For almost any information system, the processes that ensure its normal operation can be roughly represented in the form of a diagram presented in Figure 1.2, consisting of blocks:

· input of information from external or internal sources;

· processing input information and presenting it in a convenient form;

· output of information for presentation to consumers or transfer to another system;

· feedback is information processed by people of a given organization to correct input information.

Figure 1.2. Processes in the information system

An information system is defined by the following properties:

· any information system can be analyzed, built and managed on the basis of general principles for building systems;

· the information system is dynamic and developing;

· when building an information system, it is necessary to use a systematic approach;

· the output of the information system is the information on the basis of which decisions are made;

· the information system should be perceived as a human-computer information processing system.

In the eyes of most people today, an information system is associated with a computer, which acts as one of its main components. In general, an information system can also be understood in its non-computer version.

To understand the essence of an information system, it is necessary to understand the essence of the problems that it solves, as well as the organizational processes in which it is included. For example, when determining the capability of a computer information system to support decision making, the following should be considered:

· structured management tasks;

· the level of the company's management hierarchy at which the decision must be made;

· whether the problem being solved belongs to one or another functional area of the business;

· type of information technology used.

The technology of working in a computer information system is understandable to a specialist in the non-computer field and can be successfully used to control and manage professional processes.

Information systems structure

The structure of an information system is represented by a collection of its individual parts, which are called subsystems. The latter are functional and providing. The functional part consists of a number of subsystems that solve specific problems of planning, control, analysis, accounting and management of the activities of objects. To ensure the normal operation of the main part of the information system, it must include a supporting subsystem. The general structure of an information system is a complex of subsystems, the purpose of which may be different.

Rice. 1.3 – Structure of information systems

The purpose of the information support subsystem is the timely generation and delivery of reliable information for making management decisions.

Information Support− a set of unified system of classification and coding of information, unified documentation systems, patterns of information flows circulating in the organization, as well as a methodology for constructing databases.

Unified documentation systems are created at the state, republican, sectoral and regional levels.

The main goal is to ensure comparability of indicators in various spheres of social production. But when examining most organizations, a whole range of typical shortcomings are constantly revealed:

· extremely large volume of documents for manual processing;

· the same indicators are often duplicated in different documents;

· working with a large number of documents distracts specialists from solving immediate problems;

· there are indicators that are created but not used, etc.

Eliminating deficiencies is one of the tasks facing the creation of information support.

Schemes of information flows reflect the routes of information flow and its volumes, the places of origin of primary information and the use of resulting information. By analyzing the structure of such schemes, it is possible to develop measures to improve the entire management system.

As an example of the simplest data flow diagram, we can give a diagram that reflects all the stages of passing a memo or an entry in the database about hiring an employee - from the moment of its creation to the release of the order on his hiring.

Construction of information flow diagrams that allow identifying volumes of information and conducting its detailed analysis ensures:

· exclusion of duplicate and unused information;

· classification and rational presentation of information.

The methodology for constructing databases is based on the theoretical foundations of their design.

Stage 1 - examination of all functional divisions of the company in order to: understand the specifics and structure of its activities; build a diagram of information flows; analyze the existing document flow system; determine information objects and the corresponding composition of details (characteristics) describing their properties and purpose.

Stage 2 – construction of a conceptual information and logical data model for the field of activity surveyed at stage 1. In this model, all connections between objects and their details must be established and optimized. The information logical model is the foundation on which the database will be created.

Technical support− this is a set of technical means intended for the operation of an information system, as well as the corresponding documentation for these means and technological processes. information system database

The complex of technical means consists of:

· computers of any models;

· devices for collecting, storing, processing, transmitting and outputting information;

· data transmission devices and communication lines;

· office equipment and automatic information retrieval devices;

· operating materials, etc.

The documentation covers the preliminary selection of technical means, the organization of their operation, the technological process of data processing, and technological equipment. Documentation can be divided into three groups:

· system-wide, including state and industry standards for technical support;

· specialized, containing a set of techniques for all stages of hardware development;

· normative and reference used when performing calculations for technical support.

Two main forms of organizing technical support (forms of using technical means) have emerged: centralized and partially or completely decentralized.

Centralized technical support is based on the use of large computers and computer centers in the information system.

Decentralization of technical means involves the implementation of functional subsystems on PCs directly at workplaces.

The most promising approach is a partially decentralized approach - the organization of technical support based on distributed networks consisting of a PC and a mainframe computer for storing databases common to any functional subsystems.

Math and software is a set of mathematical methods, models, algorithms and programs for implementing the goals and objectives of an information system, as well as the normal functioning of a complex of technical means.

Mathematical software includes:

· management process modeling tools;

· typical management tasks;

· methods of mathematical programming, mathematical statistics, queuing theory, etc.

The software includes system-wide and special software products, as well as technical documentation.

General-system software includes complexes of user-oriented programs designed to solve typical information processing problems. They serve to expand the functionality of computers, control and manage the data processing process.

Special software is a set of programs developed during the creation of a specific information system. It includes application software packages that implement developed models of varying degrees of adequacy, reflecting the functioning of a real object.

Technical documentation for the development of software must contain a description of the tasks, a task for algorithmization, an economic and mathematical model of the problem, and test examples.

Organizational support- this is a set of methods and means that regulate the interaction of workers with technical means and among themselves in the process of developing and operating an information system.

Organizational support implements the following functions:

· analysis of the existing management system of the organization where the IS will be used, and identification of tasks to be automated;

· preparation of problems for solution on a computer, including technical specifications for the design of an IS and a feasibility study of its effectiveness;

· development of management decisions on the composition and structure of the organization, methodology for solving problems aimed at increasing the efficiency of the management system.

Legal support- this is a set of legal norms that determine the creation, legal status and functioning of information systems that regulate the procedure for obtaining, transforming and using information. The main purpose of legal support is to strengthen the rule of law.

Legal support includes laws, decrees, resolutions of state authorities, orders, instructions and other regulatory documents of ministries, departments, organizations, and local authorities. Legal support can be divided into a general part that regulates the functioning of any information system, and a local part that regulates the functioning of a specific system.

Legal support for the stages of operation of the information system includes:

· information system status;

· rights, duties and responsibilities of personnel;

· legal provisions of certain types of management process;

· procedure for creating and using information, etc.

Information processes (collection, processing and transmission of information) have always played an important role in science, technology and social life. In the course of human evolution, there has been a steady tendency towards automation of these processes, although their internal content has essentially remained unchanged.

Collection of information - this is the activity of the subject, during which he receives information about the object of interest to him. Information can be collected either by humans or using technical means and systems - hardware. For example, a user can obtain information about the movement of trains or planes himself by studying the schedule, or from another person directly, or through some documents drawn up by this person, or using technical means (automated help, telephone, etc.) . The task of collecting information cannot be solved in isolation from other tasks, in particular, the task of information exchange (transmission).

Information exchange is a process during which the source of information transmits it and the recipient receives it. If errors are detected in the transmitted messages, then retransmission of this information is organized. As a result of the exchange of information between the source and the recipient, a kind of “information balance” is established, in which, ideally, the recipient will have the same information as the source.

Information is exchanged using signals, which are its material carrier. Sources of information can be any objects in the real world that have certain properties and abilities. If an object belongs to inanimate nature, then it produces signals that directly reflect its properties. If the source object is a person, then the signals produced by him can not only directly reflect his properties, but also correspond to the signs that a person produces for the purpose of exchanging information.

The recipient can use the received information repeatedly. For this purpose, he must record it on a material medium (magnetic, photo, film, etc.). The process of forming an initial, unsystematized array of information is called accumulation information. The recorded signals may include those that reflect valuable or frequently used information. Some information may not be of particular value at a given time, although it may be required in the future.

Data storage is the process of maintaining source information in a form that ensures the issuance of data at the request of end users in a timely manner.

Data processing is an orderly process of its transformation in accordance with the algorithm for solving the problem.

After solving the information processing problem, the result must be presented to end users in the required form. This operation is implemented during the solution of the problem issuance information. Information is usually provided using external computer devices in the form of texts, tables, graphs, etc.

Information technology represents the material basis of information technology, with the help of which the collection, storage, transmission and processing of information is carried out. Until the middle of the 19th century, when the processes of collecting and storing information were dominant, the basis of information technology was a pen, inkwell and paper. Communication (communication) was carried out by sending packets (dispatches). At the end of the 19th century, “manual” information technology was replaced by “mechanical” technology (typewriter, telephone, telegraph, etc.), which served as the basis for fundamental changes in information processing technology. It took many more years to move from memorizing and transmitting information to processing it. This became possible with the advent in the second half of our century of such information technology as electronic computers, which laid the foundation for “computer technology.”

The ancient Greeks believed that technology (techne- skill + togos- teaching) is the skill (art) of doing things. This concept acquired a more comprehensive definition in the process of industrialization of society.

Technology - this is a body of knowledge about the methods and means of carrying out production processes in which a qualitative change in the objects being processed occurs.

Technologies of controlled processes are characterized by orderliness and organization, which are opposed to spontaneous processes. Historically, the term “technology” arose in the sphere of material production. Information technology in this context can be considered the technology of using computer hardware and software in a given subject area.

Information technology - This is a set of methods, production processes and software and hardware, combined into a technological chain that ensures the collection, processing, storage, distribution and display of information in order to reduce the labor intensity of the processes of using an information resource, as well as increase their reliability and efficiency.

Information technologies are characterized by the following basic properties:

the subject (object) of processing (process) is data;

the purpose of the process is to obtain information;

means of implementing the process are software, hardware and software-hardware computing systems;

Data processing processes are divided into operations in accordance with the given subject area;

the choice of control actions on processes must be carried out decision makers;

process optimization criteria are on-time delivery information to the user, its reliability, validity, completeness.

Of all types of technologies, management information technology places the highest demands on the “human factor”, having a fundamental impact on the qualifications of the employee, the content of his work, physical and mental stress, professional prospects and the level of social relations.

Informational resources - these are the ideas of humanity and instructions for their implementation, accumulated in a form that allows their reproduction.

These are books, articles, patents, dissertations, research and development documentation, technical translations, data on advanced production practices, etc.

Information resources (unlike all other types of resources - labor, energy, minerals, etc.) grow faster the more they are spent.

Humanity has been processing information for thousands of years. The first information technologies were based on the use of abacus and writing. About fifty years ago, an exceptionally rapid development of these technologies began, which is primarily associated with the advent of computers.

Currently the term "information technology" used in connection With using computers to process information. Information technologies cover all computing and communications technology and, in part, consumer electronics, television and radio broadcasting.

They find application in industry, trade, management, banking system, education, healthcare, medicine and science, transport and communications, agriculture, social security system, and serve as a help to people of various professions and housewives.

Currently, the creation of large-scale information technology systems is economically possible, and this leads to the emergence of national research and educational programs designed to stimulate their development.

Informatization of society

Informatization is a complex social process associated with significant changes in the lifestyle of the population. It requires serious efforts in many areas, including eliminating computer illiteracy, creating a culture of using new information technologies, etc.

Informatization of society - organized socio-economic and scientific-technical process of creating optimal conditions for meeting information needs and realizing the rights of citizens, government bodies, local government organizations, public associations based on the formation and use of information resources.

The purpose of informatization - improving the quality of life of people by increasing productivity and facilitating their working conditions.

The latest information revolution brings to the fore a new industry - information industry associated with the production of technical means, methods, technologies for the production of new knowledge. All types of information technologies are becoming the most important components of the information industry, especially telecommunications. Modern information technology is based on advances in the field of computer technology and communications.

Information technology (IT) – a process that uses a set of means and methods for collecting, processing and transmitting data (primary information) to obtain new quality information about the state of an object, process or phenomenon.

Telecommunications – remote data transmission based on computer networks and modern technical means of communication.

The rapid development of computer technology and information technology gave impetus to the development of a society built on the use of various information and called the information society.

Information society - a society in which the majority of workers are engaged in the production, storage, processing and sale of information, especially its highest form - knowledge.

Information culture – the ability to purposefully work with information and use computer information technology, modern technical means and methods to obtain, process and transmit it.

Characteristic features of the information society:

the problem of the information crisis has been solved, i.e. the contradiction between the information avalanche and information hunger is resolved;

priority of information is ensured compared to other resources;

the main form of development will be the information economy;

the basis of society will be the automated generation, storage, processing and use of knowledge using the latest information technology and technology;

information technology will become global, covering all spheres of human social activity;

the information unity of the entire human civilization is being formed;

with the help of computer science, every person has free access to the information resources of the entire human civilization;

humanistic principles of managing society and impacting the environment have been implemented.

In addition to the positive aspects, dangerous trends:

the increasing influence of the media on society;

information technology can destroy the privacy of people and organizations;

there is a problem of selecting high-quality and reliable information;

many people will find it difficult to adapt to the information society environment. There is a danger of a gap between the “information elite” (people involved in the development of information technologies) and consumers.

Providing information - actions aimed at obtaining information by a certain circle of people or transmitting information to a certain circle of people.

Dissemination of information - actions aimed at obtaining information by an indefinite circle of persons or transmitting information to an indefinite circle of persons.

Each of the following stages of the information circulation process has its own objective laws. Studying them will allow you to competently organize the work of any information system.

1. In information sources, information is created.

In the field of creation (production) of information, there is an objective law of incomplete use of information, which is determined both by the property of redundancy of information and the inability of subjects to fully use it.

From a legal point of view, the creation of information is the generation of information products and resources in the process of creative, production and other socially useful activities of a person and citizen, legal entities, bodies and other subjects of the right to information.

Legal regulation is present here in the form of regulatory norms that contribute to the creation of organizational and economic prerequisites for the development and improvement of information production; in the form of guarantees of freedom of creativity, behavior, education, in the form of protection and defense of rights to intellectual property, as well as in the form of prohibitions on the production of “harmful” information, the dissemination of which may harm the legitimate interests of other subjects of information relations.

Information collection is the process of obtaining information from the outside world and bringing it to a standard form for a given information system. The necessary stages in the information collection system are its perception and transformation.

Perception of information is the process of converting information entering a social, technical system or living organism from the outside world into a form suitable for further use. Thanks to the perception of information, the system is connected with the external environment (which can be a person, an observed object, a phenomenon or a process, etc.). Perception of information is necessary for any information system, as long as it claims to be of any usefulness.

The processes of information perception are influenced by the following factors: the need for information is the individual’s perceived need to obtain and use the information received in practical activities; interest in information is, first of all, the isolation of any information from the flow functioning in a given society. Interest in information is characterized by such parameters as depth, breadth, specialization; sociocultural level of the individual. This factor characterizes a person’s possession of a certain amount of cultural values.

Modern information systems, created, as a rule, on the basis of a computer, have as their component parts a more or less (depending on the purpose of the system) a developed perception system. An information perception system can be a rather complex set of software and hardware. Depending on the analyzers (included in the complex of technical means of the perception system), the perception of visual, acoustic and other types of information is organized.

Information transformation is the second stage of information collection, as a result of which the information must be presented in a form suitable for its further use. The main forms of information presentation in the information system are analog and digital forms.

The analogue form of information representation is associated with such categories of media used in modern information systems as text, video and voice. One of the first ways prehistoric people communicated was through sound. The sounds denoted emotions such as pleasure, anger and danger, as well as environmental objects, including, for example, food, tools, etc. Sounds assumed their meanings according to certain conventions by using them repeatedly under similar circumstances. Combining parts of sound allowed for the representation of more complex concepts, gradually leading to the emergence of speech and ultimately to spoken “natural” languages.

In the field of information collection, there is an objective law of information growth - the number of elements involved in the process of ensuring the growth of information in it, q - the coefficient of the level of communication organization in the system, i.e. communicativeness of its elements.

Indeed, any system can acquire information from the external environment. But each subject of the system must strive to obtain information that is new for this system, different from that received by all its other subjects. The latter is possible if their actions are well coordinated, if they are informed about the achievements of all other entities. Information is acquired from the external environment in the process of material activity, during scientific and design developments, through life experience, in the process of communication, during training, etc. It follows that the largest number of elements (subjects or objects) should operate in information-intensive areas of activity.

The law of information growth is called the basic law of cybernetics, computer science and social systems.

As a result of the action of this law in society from 1900 to 1950, the volume of information increased 8-10 times; until the 80s, the volume of information doubled every 5-7 years; in the 80s, doubling already occurred every 20 months; in the 90s - annually. This phenomenon is called the “information explosion.”

The law of information growth predetermines a continuous objective process of increasing the amount of information in nature and society, which is what we observe in reality.

To search for information of interest in the entire array of circulating information, information must be organized. Let's consider the main means of organizing information.

Cataloging and classification are proven tools, often grouped under the general heading of indexing, that provide a necessary level of information organization. Both have been used as long as libraries have existed, but their importance in the so-called information age has increased significantly with the use of computers.

The purpose of a catalog is to identify all objects in a collection and group similar items together. All great libraries of the ancient world had to have lists and inventories on clay tablets, in stone, on papyrus, parchment, palm leaves or on bamboo strips. Examples of this can be found in museums around the world.

Thesauruses occupy a special place among catalogs. New use of the term thesaurus, now widespread, dates back to the early 1950s in connection with the work of N.R. Luhn of IBM, who was looking for a computer process capable of generating a list of authorized terms for indexing scientific literature. The list had to include a structure of cross-references between families of concepts. The main thesaurus, and one of the earliest, is Thesaurofacet (1969), a list of engineering terms in great detail developed by Gene Atchison for the English Electric Company. The thesaurus has proven to be very useful for both indexing and searching in computer systems.

Thesauri contain subject headings organized into lists that help users find the appropriate title for a topic (section) of interest, identify related terms used for narrower or broader subject areas. One of the functions of a controlled vocabulary is to select from a large group of synonyms the one term that most accurately describes a topic.

The next stage is the transfer of information between various elements of the information system. Information is transmitted in various ways: using a courier, sending by mail, delivery by vehicles, remote transmission via communication channels. Remote transmission via communication channels reduces data transfer time, but its implementation requires special technical means (fiber optic networks, modems, faxes, etc.). By automatically collecting information, these technical means can transfer it directly to the computer's memory for further processing. This is what all modern electronic document management systems are built on.

The message from the source to the receiver is transmitted in material and energy form - electrical, light, sound and other signals. A person perceives a message through the senses. Information receivers in technical systems are measuring and recording equipment.

The information channel combines biological, social, technical (radio, television) and psychological processes (information perception, memorization, reproduction). Information channels are complex telecommunication systems and physical fields (electromagnetic, radio waves). And, naturally, communication channels can introduce various types of distortions into the transmitted information. Accordingly, there is a need to develop transmission methods that reduce information distortion. This is the subject of one of the main theorems of information theory about the transmission of signals over communication channels in the presence of interference leading to distortion - Shannon's theorem. Let a sequence of symbols appearing with certain probabilities be transmitted, and there is some probability that the transmitted symbol will be distorted during transmission. The simplest way to reliably restore the original information from the received information is to repeat each transmitted symbol a large number of times. However, this will lead to a decrease in the speed of information transfer, practically reducing it to zero. Shannon's theorem states: there is a positive number, depending only on the specified probabilities, such that at a transmission rate less than or equal to this number, it is possible to restore the original sequence of symbols with a very low probability of error. At the same time, at speeds greater than this number, this is no longer possible.

The central stage in the process of information circulation in an information system is information processing. Depending on the general purpose of the system, at this stage the collected information is systematized and search, logical or other analytical procedures are implemented. For example, statistical analysis of collected data or automatic translation of entered texts into another language is carried out.

Necessary in the process of information circulation in an information system is the stage of information storage. Information that must be widely disseminated requires storage facilities external to human memory; the accumulation of human experience, knowledge and learning would be impossible without such memory, making the emergence of writing absolutely necessary.

During the 20th century, universal electromagnetic means opened up new possibilities for recording primary analog information. Magnetic audio tape is used to capture speech and music, and magnetic video recording provides a low-cost means for recording analog voice and video signals directly and simultaneously.

Magnetic technology has other applications for direct recording of analog information, including alphanumeric information. Magnetic characters, bar codes and special marks are printed on receipts, forms and forms to be read by magnetic or optical devices and converted into digital form. Banks, educational institutions and retail businesses are completely switching to this technology. However, paper and film continue to be the dominant means for directly storing textual and visual information in analogue form.

The versatility of modern information systems stems from their ability to represent information electronically in the form of digital signals and manipulate them automatically at extremely high speeds. Information is stored in a large number of binary devices, which are the basic components of digital technology. Since these devices are in only one of two states, information is represented in them either as the absence or presence of energy (electrical impulse). It is convenient to denote these two states of binary devices with binary digits - zero (0) and one (1).

In this way, alphabetic characters in natural language writing can be represented digitally as combinations of zeros (no pulse) and ones (pulse present).

The creation of recording media and recording technology enabled society to begin the formation of repositories of human knowledge. The idea of collecting and organizing written records appears to have originated in the Sumerians approximately 5,000 years ago; Egyptian writing appeared soon after. Early collections of Sumerian and Egyptian texts, written in cuneiform on clay tablets and in hieroglyphs on papyri, contain information regarding legal and economic transactions.

In these and other early collections of documents (for example, Chinese, dating back to the Shang dynasty in the second millennium BC, and Buddhist in India, dating from the 5th century BC), it is difficult to separate the concepts of archive and library.

From the Middle East, the concept of a collection of documents entered the Greco-Roman world. Roman emperors institutionalized census collections as early as the 6th century BC. The Great Library of Alexandria, founded in the 3rd century BC, is known as the largest collection of papyri containing inventories of inventories, taxes and other payments to citizens, merchants and each other. It is, in short, the ancient equivalent of today's administrative information systems.

The academic brilliance of the Islamic world from the 8th to the 13th centuries can be largely attributed to the existence of public and private book libraries. Thus, Beit Al-Hikm (“House of Wisdom”), founded in 830. in Baghdad, maintained a public library with a large collection of materials on a wide range of issues, and the library of the 10th century. Caliph Al-Hakam in Cordoy (Spain) has more than 400,000 books.

The belated but rapid development of European libraries in the 16th century followed the invention of type printing, which encouraged the growth of the printed medium and publishing industry. Since the beginning of the 17th century, literature has become the most important means for disseminating knowledge. The term "primary literature" is used to refer to source information in various printed publications: newspapers, monographs, conference proceedings, educational and business journals, reports, patents, newsletters and information sheets. The academic journal, a classic means of scientific communication, first appeared in 1665. Three hundred years later, the number of periodicals in the world was estimated to be more than 60,000, reflecting not only the growth in the number of scientists and the expansion of the body of knowledge due to specialization, but also the maturation of the system of rewards, which encourages scientists to publish.

Within a short time there was a rapid increase in the amount of printed information, which insured any individual from completely absorbing even a tiny fraction of it. Techniques such as tables of contents, summaries, and indexes of various types, which assist in identifying and locating relevant information in primary literature, have been used since the 16th century and led to the creation in the 19th century of what was called “secondary literature.” The purpose of secondary literature is to “filter” primary information sources—usually in a specific field—and to provide pointers to that literature in the form of reviews, abstracts, and indexes. Over the past century, subject, national, and international abstracting and indexing systems have been developed that act as gateways to several attributes of primary literature: authors, subjects, publishers, dates (and languages) of publication, and citations. The professional activity associated with these tools that facilitate access is called documentation.

Huge amounts of printed materials make it impossible, as well as undesirable, for any institution to acquire and store even a small part of them. The stewardship of recorded information has become a matter of public policy as many countries have established national libraries and archives to manage the organized collection and acquisition of documents. Since these institutions alone cannot keep up with the production of new documents and records, new forms of cooperative planning and sharing of recorded materials are developing, namely, public and private, national and regional library networks and consortia.

The emergence of digital technology in the middle of the 20th century actively influenced the repositories of information accumulated by humanity. Improvements in computer memory, data communications, computer sharing software, and automated text indexing and search techniques are fueling the development of computer databases. Electronic applications to bibliographic management in libraries and archives have led to the development of computerized catalogs and the linking of catalogs into library networks. They also resulted in the introduction of comprehensive automation programs in these institutions.

The explosive development of communication systems after 1990, especially in the academic world, hastened the emergence of the “virtual library.” Publicly oriented information is becoming a leading feature of development. Housed in thousands of databases distributed throughout the world, a growing portion of this vast resource is now accessible almost instantly through the Internet, a collection of computer networks linking global communities of users. Online electronic information resources include selected library catalogs, collected works of literature, some abstract journals, full-text electronic journals, encyclopedias, scientific data from numerous disciplines, program archives, demographic directories, hundreds of thousands of bulletin board messages and e-mail.

As a rule, information systematized and stored in an information system is intended for a certain circle of users. Moreover, not only people, but also other information systems can act as users. Simultaneous provision of the same information to a wide range of users leads to the need for its replication. During the replication process, identical copies of information are created, which at the next stage must be distributed to recipients. From a technical point of view, all copies are absolutely identical. However, in the process of solving legal problems, the problem of distinguishing between the original and copies of a document arises. To protect the original document, additional procedures are used, such as an electronic digital signature.

Dissemination of information often involves the need to overcome information barriers. Today, the scientific literature identifies the following information barriers: large volume of information. The avalanche-like flow of information that has been observed in recent years does not allow a person to perceive it in full; technical barriers. For example, artificial interference that prevents reliable reception of radio and television programs, i.e. distribution of radio, television and other technical signals in the frequency band on which broadcasting is carried out under a license. Technical barriers can also be industrial interference (i.e., artificial interference that occurs during the operation of technical devices in the process of economic activity); barrier of ignorance (lack of awareness). The consumer does not know that the information he needs actually exists; communication barrier. The consumer knows that the information he needs exists, but he has no way to get it. The reasons for this may be different: from a lack of communication between specialists, institutions, countries, to an explicit or implicit reluctance to widely disseminate information, delays and concealment of information by ministries, departments and other organizations; interlingual and intralingual barriers. The information is available, but written in a language unfamiliar to the consumer. Information may not be perceived due to inconsistency of terminology and sign systems used by different disciplines.

In the sphere of information dissemination, the objective law of information redundancy operates. Positive information redundancy aims to optimize the entire communication process. Positive redundancy is actively used in the learning process, when repeated repetitions of characteristic situations lead to better assimilation by the audience.

Positive redundancy is often used by legislators as a technique to increase the efficiency of perception of regulations. Thus, many provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation are repeated in federal laws and the legislation of the constituent entities of the Federation.

Negative redundancy disrupts the normal flow of the information process. It represents a kind of “noise” or “interference.” These are, for example, declarative norms and provisions that are not equipped with an implementation mechanism. Without performing the functions of regulation and self-regulation, such laws are negatively redundant. A means of overcoming negative redundancy is a high level of preparation of regulatory legal acts.

Another objective law that operates during the dissemination of information is the law of distortion of information as it moves. This law is associated with the different abilities and readiness of subjects to perceive it. That is why, in cases where the reliability and completeness of information is important, the question arises of recording information on a tangible medium and complying with certain requirements for the procedure and method of recording. For example, in order for information to have evidentiary value in court proceedings, it must be documented in accordance with strictly established procedural requirements.

Based on the method of distribution, direct and indirect distribution can be distinguished. With direct dissemination, the creator of an information product directly influences the consumer (communication itself, transmission of ideas in an educational environment: lectures, other collective activities, conferences, seminars, rallies, theatrical performances, cultural events). Legal regulation here provides for the establishment of prohibitions on the dissemination of confidential and “harmful” information, including false information and slander, and liability for this, as well as legal protection and protection of copyright and related rights.

With indirect dissemination, between the creator of information and the consumer there is an intermediary - a means of recording and transmitting information, the presence of which determines the mass character of such information relations. With the historical development of means and technologies for disseminating information, the mass of information exchange and the importance of information in society grew, which predetermined a high degree of legal regulation here.

According to the Law on Information in the Russian Federation, the dissemination of information is carried out freely subject to the requirements established by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Information disseminated without the use of the media must include reliable information about its owner or about another person disseminating the information, in a form and extent sufficient to identify such person.

When using means to disseminate information that allow identifying recipients of information, including postal items and electronic messages, the person disseminating the information is obliged to provide the recipient of the information with the opportunity to refuse such information.

It is prohibited to disseminate information that is aimed at promoting war, inciting national, racial or religious hatred and enmity, as well as other information for the dissemination of which criminal or administrative liability is provided.

Introduction

Information does not exist on its own; it manifests itself in information processes. A person lives in a world of information and throughout his life participates in all kinds of information processes.

The main information processes are: search, collection, storage, transmission, processing, use and protection of information.

Actions performed with information are called information processes.

Processes associated with receiving, storing, processing and transmitting information are called information.

Information process is a set of sequential actions (operations) performed on information (in the form of data, information, facts, ideas, hypotheses, theories, etc.) to obtain a result (achieve a goal).

Information manifests itself precisely in information processes that always occur in some kind of system (social, sociotechnical, biological, etc.).

Information processes carried out using certain information technologies form the basis of human information activity. A computer is a universal device for automated execution of information processes.

Information processes

Search for information

Information retrieval - retrieving stored information.

There are manual and automated methods for searching information in repositories. The main methods of searching for information are:

direct observation;

communication with specialists on an issue of interest;

reading relevant literature;

watching TV and video programs,

listening to radio broadcasts and audio cassettes;

work in libraries, archives, information systems and other methods.

In order to collect the most complete information and increase the likelihood of making the right decision, it is necessary to use a variety of information search methods.

Searching for information can be effective or ineffective. Success will largely depend on how you organize your search for information.

In the process of searching for information, you may encounter a wide variety of information, both useful and useless, both reliable and false, relevant and outdated, objective and subjective. To speed up the process of obtaining complete information on the issue of interest, catalogs began to be compiled (alphabetical, subject, etc.).

The next step in accelerating the search for information was the creation of special scientific journals. Automated information retrieval systems (IRS) have made a real revolution in the service of storing and selecting information. Using an IRS allows you to save time and effort spent sifting through boxes full of cards. In addition, libraries are able to significantly reduce the space allocated for storing catalogs.

2. Collection of information is the activity of a subject, during which he receives information about an object of interest to him. Information can be collected either by humans or using technical means and systems - hardware.

For example, a user can obtain information about the movement of trains or planes himself by studying the schedule, or from another person directly, or through some documents drawn up by this person, or using technical means (automated help, telephone, etc.) . The task of collecting information cannot be solved in isolation from other tasks - the task of information exchange (transmission).

3. Information storage.

Information storage is the process of maintaining original information in a form that ensures the issuance of data at the request of end users within a specified time frame.

Storing information is a process as old as the life of human civilization. Already in ancient times, people were faced with the need to store information: notches in trees so as not to get lost while hunting; counting objects using pebbles and knots; depictions of animals and hunting episodes on cave walls.

With the birth of writing, a special means of recording and disseminating thoughts in space and time arose. Documented information was born - manuscripts and handwritten books, and unique information and storage centers appeared - ancient libraries and archives. Gradually, the written document also became a management tool (decrees, laws, orders).

The second information leap was printing. With its emergence, the largest amount of information began to be stored in various printed publications, and to obtain it, a person turns to their storage places.

Information is stored either in human memory or on external media. In human memory, information can be stored both in figurative form (I remember how a rose smells) and in symbolic form (verbal, formulaic). Information stored in memory is called operational. Information stored on external media (sheet of paper, disk, record, etc.) is called external. It can be transferred to the operational category if it is “read” by a person. External media serve as “additional” human memory. They can store sound, texts, and images.

Devices on which information is stored are called storage media.

Information must be stored so that it is easy to find. To do this, people have come up with different ways to organize information storage.

Different information requires different storage times: a travel ticket should only be kept for the duration of the trip; television program - current week; school diary - school year; matriculation certificate - until the end of life; historical documents - several centuries.

A computer is designed for compact storage of information with the ability to quickly access it.

4. Transfer of information.

The transmission of information can be carried out in written, oral or gestures. A person receives information through the senses (vision - 90%; hearing - 9%; smell, touch, taste - 1%). Human thinking can be viewed as a process of information processing. The received information is stored on various types of storage media: books, photographs, video cassettes, laser discs, etc.

The commonality of information processes in living nature, society and technology has been established. Let's look at examples:

Vegetable world. In the spring, leaves grow, which fall in the fall. The length of daylight hours, air and soil temperature are signals that are perceived by the cells of living organisms as information that is processed and affects the metabolic physicochemical processes occurring in a living cell - they control them. Transmission occurs within one's own living cells (from root to leaves and back).

Animal world. Animals have a nervous system that controls all stages of the information process: perception, transmission, processing and use of information. Unlike the plant world, animals can transmit information to each other.

In inanimate nature, information processes exist only in technology. This technique repeats (models) some human actions and is capable of replacing it in these cases. For example, robotic manipulators, etc.

Human activity has always been associated with the transfer of information. The ancient method of transmission is a letter sent by messenger. By talking, we transmit information to each other. Humanity has come up with many devices for quickly transmitting information: telegraph, radio, telephone, TV. Devices that transmit information at high speed include electronic computers, although it would be more correct to say telecommunication networks.

There are two parties involved in the transfer:

source - the one who transmits information,

the receiver is the one who receives it.

For example, a teacher conveys information to students. The teacher is the source. The student is the receiver. In the African jungle, in the old days, important news was conveyed from one tribe to another by the beating of drums. Sailors sometimes use the flag alphabet. By talking, we transmit information to each other. Computer information is displayed on the monitor screen - this is also the transfer of information.

Very often, interference occurs during the transmission of information. And then the information from the source to the receiver arrives in a distorted form.

Errors that occur during the transmission of information are of 3 types:

some correct information is replaced with incorrect information;

extraneous messages are added to the transmitted information;

Some information is lost during transmission.

Information is transmitted in the form of messages from some source of information to its receiver through a communication channel between them. The source sends a transmitted message, which is encoded into a transmitted signal. This signal is sent over a communication channel. As a result, a received signal appears at the receiver, which is decoded and becomes the received message.

Communication channel is a set of technical devices that ensure the transmission of a signal from a source to a recipient.

Encoding device is a device designed to encode (convert the original message of the source of information to a form convenient for transmitting information) information.

Decoding device - a device for converting a received message into an original one.

a message containing information about the weather forecast is transmitted to the receiver (TV viewer) from the source - a meteorologist - through a communication channel - television transmitting equipment and a TV.

phone conversation:

The source of the message is the person speaking;

An encoding device - a microphone - converts sounds into electrical impulses;

Communication channel - telephone network (wire);

The decoding device is the part of the tube that we bring to the ear, here the electrical signal is converted into sound;

The receiver of information is the person who listens.

The general scheme for transmitting information can be as shown in Fig. 2:

Fig.2. Information transmission scheme

During the transmission process, information may be lost or distorted: sound distortion in the telephone, atmospheric interference on the radio, distortion or darkening of the image on television, errors during transmission in the telegraph. This interference (noise) distorts information. Fortunately, there is a science that develops ways to protect information - cryptology.

5. Information processing.

Information processing - obtaining some information objects from other information objects by executing certain algorithms.

Processing is one of the main operations performed on information and the main means of increasing the volume and variety of information. Information processing tools are all kinds of devices and systems created by mankind, and first of all, a computer is a universal machine for processing information. Computers process information by executing some algorithms. Living organisms and plants process information using their organs and systems.

After solving the information processing problem, the result must be presented to end users in the required form. This operation is implemented in the course of solving problems of issuing information. Information is usually provided using external computer devices in the form of texts, tables, graphs, etc.

Information processing is carried out by a person either in the mind, or with the help of any auxiliary means (accounts, calculator, computer, etc.). As a result of processing, new information is obtained, which is somehow stored (recorded). Information is processed according to certain rules (algorithms). These rules themselves can also be processed (supplemented, corrected, clarified).

A person processes information at at least three levels: physiological (using the senses), at the level of rational thinking, and at the subconscious level.

The processing process is very complex.

Example: The bus engine noise has changed. For the driver, this can serve as information about some problems in the engine.

The radio announced that Agassi had won the tennis tournament. If you are not interested in tennis, then the amount of information for you is zero. If you are interested, the volume depends on the specific name of the winner.

In example No. 1, engine noise is an indirect source of information. A person accesses a knowledge base that is stored in memory. If the knowledge base is incomplete (the person is poorly educated), it is impossible to obtain reliable information.

The information that is processed is called initial. After processing the original information, new information is obtained.

The student received the condition of the task (initial information), thinks (processes) and reports the answer (new information).

A service dog finds a person by smell (smell is the initial information, where the person went is new).

A computer is a special device created by man to process information. The possibility of automated information processing is based on the fact that information processing does not imply its comprehension.

6. Exchange of information.

Information exchange is a process during which the source of information transmits it and the recipient receives it. If errors are detected in the transmitted messages, then retransmission of this information is organized. As a result of the exchange of information between the source and the recipient, a kind of “information balance” is established, in which, ideally, the recipient will have the same information as the source.

The exchange of information can occur in figurative and symbolic forms. Languages can be spoken (Russian, German, etc.), both oral (phonetics) and written (grammar) and formal (in mathematics - the language of formulas, in music - the language of notes, in medicine - Latin).

The recipient can use the received information repeatedly. For this purpose, he must record it on a material medium (magnetic, photo, film, etc.). The process of forming an initial, unsystematized array of information is called information accumulation. The recorded signals may include those that reflect valuable or frequently used information. Some information may not be of particular value at this point in time, although it may not be required in the future.

7. Information protection.

Humans tend to make mistakes. An error can occur when performing any information process: when encoding information, during its processing and transmission. The more information is processed, the more difficult it is to avoid errors.

You correctly chose the method for solving the problem on the test, but made a mistake in the calculations. We received an incorrect result. You incorrectly expressed your thought and unwittingly offended your interlocutor. You didn’t say the word you wanted and your listeners didn’t understand you.

Computers are technical devices for processing large amounts of information. Despite the constant improvement in the reliability of their operation, they can fail and break down, like any other device created by man.

The computer air defense system of the North American continent once declared a false nuclear alarm, putting the armed forces on alert. The cause was a faulty 46-cent CHIP - a small, coin-sized silicon element.

Designers and developers of software and hardware spend a lot of effort to ensure protection:

from equipment failures;

from accidental loss or change of information stored on the computer;

from intentional distortion (computer viruses);

from illegal access to information: its use, modification, distribution.

To the numerous, far from harmless computer errors, computer crime has also been added, threatening to develop into a problem, the economic, political and military consequences of which can be catastrophic.

8. Quality of information

The possibility and effectiveness of using information is determined by such basic consumer quality indicators as representativeness, content, sufficiency, accessibility, relevance, timeliness, accuracy, reliability, sustainability. The representativeness of information is associated with the correctness of its selection and formation in order to adequately reflect the properties of the object. Of utmost importance are: the correctness of the concept on the basis of which the initial concept is formulated and the validity of the selection of essential features and connections of the displayed phenomenon.

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Information processes and information systems. Interrelation of information process, information technology, information system Information processes in systems

Introduction

Information processes

Search for information

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