those ideas and impressions that we receive in real life. In other words, the more and more varied our experiences, the higher the potential of our imagination.

That is why the child’s imagination is in no way richer, but in many respects poorer than the imagination of an adult. He has more limited life experience and, therefore, less material for fantasy. The combinations of images he constructs are also less varied. It’s just that sometimes a child explains in his own way what he encounters in life, and these explanations sometimes seem unexpected and original to us, adults. At the same time, in the life of a child, imagination plays a more important role than in the life of an adult. It manifests itself much more often and is much more easily detached from reality. With its help, children learn about the world around them and themselves.

A child’s imagination must be developed from childhood, and the most sensitive, “sensitive” period for such development is preschool age. “Imagination,” wrote psychologist O.M. Dyachenko, who studied this function in detail, “is like that sensitive musical instrument, mastery of which opens up opportunities for self-expression, requires the child to find and fulfill his own plans and desires.”

Imagination can creatively transform reality, its images are flexible, mobile, and their combinations allow us to produce new and unexpected results. In this regard, the development of this mental function is also the basis for improving the child’s creative abilities. Unlike the creative imagination of an adult, a child’s imagination does not participate in the creation of social products of labor. She participates in creativity “for herself”; no requirements for feasibility and productivity are imposed on her. At the same time, it is of great importance for the development of the very actions of imagination, preparation for upcoming creativity in the future.

1. Use object substitutes. External support plays an important role in the development of a child’s imagination. If at the early stages of development (at 3-4 years old) the imagination of a preschooler is inseparable from real actions with game material and is determined by the nature of the toys, the similarity of substitute objects with the replaced objects, then in children 6-7 years old there is no longer such a close dependence of play on game material. the imagination can also rely on objects that are not at all similar to those being replaced. For example, a child can ride on a stick, imagining himself as a rider and the stick as a horse. Gradually the need for external supports will disappear. Interiorization will occur - a transition to playful action with an object that does not actually exist, to the representation of actions with it in the mind. However, to do this, you must first teach the child to easily operate with various substitute objects. Such substitutes can be other objects, geometric figures, signs, etc.

2. Carry out “objectification” of an indefinite object.

Children begin to use the “objectification” method at the age of 3-4 years. It consists in the fact that a child can see a certain object in an unfinished figure. So, in the task of drawing an indefinite image, he can, for example, turn a circle into a wheel for a car or into a ball, a triangle into the roof of a house or into a sail for a ship, etc. By the age of 6-7, the child should already be relatively fluent in this method, and also learn to add various details to the “objectified” drawing.

3. Create images based on a verbal description or an incomplete graphic image.

This ability is very important for the child’s future educational activities. The need to create images based on verbal descriptions and graphic images arises when reading a book (figurative representation of the described situations, characters), when realizing the meaning of new words (figurative representation of objects and phenomena that these words mean), when recognizing objects when the field of their perception is limited (figurative representation an object, when it is not completely visible, but only some part of it is visible) and in some other situations. Moreover, the better a child’s ability to create such images is developed, the more accurate and stable ideas he develops. To develop this ability, you can use tasks in which the child must:

a) create an image of an object based on its verbal description;

b) recreate a complete image of a picture based on the perception of one or more of its parts.

4. Operate in your mind with images of simple multidimensional objects (spatial imagination).

All objects in the world around us exist in space. And the images of the imagination, to be adequate, must reflect the spatial characteristics of these objects. In this regard, it is very important to develop in a child the ability to “see” the image of an object, taking into account its spatial location. To train this ability, children of six years old can be offered two types of games:

a) to mentally transform an object in space,

b) representation of the relative position of several objects in space.

5. Subordinate your imagination to a specific plan, create and consistently implement the plan of this plan.

Only the consistent implementation of a plan can lead to the fulfillment of the plan. The inability to manage one’s ideas and subordinate them to one’s goal leads to the fact that the most interesting plans and intentions of a child often do not achieve their implementation. At this age, the child already has the necessary prerequisites for learning to act according to a pre-thought-out plan. Therefore, it is very important to develop this ability, to teach a child not just to fantasize aimlessly and fragmentarily, but to realize his plans, to create even small and simple, but complete works (drawings, stories, designs, etc.).

Teaching this skill should include the following steps:

I - stage of demonstration of the plan: an adult shows how to draw up a plan (diagram) of the finished product (design);

II - stage of independent “reading” of the plan: the child learns to “read” the plan (diagram) you have drawn up and create his own work based on it;

III - stage of independent drawing up of a plan: the child himself draws up a plan (scheme) of his own work.

Cognitive processes were examined in more detail, but one cannot fail to mention other skills that, to one degree or another, must be developed in a child before studying at school.

2.2 Test to identify the child’s level of development

Target: A test to determine the level of development of a child. How to Study Creativity

CREATIVE IMAGINATION

Prepare several geometric shapes of different colors and shapes from cardboard. The shapes should be simple and complex, regular and irregular in shape (circle, triangle, asterisk, rectangle, oval, etc.). They can also be different in size. Offer your child the following task: you will read him a fairy tale, let the child select its characters from the proposed geometric shapes.

Each figure is a specific symbol. Will your preschooler be able to complete your assignment? How does he perceive it: with interest or bewilderment?

Maybe he doesn’t perceive it at all, saying that the figures don’t look at all like the heroes of a fairy tale?

Attitude to the task - first indicator

Is the child capable of creative search? Does it deviate from the pattern? Is there really a similarity between a fairy-tale character and the chosen one?

geometric figure?

The ability to explain your choice, to somehow argue for the similarity of the figure and the hero of the fairy tale - second indicator development of creative imagination.

Third indicator– the child’s desire to continue playing and illustrate new stories.

Creative imagination presupposes the preschooler’s independence of thinking, ingenuity, the ability to quickly navigate a problem situation, the brightness and unexpectedness of emerging images and associations. Without creative imagination, it would be impossible to develop a child's creative abilities. (2; p.23-24)

2.3 Solving imaginative problems

Preparation of the study. Select album sheets for each child with figures drawn on them: outline images of parts of objects, for example, a trunk with one branch, a circle - a head with two ears, etc., and simple geometric figures (circle, square, triangle, etc.) .Prepare colored pencils and markers.

Conducting research. A child of 7-8 years old is asked to complete each of the figures so that some kind of picture is obtained. First, you can have an introductory conversation about the ability to fantasize (remember what clouds look like in the sky, etc.).

Data processing. They reveal the degree of originality and unusualness of the image. Set the type of problem solving using imagination.

Null type. It is characterized by the fact that the child does not yet accept the task of constructing an imaginary image using this element. He doesn’t draw enough of it, but draws something of his own next to it (free imagination).

First type. The child completes the drawing of the figure on the card so that an image of a separate object (tree) is obtained, but the image is contoured, schematic, and devoid of details.

Second type. A separate object is also depicted, but with a variety of details.

Third type. By depicting a separate object, the child already includes it in some imaginary plot (not just a girl, but a girl doing exercises).

Fourth type. The child depicts several objects based on an imaginary plot (a girl walking with a dog).

Fifth type. The given figure is used in a qualitatively new way. If in types 1-4 it acts as the main part of the picture that the child drew (the circle is the head, etc.), then now the figure is included as one of the secondary elements to create an image of the imagination (the triangle is no longer the roof of the house, the lead of the pencil the boy uses draws a picture).

Developmental stage

This stage includes work on developing imagination, designed to connect the child’s creative potential.

Types of work.

A magazine of tall tales in faces.

The event is held in the form of a competition. The class is divided into two teams. Each team is the editorial office of the magazine. Each member of the editorial board has his own serial number. The presenter begins the tale:

Once upon a time there lived a little Vintik. When he was born, he was very beautiful, shiny, with brand new carvings and eight sides. Everyone said that a great future awaited him. He, along with some cogs, will participate in the flight on the spaceship. And then, finally, the day came when Vintik found himself on board a huge spaceship...

At the most interesting place, the presenter stops with the words: “To be continued in the magazine..." in the issue......." The child who has this issue in his hands must pick up the thread of the plot and continue the story. The presenter carefully follows the story and interrupts at the right place. The child must say: “To be continued in the magazine......”in the issue.....” The presenter can interrupt the fairy tale with the words: “End in the magazine........" in the issue.. ....."

As a result of children's creativity, the main character visited many planets and met aliens...

In general, this type of activity showed that it is still difficult for children to engage in free imagination. They do a better job using ready-made templates.

What does it look like?

The development of imagination plays a big role in the creative development of a child’s personality. It is necessary to include as much as possible in practice activities aimed at activating imagination processes. I would like to propose the following work in this direction.

This event is held in the form of a game. Up to 30 children can participate in it; it is better for the teacher or educator to take on the role of the leader. Children, with the help of a leader, select 2-3 people who should be isolated from the general group for a few minutes. At this time, everyone else thinks of a word, preferably an object. Then the isolated guys are invited. Their task is to guess what was asked using the question: “What does this look like?” For example, if the word “bow” is guessed, then the question: “What does it look like?” The following answers may come from the audience: “To the airplane propeller,” etc. As soon as the drivers guess what was asked, the leader changes them, and the game is repeated again.

This type of work allows children to develop imaginative thinking and promotes the activation of teamwork skills.

Photo moment.

This form of group activity is also aimed at developing imagination. However, its effectiveness is lower than the effectiveness of the activities described above. First of all, because only the driver is the object of active development here.

I will describe the methodology for conducting the event. After a short conversation on the topic “What is a photo moment”, explaining the meaning of this word, the teacher introduces the child to the world of photography: people always want to leave something as a memory of certain events, often this is a photograph. There are different photographs: funny and sad, small and large, color and black and white, there are photographs where people insert their faces into a small window cut out in a picture depicting animals, famous people, etc.

Then the children choose one driver, who inserts his face into such a picture, not knowing what is drawn on it. His task is to guess who he is portraying by asking questions like:

Am I a plant?

I can fly?

Am I the object in this room? etc.

All the other guys can only answer his questions with the words: “Yes; No".

/>2.4 Tests for studying the development of imagination

Test: “Verbal (verbal) fantasy”

Invite the child to come up with a story (story, fairy tale) about any living creature (person, animal) or something else of his choice and present it orally within 5 minutes. Up to one minute is allotted to come up with a theme or plot for a story (story, fairy tale), and after that the child begins the story.

During the story, the child’s imagination is assessed according to the following indicators:

1.Quickness of imagination.

2.Unusuality, originality of imagination.

3. Richness of imagination, depth and detail of images.

4. Emotionality of images.

The speed of imagination is rated highly if the child came up with the plot of the story in the allotted time on his own.

If within one minute the child has not come up with a plot for the story, then tell him some plot.

The unusualness and originality of imaginative images are highly assessed if the child came up with something that he could not see or hear anywhere before, or retold what was known, but at the same time introduced something new and original into it.

The richness, depth and detail of fantasy are assessed by a sufficiently large number of different living beings, objects, situations and actions, various characteristics and signs attributed to all this in the child’s story, and the presence of various details and characteristics of images in the story.

If a child uses more than 7 such signs in his story, and the object of the story is not depicted schematically, then his wealth of imagination is well developed.

The emotionality of imaginary images is assessed by how vividly and enthusiastically the invented events, characters, and their actions are described.

Test: “Nonverbal fantasy”

Offer your child a drawing with different unfinished images and ask him to draw something interesting using these images (Fig. 41).

When the child makes a drawing, ask him to talk about what he depicted.

Result:

Stereotypical thinking, copying from others, low level of imagination.

Testing of a child is necessary, at a minimum, for the following purposes:

Firstly, to determine how well his level of development corresponds to the norms that are typical for children of this age.

Secondly, diagnostics are needed in order to find out the individual characteristics of the development of abilities. Some of them may be well developed, and some not so much. The presence of certain insufficiently developed intellectual abilities in a child can cause serious difficulties in the process of subsequent education at school. With the help of tests, these “weak points” can be identified in advance, and appropriate adjustments can be made to intellectual training

Thirdly, tests can be useful in assessing the effectiveness of the tools and methods that you use for the child’s mental development.

And finally, fourthly, children need to be introduced to various tests so that they are thus prepared for the testing tests that will await them both when entering school and at various stages of education in the future. Familiarity with typical test tasks will help During such tests, they avoid excessive emotional stress or confusion, called the “surprise effect,” and feel more confident and comfortable. Knowledge of these tests will allow them to equalize the chances with those who, for one reason or another, already have test experience.

would have lost almost all scientific discoveries and works of art. Children would not have heard fairy tales and would not have been able to play many games. How could they master the school curriculum without imagination? To put it simply, deprive a person of imagination and progress will stop! This means that imagination and fantasy are the highest and most necessary ability of a person. At the same time, it is this ability that needs special care in terms of development. And it develops especially intensively between the ages of 5 and 15 years. And if the imagination is not specifically developed during this period, then a rapid decrease in the activity of this function occurs subsequently. Along with a decrease in the ability to fantasize, a person’s personality becomes impoverished, the possibilities of creative thinking decrease, and interest in art and science fades.

The ability to create something new and unusual is laid down in childhood, through the development of such higher mental functions as thinking and imagination. It is their development that needs to be given the least attention in raising a child between the ages of five and twelve. Scientists call this period the most favorable for the development of imaginative thinking and imagination.

What is imagination? Imagination is the ability, inherent only in humans, to create new images by processing previous experience. Imagination is often called fantasy. With the help of imagination, we form an image of an object, situation, or condition that has never existed or does not currently exist.

When solving any mental problem, we use some information. However, there are situations when the available information is not enough to make a clear decision. These are the so-called problems with a large degree of uncertainty. Thinking in this case is almost powerless without the active work of the imagination. Imagination provides cognition when the uncertainty of the situation is very great. This is the general meaning of the imagination function in both children and adults. Now it becomes clear why the imagination function is so intense in children from preschool to adolescence. Their own experience and ability to objectively assess the world around them are insufficient: imagination and fantasy replace their lack of knowledge and experience and help to feel relatively confident in a complex and changing world.

Imagination is the most important aspect of our life. If a person did not have imagination, then we would lose almost all scientific discoveries and works of art. Children would not have heard fairy tales and would not have been able to learn the school curriculum.

Answer

Imagination is more important than knowledge
A. Einstein

Everything that humanity has achieved over the centuries in science, technology and culture has been achieved through imagination. Neither Tsiolkovsky, nor Yuri Gagarin, nor the first American cosmonauts on the Moon would have been possible without the first dreamer who imagined himself flying like a bird. His jump from the bell tower with homemade wings on his hands anticipated the space age of mankind. The Russian Icarus was not alone. It is known that on his sketch of the first flying machine, Leonardo da Vinci wrote the prophetic words: “Man will grow wings for himself.” The Renaissance artist's flying machine could indeed fly several feet, but the church labeled it "the devil's instrument."
So, the collective imagination contributes to the rapid development of progress. I would especially like to note the importance of the imagination of creative individuals. Science fiction writers around the world have created an amazing country that is not on the geographical map, but is marked in the soul of every person who knows how to dream. This is a FANTASTIC country. She lives according to her own laws and orders. There all wishes come true and all dreams come true. But the land of Fantasy is not so surreal. Let us remember Jules Verne: submarines migrated from the area subordinate to him into the real world, and our scientists claim that the flying spacecraft drawn by the writer is very similar to the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft. The collective global imagination also fuels the creativity of such wonderful science fiction writers as Ivan Efremov, Arkady and Boris Strugatsky.
We have published an entire “Library of Contemporary Fiction”. Even a cursory acquaintance with it will make the reader convinced of the authors’ desire to continue the tradition of scientific foresight. But even if there are no specific scientific discoveries in the works of modern science fiction writers, they still work for the progress of mankind. For example, the Strugatskys’ work “The Beetle in the Anthill” poses moral problems that seem to prepare humanity for psychological balance among ultra-modern devices on earth and in space. I believe that the problem is not only in forming in thoughts something that has not yet existed in the physical world, but also in how a person will use this miracle of technology. Mistakes of this kind led to atomic explosions in Japan. Humanity still lives in fear of nuclear and other ultra-modern weapons of mass destruction.
The work of science fiction writers is a spontaneous protest against social relations that disfigure and cripple the human soul. It is for this reason that the greatest achievements of science and technology today are perceived by many people as an insurmountable evil, as a means of even greater enslavement of humanity. Writers create works in which fantasy is only the background against which the tragedy of insoluble contradictions between a person and a cybernetic robot plays out.
For example, in the story of the Australian science fiction writer Lee Harding “The Search,” a certain Johnston is looking for a corner of real nature outside the “giant cities that cover the entire planet with armor made of metal and plastic. After a long search, he manages to find a beautiful park. Birds, grass, and the scent of flowers delight There even a watchman lives in a wooden house. The hero is going to stay there forever, but the watchman dissuades him: “You have to remember, Mr. Johnston, that you are part of the equation. A monstrous equation that helps municipal cybers maintain the smooth flow of the world process.” Ignoring the warning, Johnston remains in the park, plucks a rose from a bush and is horrified to discover that the flower is synthetic. Everything in the park is artificial, and even the watchman turns out to be a robot. Desperate, the hero opens his veins, experiencing the final joy that at least he is bleeding real. But all the blood flows out, and the hero does not die. And only the patrol robot kills him with a beam of ions.
I would like to hope that one day it will be impossible to use creative imagination against a person, but only to solve the world's problems. American writer Robert Anthony said this well: “We should never think of a situation as hopeless or insoluble. The belief that we are on a path to self-destruction is simply a delusion.” I completely agree with the American writer. Our creative imagination is the key to our future.

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Imagination and creativity of the individual

1. Imagination concept

The experimental study of imagination has become a subject of interest for Western psychologists since the 50s. The function of imagination - constructing and creating images - has been recognized as the most important human ability. Its role in the creative process was equated with the role of knowledge and judgment. In the 50s, J. Guilford and his followers developed the theory of creative intelligence.

Defining imagination and identifying the specifics of its development is one of the most difficult problems in psychology. According to A.Ya. Dudetsky (1974), there are about 40 different definitions of imagination, but the question of its essence and difference from other mental processes is still debatable. So, A.V. Brushlinsky (1969) rightly notes the difficulties in defining imagination and the vagueness of the boundaries of this concept. He believes that “Traditional definitions of imagination as the ability to create new images actually reduce this process to creative thinking, to operating with ideas, and conclude that this concept is generally redundant - at least in modern science.”

S.L. Rubinstein emphasized: “Imagination is a special form of the psyche that only a person can have. It is continuously connected with the human ability to change the world, transform reality and create new things.”

Possessing a rich imagination, a person can live in different times, which no other living creature in the world can afford. The past is recorded in memory images, and the future is represented in dreams and fantasies. S.L. Rubinstein writes: “Imagination is a departure from past experience, it is the transformation of what is given and the generation of new images on this basis.”

L.S. Vygotsky believes that “Imagination does not repeat impressions that were accumulated before, but builds some new series of previously accumulated impressions. Thus, introducing something new into our impressions and changing these impressions so that as a result a new, previously non-existent image appears , forms the basis of that activity which we call imagination."

Imagination is a special form of the human psyche, standing apart from other mental processes and at the same time occupying an intermediate position between perception, thinking and memory. The specificity of this form of mental process is that imagination is probably characteristic only of humans and is strangely connected with the activities of the body, being at the same time the most “mental” of all mental processes and states.

In the textbook "General Psychology" A.G. Maklakov provides the following definition of imagination: “Imagination is the process of transforming ideas that reflect reality, and creating new ideas on this basis.

In the textbook "General Psychology" V.M. Kozubovsky contains the following definition. Imagination is the mental process of a person creating in his mind an image of an object (object, phenomenon) that does not exist in real life. The product of imagination can be:

The image of the final result of real objective activity;

a picture of one’s own behavior in conditions of complete information uncertainty;

an image of a situation that resolves problems that are relevant to a given person, the real overcoming of which is not possible in the near future.

Imagination is included in the cognitive activity of the subject, which necessarily has its own object. A.N. Leontyev wrote that “The object of activity appears in two ways: primarily - in its independent existence, as subordinating and transforming the activity of the subject, secondly - as an image of the object, as a product of the mental reflection of its properties, which is realized as a result of the activity of the subject and cannot be realized otherwise.” . .

The identification of certain properties in an object that are necessary for solving a problem determines such a characteristic of the image as its bias, i.e. the dependence of perception, ideas, thinking on what a person needs - on his needs, motives, attitudes, emotions. “It is very important to emphasize that such “bias” is itself objectively determined and is not expressed in the adequacy of the image (although it can be expressed in it), but that it allows one to actively penetrate into reality.”

The combination in the imagination of the subject contents of the images of two objects is associated, as a rule, with a change in the forms of representation of reality. Starting from the properties of reality, the imagination cognizes them, reveals their essential characteristics by transferring them to other objects, which record the work of the productive imagination. This is expressed in metaphor and symbolism that characterize the imagination.

According to E.V. Ilyenkova, “The essence of imagination lies in the ability to “grasp” the whole before the part, in the ability to build a complete image on the basis of a separate hint.” “A distinctive feature of the imagination is a kind of departure from reality, when a new image is built on the basis of a separate sign of reality, and not simply reconstructed existing ideas, which is characteristic of the functioning of the internal plan of action.”

Imagination is a necessary element of human creative activity, which is expressed in the construction of an image of the products of labor, and ensures the creation of a program of behavior in cases where the problem situation is also characterized by uncertainty. Depending on the various circumstances that characterize a problem situation, the same problem can be solved both with the help of imagination and with the help of thinking.

From this we can conclude that the imagination works at that stage of cognition when the uncertainty of the situation is very great. Fantasy allows you to “jump” over certain stages of thinking and still imagine the end result.

Imagination processes are analytical-synthetic in nature. Its main tendency is the transformation of ideas (images), which ultimately ensures the creation of a model of a situation that is obviously new and has not previously arisen. When analyzing the mechanism of imagination, it is necessary to emphasize that its essence is the process of transforming ideas, creating new images based on existing ones. Imagination, fantasy is a reflection of reality in new, unexpected, unusual combinations and connections.

So, imagination in psychology is considered as one of the forms of reflective activity of consciousness. Since all cognitive processes are reflective in nature, it is necessary, first of all, to determine the qualitative originality and specificity inherent in the imagination.

Imagination and thinking are intertwined in such a way that it can be difficult to separate them; both of these processes are involved in any creative activity; creativity is always subordinated to the creation of something new, unknown. Operating with existing knowledge in the process of fantasy presupposes its mandatory inclusion in systems of new relationships, as a result of which new knowledge can arise. From here we can see: “... the circle closes... Cognition (thinking) stimulates the imagination (creating a model of transformation), which (the model) is then checked and refined by thinking" - writes A.D. Dudetsky.

According to L.D. Stolyarenko, several types of imagination can be distinguished, the main ones being passive and active. Passive, in turn, is divided into voluntary (daydreaming, daydreaming) and involuntary (hypnotic state, fantasy in dreams). Active imagination includes artistic, creative, critical, recreative and anticipatory.

Imagination can be of four main types:

Active imagination is characterized by the fact that, using it, a person, of his own free will, by an effort of will, evokes in himself the appropriate images.

Active imagination is a sign of a creative type of personality, which constantly tests its internal capabilities, its knowledge is not static, but is continuously recombined, leading to new results, giving the individual emotional reinforcement for new searches, the creation of new material and spiritual values. Her mental activity is supraconscious and intuitive.

Passive imagination lies in the fact that its images arise spontaneously, regardless of the will and desire of a person. Passive imagination can be unintentional or intentional. Unintentional passive imagination occurs with weakening of consciousness, psychosis, disorganization of mental activity, in a semi-drowsy and sleepy state. With deliberate passive imagination, a person arbitrarily forms images of escape from reality-dreams.

The unreal world created by a person is an attempt to replace unfulfilled hopes, make up for bereavements, and alleviate mental trauma. This type of imagination indicates a deep intrapersonal conflict.

There is also a distinction between reproductive, or reproductive, and transformative, or productive, imagination.

Reproductive imagination aims to reproduce reality as it is, and although there is also an element of fantasy, such imagination is more like perception or memory than creativity. Thus, the direction in art called naturalism, as well as partly realism, can be correlated with the reproductive imagination.

Productive imagination is distinguished by the fact that in it reality is consciously constructed by a person, and not simply mechanically copied or recreated, although at the same time it is still creatively transformed in the image.

Imagination has a subjective side associated with the individual personal characteristics of a person (in particular, with his dominant cerebral hemisphere, type of nervous system, characteristics of thinking, etc.). In this regard, people differ in:

brightness of images (from the phenomena of a clear “vision” of images to the poverty of ideas);

by the depth of processing of images of reality in the imagination (from complete unrecognizability of the imaginary image to primitive differences from the real original);

by the type of dominant channel of imagination (for example, by the predominance of auditory or visual images of the imagination).

2. Concept of creativity

Creative abilities are the highest mental function and reflect reality. However, with the help of these abilities, a mental departure beyond the limits of what is perceived is carried out. With the help of creative abilities, an image of an object that has never existed or does not currently exist is formed. In preschool age, the foundations of a child’s creative activity are laid, which are manifested in the development of the ability to conceive and implement it, the ability to combine one’s knowledge and ideas, and the sincere transmission of one’s feelings. adaptation fifth grader learning atmosphere

Currently, there are many approaches to the definition of creativity, as well as concepts related to this definition: creativity, non-standard thinking, productive thinking, creative act, creative activity, creative abilities and others (V.M. Bekhterev, N.A. Vetlugina, V. N. Druzhinin, Ya. A. Ponomarev, A. Rebera, etc.).

Many scientific works widely present the psychological aspects of creativity, in which thinking is involved (D.B. Bogoyavlenskaya, P.Ya. Galperin, V.V. Davydov, A.V. Zaporozhets, L.V. Zankov, Ya.A. Ponomarev , S.L. Rubinstein) and creative imagination as a result of mental activity, providing a new education (image), implemented in different types of activities (A.V. Brushlinsky, L.S. Vygotsky, O.M. Dyachenko, A.Ya. Dudetsky, A.N. Leontiev, N.V. Rozhdestvenskaya, F.I. Fradkina, D.B. Elkonin, R. Arnheim, K. Koffka, M. Wergheimer).

"Ability" is one of the most general psychological concepts. In Russian psychology, many authors gave it detailed definitions.

In particular, S.L. Rubinstein understood abilities as “... a complex synthetic formation that includes a whole range of data, without which a person would not be capable of any specific activity, properties that are developed only in the process of a certain way of organized activity.” Statements similar in content can be gleaned from other authors.

Abilities are a dynamic concept. They are formed, developed and manifested in activity.

B.M. Teplov proposed three essentially empirical signs of abilities, which formed the basis for the definition most often used by specialists:

1) abilities are individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another;

only those features that are relevant to the success of performing an activity or several activities;

abilities are not reducible to knowledge, skills and abilities that have already been developed in a person, although they determine the ease and speed of acquiring this knowledge and skills.

Naturally, the success of an activity is determined by both motivation and personal characteristics, which prompted K.K. Platonov classifies as abilities any mental properties that, to one degree or another, determine success in a specific activity. However, B.M. Teplov goes further and points out that, in addition to success in an activity, ability determines the speed and ease of mastering an activity, and this changes the situation with the definition: the speed of learning may depend on motivation, but the feeling of ease when learning (otherwise - “subjective price”, experience of difficulty), rather, is inversely proportional to motivational tension.

So, the more developed a person’s ability, the more successfully he performs an activity, the faster he masters it, and the process of mastering an activity and the activity itself are subjectively easier for him than learning or working in an area in which he does not have the ability. A problem arises: what kind of mental essence is this ability? Mere indication of its behavioral and subjective manifestations (and B.M. Teplov’s definition is essentially behavioral) is not enough.

In its most general form, the definition of creative ability is as follows. V.N. Druzhinin defines creative abilities as individual characteristics of a person’s qualities, which determine the success of his performance of creative activities of various kinds.

Creativity is a fusion of many qualities. And the question about the components of human creative potential remains open, although at the moment there are several hypotheses regarding this problem. Many psychologists associate the ability for creative activity, first of all, with the characteristics of thinking. In particular, the famous American psychologist Guilford, who studied the problems of human intelligence, found that creative individuals are characterized by so-called divergent thinking.

People with this type of thinking, when solving a problem, do not concentrate all their efforts on finding the only correct solution, but begin to look for solutions in all possible directions in order to consider as many options as possible. Such people tend to form new combinations of elements that most people know and use only in a certain way, or to form connections between two elements that at first glance have nothing in common. The divergent way of thinking underlies creative thinking, which is characterized by the following main features:

1. Speed ​​- the ability to express the maximum number of ideas; in this case, it is not their quality that is important, but their quantity).

2. Flexibility - the ability to express a wide variety of ideas.

3. Originality - the ability to generate new non-standard ideas; this can manifest itself in answers and solutions that do not coincide with generally accepted ones.

4. Completeness - the ability to improve your “product” or give it a finished look.

Well-known domestic researcher of the problem of creativity A.N. Onion, based on the biographies of outstanding scientists, inventors, artists and musicians, identifies the following creative abilities:

1. The ability to see a problem where others do not see it.

The ability to collapse mental operations, replacing several concepts with one and using increasingly information-capacious symbols.

The ability to apply skills acquired in solving one problem to solving another.

The ability to perceive reality as a whole, without splitting it into parts.

The ability to easily associate distant concepts.

The ability of memory to produce the right information at the right time.

Flexibility of thinking

The ability to choose one of the alternatives to solve a problem before testing it.

The ability to incorporate newly perceived information into existing knowledge systems.

The ability to see things as they are, to isolate what is observed from what is introduced by interpretation.

Ease of generating ideas.

Creative imagination.

The ability to refine details to improve the original concept.

Candidates of psychological sciences V.T. Kudryavtsev and V. Sinelnikov, based on a wide historical and cultural material (history of philosophy, social sciences, art, individual areas of practice), identified the following universal creative abilities that have developed in the process of human history.

1. Realism of the imagination - figurative grasp of some essential, general tendency or pattern of development of an integral object, before a person has a clear concept about it and can fit it into a system of strict logical categories.

2. The ability to see the whole before the parts.

Trans-situational - the transformative nature of creative solutions and the ability, when solving a problem, not just to choose from externally imposed alternatives, but to independently create an alternative.

Experimentation is the ability to consciously and purposefully create conditions in which objects most clearly reveal their hidden essence in ordinary situations, as well as the ability to trace and analyze the features of the “behavior” of objects in these conditions.

3. Methods for studying imagination and creativity

To more accurately determine the level of development of students’ creative abilities, it is necessary to analyze and evaluate each creative task completed independently.

S.Yu. Lazareva recommends that pedagogical assessment of the results of students’ creative activity be carried out using the “Fantasy” scale developed by G.S. Altshuller to assess the presence of fantastic ideas and thus allowing one to assess the level of imagination (the scale was adapted to the primary school question by M.S. Gafitulin, T.A. Sidorchuk).

The “Fantasy” scale includes five indicators: novelty (assessed on a 4-level scale: copying an object (situation, phenomenon), minor change in the prototype, obtaining a fundamentally new object (situation, phenomenon)); persuasiveness (a well-founded idea described by a child with sufficient reliability is considered convincing).

Data from scientific works suggest that research conducted in real life is legitimate if it is aimed at improving the educational environment in which the child is formed, promoting social practice, and creating pedagogical conditions conducive to the development of creativity in the child.

1. Methodology "Verbal fantasy" (verbal imagination). The child is asked to come up with a story (story, fairy tale) about any living creature (person, animal) or something else of the child’s choice and present it orally within 5 minutes. Up to one minute is allotted to come up with a theme or plot for a story (story, fairy tale), and after that the child begins the story.

During the story, the child’s imagination is assessed according to the following criteria:

speed of imagination processes;

unusualness, originality of imagination;

wealth of imagination;

depth and elaboration (detail) of images; - impressionability, emotionality of images.

For each of these features, the story is scored from 0 to 2 points. 0 points are given when this feature is practically absent in the story. A story receives 1 point if this feature is present, but is expressed relatively weakly. A story earns 2 points when when the corresponding sign is not only present, but also expressed quite strongly.

If within one minute the child has not come up with a plot for the story, then the experimenter himself suggests some plot to him and 0 points are given for the speed of imagination. If the child himself came up with the plot of the story by the end of the allotted time (1 minute), then according to the speed of imagination he receives a score of 1 point. Finally, if the child managed to come up with the plot of the story very quickly, within the first 30 seconds, or if within one minute he came up with not one, but at least two different plots, then the child is given 2 points for the “speed of imagination processes.”

The unusualness and originality of imagination is assessed in the following way.

If a child simply retold what he once heard from someone or saw somewhere, then he receives 0 points for this criterion. If a child retells what is known, but at the same time brings something new into it, then the originality of his imagination is assessed at 1 point. If a child comes up with something that he could not see or hear somewhere before, then the originality of his imagination receives a score of 2 points. The richness of a child’s imagination is also manifested in the variety of images he uses. When assessing this quality of imagination processes, the total number of different living beings, objects, situations and actions, various characteristics and signs attributed to all of this in the child’s story is recorded. If the total number named exceeds ten, then the child receives 2 points for the richness of imagination. If the total number of parts of the specified type is in the range from 6 to 9, then the child receives 1 point. If there are few signs in the story, but in general there are at least five, then the richness of the child’s imagination is assessed as 0 points.

The depth and elaboration of images is determined by how diverse the story is in presenting details and characteristics related to the image that plays a key role or occupies a central place in the story. Grades are also given here in a three-point system.

The child receives points when the central object of the story is depicted very schematically.

point - if, when describing the central object, its detail is moderate.

point - if the main image of his story is described in sufficient detail, with many different details characterizing it.

The impressionability or emotionality of imaginary images is assessed by whether it arouses interest and emotion in the listener.

About points - the images are uninteresting, banal, and do not make an impression on the listener.

score - the images of the story arouse some interest on the part of the listener and some emotional response, but this interest, along with the corresponding reaction, soon fades away.

points - the child used bright, very interesting images, the listener’s attention to which, once aroused, did not fade away, accompanied by emotional reactions such as surprise, admiration, fear, etc.

Thus, the maximum number of points that a child can receive for his imagination in this technique is 10, and the minimum is 0.

4. Diagnosis of creative abilities

Psychologist B.F. Lomov claims that “every person has, to one degree or another, “creative potential,” since without creativity, at least elementary, a person cannot solve life’s problems, that is, simply live...”

It is generally accepted that creativity is more of a process, a search, rather than a result. This search does not always end with the creation of a high-quality product. Rather, it is a kind of ability to ask a question, pose a problem and try to solve it.

In accordance with this, the first sign of the presence of creative abilities is a strong cognitive need, manifested in high cognitive activity. High cognitive activity manifests itself at a very early age, and by carefully observing the child, one can easily assess its development. If the baby clearly shows a positive emotional reaction to a new toy, situation, great interest in surrounding objects, people, active development of new ways of learning, a desire to imitate, and then attempts to experiment independently (with an object, sound, word) - all this speaks of unfolding creative potential.

So, the questions of inquisitive kids are broader in topic and deeper in content than those of their peers. By the age of five, they try to look for answers on their own, observing, trying to experiment. From the age of five to six, the increased level of cognitive activity allows the child to formulate a question or problem himself, turning them not to others, but to himself; the search for solutions is carried out systematically and consistently. By the end of preschool age, a desire may arise to present one’s “discoveries” to others - adults, children.

In preschool pedagogy and psychology, there are many criteria for assessing children's creative work. But some researchers note the great effectiveness of the approach to the analysis of children's creativity by the American specialist P. Torrence. He identifies creative thinking as an essential component of any creative search and uses the main indicators of creative thinking (productivity, flexibility, originality, development of creative ideas and solutions) to analyze the results of creative activity.

In order to reveal the creative potential of a child, his creative abilities E.S. Belova recommends observing the child in class, in play, noting the following points:

Preferred types of activities, games;

Independence of creative search (does he turn to adults or other children for help, what kind of help was needed and at what stage);

The child’s attitude towards the creative process (emotional coloring, enthusiasm);

Initiative (in choosing the type of activity, creating a plan, choosing means);

Implementation of a creative plan (completeness, change, awareness);

Use of sources of information and means of expression (types, preferences, diversity, adequacy to the plan).

Creatively gifted preschoolers can show great interest in various types of activities and games, but mainly in those in which they can express themselves creatively - discover, create something new. As a rule, such children engage in creativity with joy and great enthusiasm, while showing activity and initiative; They are quite independent in their creative search, but at the same time they can turn to their elders for the necessary information and for information on how to obtain this information. Such children are purposeful and persistent in implementing their plans; they are completely absorbed by the creative process itself.

Based on an analysis of the characteristics of gifted children, psychologists J. Renzulli and R. Hartman proposed assessing a child’s creative potential according to the following parameters:

1. Shows curiosity about many things, constantly asks questions;

2. Offers many ideas, solutions to problems, answers to questions;

3. Freely expresses his opinion, sometimes persistently and energetically defends it;

4. Prone to risky actions;

5. Has a rich fantasy and imagination; often concerned with the transformation, improvement of society, objects, systems;

6. Has a well-developed sense of humor and sees humor in situations that others do not find funny;

7. Sensitive to beauty, pays attention to the aesthetic characteristics of things and objects;

8. Nonconformist, not afraid to be different from others;

To the above we can add a great desire for creative self-expression, for the creative use of objects.

Based on these characteristics, one can evaluate the manifestation of the child’s creative potential. If we expand the boundaries of the assessment, that is, not only record the severity of the characteristic within the framework of alternative answers “yes - no”, but also try to distinguish the degree of expression (very weak, weak, medium, strong, very strong), we can get a general idea of ​​the disclosure child's creative potential.

The complexity and versatility of the concept of creativity also presupposes an integrated approach to its diagnosis. Isolating one characteristic or quality, as well as using one diagnostic method, is not enough for an objective and accurate assessment of a child’s abilities.

Diagnosis of creative abilities has its own characteristics, which we need to highlight in order to see their distinctive feature from other types of diagnostics.

Diagnostic features:

*To obtain more accurate results, it is necessary to exclude educational motivation and conduct it in your free time from work.

*Expert assessment is not so much of the result as of the process.

*Other methods: not through tests, but through participant observation in natural conditions (the expert plays together); through self-questionnaires, a biographical method in which only facts are recorded (since creativity occurs episodically) and the conditions in which the fact occurred are analyzed.

*Games and training are the main methods.

*To relieve tension, a preparatory period is required.

*Time limit has been removed.

Main indicators for diagnosis:

Fluency.

Flexibility (number of ideas, ability to switch from problem to problem).

Originality (standard answer or not).

Sustainability of interest.

Integrity (the ability to give a product a complete appearance).

When conducting diagnostics with children of primary school age, it is necessary to create an environment for an individual examination, without contact with other children, because Children of this age have a tendency to imitate.

Diagnostic methods should exclude verbal explanations from children from the outside, because their speech is inadequate to their feelings. Children feel and understand more intuitively than they can say. Preference is given to intuitive guesses.

Artistic and aesthetic development is tested through the perception of the expressiveness of a form, and not through mastering the language of art; it is tested through the presentation of artistic objects, reproductions, photographs, postcards.

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Preparing students to perform
text tasks in the final certification
in Russian language in grades 9–11

authors: N.A. Borisenko, A.G. Narushevich, N.A. Shapiro

Syllabus

Newspaper no.	Lecture title
17	Lecture No. 1. Types of final certification in the Russian language in grades 9 and 11. General methodological approaches to working with text in Unified State Examination tasks. Regulatory documents for the Unified State Exam
18	Lecture No. 2.Modern approaches to writing expositions. Basic requirements for presentation. Types of presentations. Understanding and remembering text based on reconstructive imagination
19	Lecture No. 3 . Detailed and concise presentation. Analysis of microthemes. Text compression methods. Technology of writing an essay based on the text of the presentation
20	Lecture No. 4. Evaluation of presentation. Evaluation criteria. Types of errors. Analysis of students' written work Test No. 1
21	Lecture No. 5.Requirements for the content of part C of the Unified State Exam in Russian. Ways to identify the problem of the text and the author's position. Commenting as analytical and synthetic work with text
22	Lecture No. 6 . Methods of argumentation. Arguing your own opinion: logical, psychological and illustrative arguments. Analysis of student work. Working on the composition. Main types of introductory and final parts Test No. 2
23	Lecture No. 7 . General principles of writing essays. Topic analysis. Composition of the essay. Checking and editing. Exam time allocation
24	Lecture No. 8 . Varieties of essays on literary topics. Analysis of poetic and prose works. Analysis of an excerpt from the work. Essay on a problematic topic Final work

LECTURE No. 2.
Modern approaches to writing expositions.

Basic requirements for presentation. Types of presentations.
Understanding and remembering text based on
recreating imagination

Presentation, one of the traditional types of written work in school, has been experiencing a real boom in recent years. It has become the most common form of final examination. Suffice it to say that in all three versions of the final assessment in the 9th grade, the presentation is the first part of the examination paper.

According to the secondary school program, students write statements from the 1st grade, so this type of work is familiar to both ninth-graders and teachers. However, despite the apparent ease of the exam, many students fail due to a fundamentally incorrect approach to presentation: “I listened twice, memorized and wrote it down. The main thing is no mistakes.”

But, before starting a detailed conversation about presentation, we suggest you answer a few questions that inevitably arise before every teacher if he is not satisfied with the current practice of teaching presentation.

1. What is more difficult for your students: presentation or composition?

2. Why is the presentation written? What skills do we develop by teaching children to reproduce someone else’s text?

3. Which texts are “suitable” for presentation and which are not? What is good exposition text?

Presentation: a student’s perspective

It’s even better if these questions are answered not by the teacher, but by the students themselves. Therefore, at the beginning of the school year, we will offer the class a short questionnaire that allows them to freely express their attitude to the presentation.

Questionnaire for Students, or Seven Questions about Presentation

1. Do you like writing expositions?

2. What is more difficult for you to write - an essay or a presentation? Explain why.

3. Why do you need to learn how to write expositions? Where can this skill be useful to you now and later?

4. What texts would you choose to present: about nature, about love for one’s native country, about outstanding people, about historical events, about school, about problems that concern teenagers, about...?

5. If it were forbidden to take notes while listening to the text, would it be more difficult for you to write a summary?

6. Which presentation is easier to write - detailed or concise? What does it mean to “compress” text?

7. What difficulties do you experience when writing an exposition?

If you have an average class, then most likely you will get the same answers as we did.

Only every fifth 9th grader likes to write an essay. Most students find this activity very tedious, boring and difficult, especially “if you write a summary every week.”

70% of respondents answered that it is more difficult for them to write an essay than an exposition, since “in an exposition you simply need to retell someone else’s text, but an essay requires your own thoughts”; “in an essay you come up with your own, but the presentation is almost dictated, you just have to have time to write it down,” “you don’t have to think about the presentation.” And yet, there are also many who have difficulty reproducing other people’s thoughts. Here are excerpts from the questionnaires: “I don’t remember the text well,” “for presentation you need an auditory memory bordering on the fantastic, but I have zero,” “I’m inattentive, often distracted when listening to the text,” “I suffer from a lack of logic,” “I don’t understand well.” what they read”, “I don’t remember the end”, “I have a small vocabulary”, “I can’t express a thought”, “I get confused in endless repetitions”, “I write illiterately”, etc.

Most often, ninth-graders complain about their memory and inability to write quickly. Here is a typical answer: “The text is very large, but it is read only twice, I don’t have time to write anything down.” And only in one of the 120 works was there a completely “adult” approach to the matter: “To write an exposition, you need to understand the text, remember it and be able to identify micro-topics. This is the main difficulty."

The ability to write a summary, according to ninth-graders, can be useful “when passing the Unified State Exam”, “when taking notes on lectures at the institute”, “for journalists or reporters, if you need to quickly record what a “star” is saying, and the recorder breaks down”, “in the police when you need to write a protocol." Many people generally deny the need for such a skill. However, there are also quite mature judgments: presentation is memory training, and every person needs a good memory.

The established practice of writing expositions - deliberately slow reading of the source text, often more reminiscent of dictation, and permission to take notes during the second hearing - led to the fact that the main task for our students was the desire to write down as quickly and as much as possible. If students were deprived of this opportunity, less than 30% would cope with the presentation. Here is one of the typical answers: “I’m unlikely to write it, I’ve never tried this.” In fact, literal recording of a text is no better than ordinary cramming. Memorizing without understanding characteristic of children of preschool and primary school age, practically returns ninth-graders to childhood.

First of all, the text you listen to needs to be understood, and only a few graduates have this skill. According to the results of a survey of 200 schools in 76 regions of the country, in which about 170 thousand schoolchildren in the first and tenth grades participated, more than 50% of tenth graders found it difficult to extract meaning from an elementary text, only 30% expressed their opinion in connection with what they read, 90% of high school students do not have a complete understanding the meaning of a literary text.

Unfortunately, the teacher himself often underestimates the role of understanding when teaching presentation. Meanwhile, properly organized work in preparation for presentation is, first of all, work on understanding and memorizing the text. If a student misses some essential thoughts of the source text, distorts the main idea, or does not feel the author’s attitude, this means that the text is not understood or is not fully understood.

EXAMPLE 1

Original text

A discovery that was two hundred years late

Here's a cautionary tale.

About a hundred years ago, in a city in Russia there lived a mathematician. All his life he patiently struggled to solve a complex mathematical problem. Neither strangers nor acquaintances could understand what the eccentric was tormenting over.

Some felt sorry for him, others laughed at him. He didn't pay attention to anyone or anything around him. He lived like Robinson on a desert island. Only his island was surrounded not by a sea of ​​water, but by a sea of ​​misunderstanding.

He rediscovered all the mathematical rules, except the most important ones, which he had learned during his short time at school.

And he built what he wanted to build from them the way Robinson built his boat. He suffered in the same way, made the same mistakes, did unnecessary work and started to redo everything all over again, because no one could help or advise him.

Many years later. He finished his work and showed it to a math teacher he knew. The teacher spent a long time figuring it out, and when he figured it out, he transferred his work to the university. A few days later, the scientists invited the eccentric to their place. They looked at him with admiration and pity. There was something to admire and something to regret. The eccentric made a great mathematical discovery! The chairman of the meeting told him so. But, alas, two hundred years before him, this discovery had already been made by another mathematician - Isaac Newton.

At first the old man did not believe what he was told. They explained to him that Newton wrote his books on mathematics in Latin. And in his old age he sat down to Latin textbooks. Learned Latin. I read Newton’s book and found out that everything he was told at a meeting at the university was true. He really made a discovery. But this discovery has long been known to the world. Life was lived in vain.

This sad story was told by the writer N. Garin-Mikhailovsky. He called the story about the eccentric “Genius” and made a note to the story that this story was not made up, but happened in reality.

Who knows what discoveries this unknown genius could give people, if I learned about Newton's discovery earlier and I would direct my talent to discovering something that is not yet known to people!

(325 words)
(S. Lvov)

Text of the presentation

There was once a mathematician who spent his whole life solving one problem. But no one wanted to help him, everyone just laughed at him. He lived like Robinson on a desert island. He himself discovered all the mathematical rules that are taught at school.

Many years later, the eccentric showed the solution to the problem to which he had devoted his entire life to a teacher he knew. The teacher could not figure out the problem for a long time and showed it to the scientists. The old man was invited to a meeting at the university. Everyone began to admire him because he, it turns out, had made an outstanding discovery.

One writer who told a story about an eccentric mathematician correctly titled his story “Genius.”

The work requires no comments. And this is not a matter of violations of logic or poverty of language. The problem is much more serious: the text is simply not understood, its main idea is not understood (“Humanity would have recognized the mathematician who made the great discovery as a genius if Newton had not made this discovery two hundred years before him.”) Key words and phrases left unattended (studied at school for a short time, unnecessary work, rediscovered, looked with admiration and pity, the world has long known, a sad story). Even such strong signals as a telling title and sentences that directly reveal the author’s position (they are highlighted in the text) missed the author of the presentation.

It must be admitted that more than half of the class failed to complete the task of formulating the main idea of ​​the text. Here are statements that indicate a complete misunderstanding of the text.

1. This man has achieved everything on his own all his life and received an education through his own labor. He was a genius and managed to discover Newton's own laws.

2. The point of this text is to show that there are people who evoke our sympathy and pity.

4. In life, geniuses are strange people, and it is difficult for them to communicate with people, to be in society, so no one recognizes our hero. But I believe that his suffering was not in vain, since this discovery was the goal of his life and he achieved everything that was planned.

5. I think that the main problem of this text is the reluctance of people to help each other, the reluctance to accept help, and in general the problem of relationships between people. If the mathematician had listened to others, he would not have lived his life in vain. He could have directed his mind to something more useful.

And only in some works did reading comprehension appear.

1. “The main idea of ​​the text can be formulated using the well-known expressions “reinventing the wheel” and “discovering America.” Indeed, why invent something that others did before you a long time ago?

Unfortunately, such cases are not uncommon today. Therefore, before you start inventing anything, you must first study your chosen field of science well. Understand what and to what extent others have done before you.”

2. “Sergei Lvov told us a sad story, or rather, retold it to us. I feel sorry for this eccentric, this “unknown genius”, who spent all his strength on the discovery made by Newton two hundred years before him.

In order not to discover what has already been discovered, you need to read a lot, study a lot, communicate with other scientists, and not surround yourself with a “sea of ​​misunderstanding.” This is precisely the main (it must be said, rather trivial) idea of ​​this text.

The hero of V. Shukshin’s story “Stubborn” found himself in a similar situation, who took up the invention of a perpetual motion machine. Of course, nothing came of this, because the creation of a perpetuum mobile, as is known, contradicts the laws of physics. Monya (that’s the name of Shukshin’s hero) did not believe this and “devoted himself entirely to the great inventive task.” At the end of the story, the engineer directly addresses the “stubborn” Monet: “You have to study, my friend, then everything will be clear.” Despite all its banality, the advice is actually correct. If this “genius” mathematician had received a good mathematical education (most likely he simply did not have such an opportunity), he would have directed his talent to discovering something that is not yet known to people.”

Is it possible to put presentation at the service of understanding the text? What are modern approaches to writing expositions? What can be done to transform the presentation of the “boring” genre, as it is most often perceived by students, into an effective means of their development?

Exposition as a genre

But first, let’s find out the features of presentation as a genre.

Presentation– a type of educational work based on the reproduction of the content of someone else’s text, the creation of a secondary text. Words presentation And retelling are often used as synonyms, but the term retelling more often refers to the oral form of text reproduction.

The specificity of the presentation follows from its nature as secondary text.

Let us turn to the class with the question: “What should not be confused with presentation?” The answer: “Of course, with an essay” will not follow immediately. We asked this “childish” question for a reason. It is necessary to explain to students once and for all that these genres have different tasks and different specifics. Unlike an essay, which is entirely “led” by the author, nothing that is not in the source text should not be in the presentation. The appearance in “your” text of background knowledge, facts and details that are not contained in the text is by no means encouraged. On the contrary, any “creativity” or fantasy of this kind is regarded as a factual error and leads to a decrease in points.

Thus, in the presentation about Pushkin and Pushchin (text No. 1 from the famous collection), the student should not mention that the meeting took place on January 11, 1825 in Mikhailovskoye, and in the presentation about the Battle of Borodino (text No. 47) in the phrase “Kutuzov first intends was “to start a new battle in the morning and stand to the end” there is no need to indicate the authorship of the quote. As a rule, errors of this kind are more typical of strong, erudite students. Information about the specifics of presentation as a genre should be addressed to them first.

Types of presentations

Traditionally, the following types of presentation are distinguished.

1. According to the form of speech: oral, written.

2. By volume: detailed, concise.

3. In relation to the content of the source text: complete, selective, presentation with an additional task (add the beginning/end, make inserts, retell the text from the 1st–3rd line, answer the question, etc.).

4. According to the perception of the source text: presentation of a read, visually perceived text, presentation of a heard, aurally perceived text, presentation of a text perceived both aurally and visually.

5. By purpose: training, control.

The features of all these types of presentations are well known to the teacher. Let us only note that in the 9th grade you should not concentrate both your own efforts and the efforts of the students on any one type. In the practice of preparing for an exam, there must be different texts, different presentations and, of course, different types of work, otherwise boredom and monotony - the main enemy of any activity - cannot be avoided. But, since there is very little time for presentation in the graduate class (you also need to go through the program), it is best to select small texts for training and train one specific skill.

Requirements for texts

The texts of the presentations do not satisfy not only us teachers, but also the children: they seem monotonous, “pretentious”, incomprehensible, too long (“try to retell a text of 400–450 words yourself, and most of the collections contain such!”). A game called “If I were a text writer, I would suggest texts about...” turned out to be very effective: students named a variety of topics - about school, about problems that concern teenagers, about interesting people, about great discoveries, about technology, sports, music, about relationships between people and even about the future of humanity. “Anyone except the boring ones!”

Why do children name these particular topics? What is leading in their choice? Without realizing it themselves, they act according to one criterion - emotional, choosing texts that primarily evoke positive emotions.

The selection of non-boring texts - informative, fascinating, problematic, smart, and sometimes humorous - arouses and maintains cognitive interest, and creates a favorable psychological climate in the lesson. Popular science and some journalistic texts are best suited for this purpose, less often - and only with a specific educational task - fiction.

The question of whether it is possible to offer texts from classical works for presentation is controversial. Many methodologists believe that by conveying the content of an artistically impeccable fragment close to the text, students learn those figures of speech that belong to Lermontov, Gogol, Tolstoy... During the presentation, the mechanism of imitation is activated, which has a beneficial effect on the child’s speech. But what does it mean to “retell in detail” Lermontov or Gogol (for example, the texts “About Pechorin”, “About Gogol’s Thick and Thin” or “About Sobakevich”)? If the passage is not very long, which cannot be said about exam texts, you can, with incredible effort, remember it almost word for word. However, in this case there is no need to talk about any understanding and development of speech. The situation with a detailed presentation of the classics was parodied by the students themselves in the genre of “bad advice”: “... you must replace all the author’s words with your own and at the same time preserve his style” (school No. 57, Moscow, 7th grade, teacher - S.V. Volkov).

How to present?

The question at first glance may seem rather strange: the methodology for conducting the presentation is known to any teacher.

But it’s worth abandoning some of the usual schemes and templates.

Let's talk about the presentation methodology proposed in our textbooks.

The teacher reads the text for the first time. Students, listening, try to understand and remember the text. After the first reading, they retell the text in order to understand what they did not remember. This work usually takes 5–7 minutes.

The teacher reads the text a second time. Students pay attention to those passages that they missed during the first reading. Then they retell the text again, make the necessary notes on the draft, draw up a plan, formulate the main idea, etc. And only after that they write the presentation.

Unlike the traditional method, during retelling children note not what they already remember well, but what they missed listening to the text. The new technique takes into account the psychological mechanisms operating in the process of text perception - the mechanisms of memorization and understanding. While reciting the text to himself, the student, albeit not immediately, realizes that he did not remember some parts of the text because he did not understand them. At the initial stage of learning, the text can be retold by one of the students. Control over memorization and understanding in this case is carried out externally - from other students: they note factual errors, omissions, logical inconsistencies, etc. As a result of such joint activities with the class, gradually even the weakest students learn to retell.

The role of such a mental process as the recreating imagination deserves a separate discussion.

Understanding and remembering text based on reconstructive imagination

As you know, in psychology there are different types of imagination: creative and recreative. Unlike creative imagination, aimed at creating new images, recreating aimed at creating images that correspond to verbal descriptions. It is the recreating imagination that permeates the entire educational process; without it it is impossible to imagine full-fledged learning.

Its role is especially important when reading a literary text. “Of course, this does not apply to all reading. Such reading, which has only one goal - to find out “what is being said here” and “what will happen next,” writes the famous psychologist B.M. Teplov - does not require active imagination. But such reading, when you mentally “see and hear” everything that is being discussed, when you are mentally transported to the situation being depicted and “live” in it - such reading is impossible without the most active work of the imagination.”

What has been said can be fully attributed to writing the presentation.

The teacher’s task is to make sure that when perceiving a literary text, the student mentally “sees and hears” what he is listening (reading). Achieving this, of course, is not easy. The reconstructive imagination of different people and children in particular is not developed to the same extent. Only a very few (according to our experiments, less than 10%) are able to see with their “mind's eye” the images created by writers.

EXAMPLE 2

Original text

In autumn, the whole house is covered with leaves, and in two small rooms it becomes light, like in a flying garden.

The stoves are crackling, there is a smell of apples and cleanly washed floors. Tits sit on branches, pour glass balls in their throats, ring, crackle and look at the windowsill, where there is a slice of black bread.

I rarely spend the night in the house. I spend most nights at the lakes, and when I stay at home I sleep in an old gazebo at the bottom of the garden. It is overgrown with wild grapes. In the mornings the sun hits it through the purple, lilac, green and lemon foliage, and it always seems to me that I wake up inside a lit tree.

It’s especially good in the gazebo on quiet autumn nights, when the slow, sheer rain is making a low noise in the garden.

The cool air barely moves the candle tongue. Angular shadows from grape leaves lie on the ceiling of the gazebo. A moth, looking like a lump of gray raw silk, lands on an open book and leaves shiny dust on the page.

It smells like rain - a gentle and at the same time pungent smell of moisture, damp garden paths.

(154 words)
(K. Paustovsky)

We specifically took for analysis descriptive text. If the text has a dynamic plot and is full of dialogues, then when reading it, the imagination, as a rule, turns on involuntarily. With a descriptive text, the situation is different: its full understanding and memorization is impossible without the activity of the imagination, the inclusion of which requires certain volitional efforts.

The text by K. Paustovsky, proposed for presentation, cannot be understood and retold if the reader does not see the pictures created by the author, does not hear the described sounds, does not smell the smells. Many students, after listening to the text for the first time, said that they did not remember anything. After they were asked to retell only what remained in their memory, some were able to recreate only individual elements of the depicted picture, while others imagined a picture that was far from the author’s. And most importantly, such children inevitably experienced failures in understanding.

Here are two examples of detailed presentations of this text. (As per work conditions, students were not allowed to write anything down during the hearing.)

First presentation

In autumn, the whole house is littered with leaves, and in two small rooms it is as bright as day. The house, like a leafless garden, smells of apples, lilacs, and washed floors. Tits are sitting on a branch outside the window, they are sorting glass balls on the windowsill and looking at the bread.

When I stay at home, I spend the night mostly in a gazebo overgrown with wild grapes. In the mornings I turn on the purple and lilac lights on the Christmas tree.

It’s especially good in the gazebo when it’s raining in autumn outside. It smells like rain and damp garden paths.”

Second presentation

In autumn, in a house covered with leaves, it is as light as in a leafless garden. You can hear the crackling sound of hot stoves, and the smell of apples and washed floors. Outside the window, tits sit on tree branches, sorting glass balls in their throats, ringing, crackling and looking at a slice of black bread lying on the windowsill.

I rarely spend the night in the house; I usually go to the lakes. But when I stay at home, I like to sleep in an old gazebo overgrown with wild grapes. The sun shines through the branches of the grapes in purple, green, lemon colors, and then I feel like I’m inside a lit Christmas tree. Angular shadows from wild grape leaves fall on the walls and ceiling of the gazebo.

It is especially wonderful in the gazebo when the quiet autumn rain rustles in the garden. A fresh breeze sways the tongue of the candle. A butterfly flies quietly, and, landing on an open book, this gray lump of raw silk leaves silver sparkles on the pages of the book.

At night I feel the quiet music of the rain, the gentle and pungent smell of moisture, wet garden paths.”

(142 words)

It is not difficult to guess which of the two presentations the author managed to use his imagination while listening to the text. And the point here is not in the completeness of the transfer of content and not in the richness and expressiveness of speech, but in the fact that the second student was able to recreate in visual, concrete sensory images the pictures described in the text; hear the sound of rain, sounds made by tits; smell apples, cleanly washed floors...

The first presentation, with the exception of the initial and last phrases, is a rather incoherent description. It captures individual details of the overall picture. It is unclear from the text where and when the action takes place. It seems that we are talking about autumn, but suddenly lilacs and a New Year tree appear; tits are either sitting outside the window, or on the windowsill, and at the same time sorting through glass balls - the author does not perceive metaphors and comparisons. Thus, we are talking about misunderstanding text. And this case is far from the only one: out of 28 students who wrote an exposition on this text, failures in understanding were noted in twelve.

Psychologists do not yet fully understand the processes that arise during the work of the imagination. Often we cannot often control whether it works when perceiving text or not. One of the means of checking the inclusion of imagination is precisely retelling (exposition). If the imagination was active while reading (listening) to the text, then the retelling will be complete and accurate. If the imagination is not activated, students make a large number of inaccuracies, omitting the essential, distorting images, paying attention to minor details. (Of course, this does not apply to all texts, but only to those that allow the inclusion of a reconstructive imagination).

“Lazy” imagination makes it difficult to understand the text and often makes learning itself painful, since the child has to resort to mechanical memorization of the text, to elementary cramming.

Meanwhile, the recreating imagination, in the figurative expression of the outstanding artist and scientist N.K. Roerich, “this subjective field of vision, a mental screen,” “can be developed to an amazing degree.” It is only necessary for the teacher himself to realize the need to work in this direction.

Let us describe one of the effective techniques that develop the reconstructive imagination.

This type of task is called "Use your imagination." It is formulated quite simply : “Imagine that everything you read about you see on your “mental screen.” Turn it on every time you meet with text" In the future, you can briefly remind about the need to activate the imagination: “Turn on your “mental screen”, “Try to see in your mind...”, “Let your imagination work,” etc.

The effectiveness of this technique has been confirmed by numerous experiments. The hard numbers speak for themselves: for those students who managed to use their imagination, text memorization improves four to five times.

The development of reconstructive imagination is important not only in itself, but also in connection with attention, memory, emotions, self-control, and most importantly, understanding. Without seeing the picture mentally created by the writer, the student in many cases cannot not only remember, but also understand the text.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are the features of exposition as a genre? Which of them will you take into account in your work?

2. How do your students feel about presentation? Take the questionnaire suggested in the lecture in class or create one yourself. Tell us about the results of the survey. Do they coincide with the data we received?

3. What are the requirements for the selection of texts for presentation? Find in collections of expositions or select two texts yourself that meet the specified requirements.

4. What is the role of the processes of understanding and memorization in teaching exposition?

5. If the techniques for developing the re-creative imagination described in the lecture caught your attention, try applying them in your class and share your observations and conclusions. This can be done in the form of a page from a pedagogical diary or in any other free form.

Literature

1. Antonova E.S.. Methods of teaching the Russian language: communicative-activity approach. M.: KNORUS, 2007.

2. Granik G.G., Bondarenko S.M., Kontsevaya L.A.. How to teach to work with a book. M., 1995. pp. 145–200.

3. Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.. Development of reconstructive imagination in Russian language lessons // Russian language at school. 2006. No. 6. P. 3–10.

4. Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.. Understanding the text in lessons of Russian language and literature // Russian language. 2007. No. 23. pp. 23–28.

5. Evgrafova E.M.. Understanding and imagination // Russian language, No. 5/2003. P. 14.

6. Methods of speech development in Russian language lessons / Ed. T.A. Ladyzhenskaya. M.: Education, 1991.

Soboleva O.V.. Understanding the text: why, whom, what and how to teach? // Russian language No. 23/2007. P. 29.

Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.
pp. 3–10.

Teplov B.M.. Psychological issues of artistic education // News of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, 1947. Vol. 11. pp. 7–26.

For more on re-creative imagination, see: Granik G.G., Bondarenko S.M., Kontsevaya L.A.. How to teach to work with a book. M., 1995. S. 145–200; Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.. Development of reconstructive imagination in Russian language lessons // Russian language at school. 2006. No. 6.
pp. 3–10.

ON THE. BORISENKO,
Korolev

Productive communication skills: 1. Structured perception of text. 2. The ability to identify micro-topics. 3. Highlight the main thing, cut off the unimportant. The purpose of the work is information processing of the text, selection of lexical and grammatical means to convey brief information.

Students' mistakes 1. Inability to recognize words and expressions in the text that mark key points of content. 2. Gravitation towards a complete presentation, which does not require analysis of the content of the source text. 3. Omission of micro-topics or expansion of information in the source text - lack of adequacy of listening comprehension of the text.

Text for a condensed presentation Let's think about how often we get upset that we didn't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that people do not understand us? Of course, the latter happens more often. When they don’t understand us, we feel offended. We are upset that our parents, teachers, and classmates do not understand us. We worry to tears that those we like and respect do not understand us. We are confident that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand all of them, but here they are... But while we are confident that while we judge ourselves less strictly than others, misunderstanding is born. Maybe we should start with ourselves, with what we ourselves lack? Perhaps this is the first step towards understanding? Do we, for example, have enough imagination? After all, imagination, as one of the writers accurately noted, is not needed at all in order to come up with something non-existent or unrealizable. Imagination is needed in order to capture with the mind's eye the hidden corners of the human soul. Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in which we are surrounded only by models and diagrams, and not by real people. But to understand a person, imagination alone is not enough; you also need close attention to people, the desire to peer, listen with benevolent sympathy, with heartfelt participation. We need compassion, which encourages us to listen not only to words, but also to intonation, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. With such an attitude, the difference in views and feelings never turns into misunderstanding. (Based on materials from Internet sites)

Micro-themes of the text: 1. We often worry because they do not understand us, but we are sure that we ourselves understand those around us. 2. Perhaps misunderstanding arises from the fact that we judge ourselves less strictly than others, and do not notice that we ourselves lack something. 3. The role of imagination in understanding the world and man. 4. To understand a person, in addition to imagination, attention and compassion are needed.

IC 1 – 3 points “We are rarely upset that we did not understand someone, but we often worry that we were not understood. We always think that we can understand others, but they cannot understand us. Or maybe this is why misunderstanding arises, because everyone judges himself less strictly than others? Probably the first step to understanding is to think about what we ourselves lack. For example, do we have enough imagination, which is exactly what is needed to understand all the richness and diversity of human life and soul? After all, without imagination there is no image of the world around us. Without this, life becomes flat and people become sketchy. But imagination alone is not enough to understand. We also need attention and compassion for people. Then understanding is possible, even if people have different views.” (116 words)

IR1 – 3 points “Often we are upset by misunderstanding on the part of loved ones, friends, acquaintances: it seems to us that we understand others perfectly, but others do not understand us. This is natural, since a person rarely thinks about the reasons for his misunderstanding, looking for a problem in someone else. Wouldn't it be better to start with ourselves, by thinking about what we ourselves lack? One of the most important criteria for mutual understanding is imagination - not the one that generates in thoughts the non-existent and unrealizable, but the one that allows you to embrace with your mind and heart all the wealth of feelings and emotions, all the richness of life, its joys and tragedies...”

IR1 – 2 points “But it’s not only imagination that helps us understand another person. You also need close attention, compassion, the desire to peer, listen, to notice not only words, but also intonations, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. And then the difference in views and feelings will never develop into misunderstanding. Only by knowing yourself, and then those around you, can you reflect on mutual understanding, look for the causes of problems in relationships and solve these problems.”

IR1 -1 point “People often do not understand each other. We are upset that we are not understood. But that's because we lack imagination. And imagination is not only what is associated with fantasy. Imagination helps to imagine the image of a person, to look into his soul, into the most hidden corners. Without imagination, it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person; everything will turn out to look like a diagram. But imagination alone is not enough to create an image of a person and understand him. You also need to treat him carefully and with compassion. Then there will be no misunderstanding." (79 words)

IR1 -0 points “Very often we ask the question: “Are we understood?” The answer is usually no. And sometimes it hurts to the point of tears because even our closest friends don’t understand us. But does the reason for this lie within us, in the confidence that we understand, try to understand others? Probably, before blaming others, you need to look into yourself, figure out how I treat others. But most of all, attention to people is needed, participation in their problems, compassion for their grief. It is necessary not only to understand the meaning of words, but also to feel the mood and emotions of a person. If a person understands himself, then he will be understood by those around him.” (113 words)

IR1- 0 points The first micro-theme is reflected only partially, an important idea is missed: “We are confident that we ourselves understand those around us.” The second micro-theme has been replaced by another; Speaking about imagination, the author does not identify its function, which in the source text is emphasized as the most important: imagination is necessary for understanding the world and man. Having missed 3 microthemes, the author adds a microtheme that does not exist in the source text (the last sentence of the presentation)

IR2 -1 point The examinee used 1 or several text compression techniques (content, language). “People often do not understand each other. We are upset that we are not understood. But that's because we lack imagination. And imagination is not only what is associated with fantasy. Imagination helps to imagine the image of a person, to look into his soul, into the most hidden corners. Without imagination, it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person; everything will turn out to look like a diagram. But imagination alone is not enough to create an image of a person and understand him. You also need to treat him carefully and with compassion. Then there will be no misunderstanding." (79 words)

2. Replacement of part of the sentence with a defining pronoun with a general meaning (“everything”), elimination of repetitions and simultaneous merging of two sentences into one (“Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in it we are surrounded just models and diagrams, not real people” - “Without imagination it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person, everything will turn out to be similar to a diagram”). Compression methods - language tools

Compression techniques 1). Exclusion of secondary information (content-based technique); 2). Merging two sentences into one (“We are rarely upset that we did not understand someone, but we often worry that we were not understood”); 3). Exclusion of a sentence fragment, different types of substitutions (“We always think that we can understand others, but they cannot understand us”).

SG2 – 0 points “Misunderstanding between people arises unnoticed. Many people think that they understand their close friends well. And their friends don't really understand them. The second example often occurs in life. When our parents, teachers, and classmates don’t understand us, we get upset. And if those people whom we like and whom we respect do not understand us, then we are upset to the point of tears.”

Concise summary Let's think about how often we get upset that we didn't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that people do not understand us? Of course, the latter happens more often. When they don’t understand us, we feel offended. We are upset that our parents, teachers, and classmates do not understand us. We worry to tears that those we like and respect do not understand us. We are sure that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand them all, but here they are...

Concise summary Let's think about how often we get upset that we didn't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that people do not understand us? Of course, the latter happens more often. When they don’t understand us, we feel offended. We are upset that our parents, teachers, and classmates do not understand us. We worry to tears that those we like and respect do not understand us. We are sure that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand all of them, but here they are...

Concise summary Do we, for example, have enough imagination? After all, imagination, as one of the writers accurately noted, is not needed at all in order to come up with something non-existent or unrealizable. Imagination is needed in order to embrace with the mind and heart all the richness of life, its situations, its turns, in order to see with the mind’s eye the hidden corners of the human soul. Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in which we are surrounded only by models and diagrams, and not by real people.

Concise presentation But to understand a person, imagination alone is not enough; you also need close attention to people, the desire to look closely, listen with benevolent sympathy, with heartfelt participation. We need compassion, which awakens us to listen not only to words, but also to intonation, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. With such an attitude, the difference in views and feelings never turns into misunderstanding.

(The material is presented in question and answer form)

1.Were you previously familiar with the method of developing a reconstructive imagination? If yes, from what sources? Have you used this technique or its individual techniques in your lessons?

I became acquainted with the method of recreating (mostly creative) imagination during my student years at the pedagogical institute at lectures on the methods of Russian language and literature from experienced teachers and mentors.

She systematically used certain techniques of reconstructive imagination in the lessons of preparation for presentation. The presentation was an exam task for ninth-graders almost all years of study, so it was necessary to prepare children for this type of work, starting from the fifth grade, relying on teaching aids that were offered to help the teacher. With the Internet connection, a variety of electronic materials became available to prepare students for the final exam in the form of the State Examination, the tasks of which included a concise presentation. Various pedagogical websites contain materials from the experience of the best teachers in preparing students for the State Examination, which significantly facilitated the teaching job and improved the quality of graduates’ knowledge.

Many programmatic texts for presentation, placed on the pages of school textbooks, allow the use of certain techniques of reconstructive imagination in their content. In recent years, it has become possible to develop students' recreative imagination on visual and musical images through presentations.

2. How did students perceive the new type of task? In which class did you use the technique? Have you been able to teach students to “turn on their imagination” and write a narrative based on it?

It is necessary to develop the student’s recreating imagination, and this is not an easy task. There are different children in front of the teacher in the lesson, and their reconstructive imagination is not developed to the same extent.

A new type of task called “Turn on your imagination”, when the teacher, addressing the children, says quite simply: “Imagine that everything you read about, you see on your “mental screen”, is perceived with pleasure.

It was necessary to use the method of reconstructive imagination in almost all grades, from 5 to 11, when working with texts where the content allowed it, and not only in Russian language lessons, but also in literature lessons when reading and analyzing works of fiction.

Here are some examples:

Preparation for a detailed presentation in grade 5 based on the text by G. Snegirev “The Brave Little Penguin.”

Preparation for a condensed presentation in 6th grade on the text

“Collector of Russian words” (about V.I. Dal).

Preparation for selective presentation in 7th grade based on the text by M.A. Sholokhov "The Fate of Man".

Preparation for a presentation with elements of an essay in grade 7 based on the text by K.G. Paustovsky “Creaky Floorboards”.

Preparation for a concise presentation in grade 8 based on a text from the newspaper “But there was a case.”

In 9th grade, when preparing for an exam condensed presentation and essay on a linguistic topic based on texts (mainly artistic style), an open bank of tasks on the FIPI website.

In grades 10-11, when preparing for an essay - reasoning for the Unified State Exam based on texts (mainly artistic style) of an open bank of tasks on the FIPI website.

In literature lessons, when compiling characteristics of the main characters based on an analysis of the most important episodes from the text.

Let us give examples of such works: I. S. Turgenev “Mumu”, L.N. Tolstoy “Childhood. Adolescence. Youth”, N.V. Gogol “Taras Bulba”, I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”, L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, M. A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita” and others.

An effective method for developing a reconstructive imagination that helps in work is watching episodes or an entire film adaptation of a read work (A.N. Tolstoy’s Fairy Tale “The Snow Maiden”, I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”, F.M. Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment” ”, M.A. Sholokhov “Quiet Don” L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, M.A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”, as well as documentaries about the life and work of this or that author (“In Yesenin’s Homeland ", V.M. Shukshin "Writer and Director").

Only recreation in visual, concrete sensory images of what the student reads, sees, hears contributes to the full perception of educational material.

3.Have you and your students experienced any difficulties in their work? What were they connected with?

Of course, there were difficulties. Tasks for the development of creative imagination had to be selected taking into account the individual characteristics of the students.

When preparing for presentation, presentations with ready-made visual images must be used very carefully. Slides should not contain images that are not related to the content of the text, as children begin to make factual errors and introduce episodes into the presentation that are not in the source text.

CONCRETE TEXT

based on recreative imagination

Baikal.

Baikal water! It is well known that it is the purest, most transparent, almost distilled. I didn’t know: this water, in its kilometer thickness, is the most beautiful. Its shades are countless. On a quiet summer morning in the shade of the shore, the water is blue, thick and juicy. As the sun rises higher, the color also changes; more delicate pastel colors are used. A breeze blew - someone suddenly added blue to the lake. It blew harder - the gray strokes lined this blue with foamy stripes. The lake seems to be alive: it breathes, changes, rejoices, gets angry.

What's going on here in the evening? The sun quietly sank behind the mountains, threw up a farewell green ray, and Baikal instantly reflected this delicate greenery. Old man Baikal is as receptive as a young man. The next day, the dawn painted half the sky with red strokes of long, high clouds - Baikal was burning, it was hot.

Winter on Lake Baikal is no less colorful. The ice hummocks turn blue, then green, and then, like a prism, they cast the sun's ray like a seven-color rainbow. It’s nice to wander along the shores of the lake at this time: it has its own microclimate, the winters are milder, the summers are cooler. Snowy taiga, mountains and sun, sun! A wonderful setting for Lake Baikal!

(According to R. Armeev, 152 words)

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