15 The shorter the vocal cords, the better the sound. Voice and speech. Innervation and blood circulation

In 1741 Ferrein(Ferrein) was the first to conduct experiments on the dead larynx, which were later carefully checked by I. Muller. It turned out that only “in general” the number of vibrations of the vocal cords obeys the laws of string vibration, according to which doubling the number of vibrations of any string requires squaring the tension weight.

Muller cut vocal cord length, pressing them in different places with tweezers both under tension and in various relaxed states. It turned out that depending on the tension of the ligaments, either low or high sounds are obtained when both long and short ligaments function.

Great importance is attached vocal muscle activity(m. thyreo-arythenoideus s. vocalis). On a living larynx, the pitch of sound depends not on lengthening, but on contraction of the vocal cords, which is ensured by the activity of m. vocalis (V.S. Kantorovich). Shorter and more elastic vocal cords, other things being equal, provide an increase in sound, which corresponds to the physical concepts of a vibrating string. At the same time, thickening of the vocal cords leads to a decrease in sound.

When as you rise pitch tension of the vocal muscles(without thickening of the ligaments) becomes insufficient, the thyroid-cricoid muscles, which stretch (but not lengthen) the vocal cords, contribute to the increase in tone (M. I. Fomichev).

Vocal cord vibrations can be carried out not along their entire length, but only on a certain segment, due to which an increase in tone is achieved. This occurs due to contraction of the oblique and transverse fibers of the vocalis muscle and possibly the oblique and transverse muscles, the arytenoid cartilages, and the lateral cricoarytenoid muscle.

M. I. Fomichev believes that the position of the epiglottis has some influence on the pitch. At very low tones, the epiglottis is usually very depressed, and the vocal cords become vast during laryngoscopy. As you know, closed pipes produce a lower sound than open ones.

In singing, there is a distinction between chest and falsetto. sounds. Muzehold was able to use laryngostroboscopic photographs to trace individual slow movements of the vocal cords.

In chest voice, the cords appear as two thick tension rollers, tightly compressed with each other. The sound here is rich in overtones and their amplitude slowly decreases with increasing height, which gives the timbre a fullness character. The presence of chest resonance in the chest register is disputed by most researchers.

In falsetto, the ligaments appear flattened, strongly stretched and a gap is formed between them. Only the free edges of the true ligaments vibrate, moving upward and laterally. There is no complete interruption of air during falsetto. As the falsetto tone increases, the glottis shortens due to the complete closure of the ligaments in the posterior regions.
With a mixed sound, the ligaments vibrate approximately half their width.

LARYNX- the initial cartilaginous section of the respiratory system in humans and terrestrial vertebrates between the pharynx and trachea, is involved in voice formation.

From the outside, its position is noticeable by the protrusion of the thyroid cartilage - Adam's apple ( Adam's apple) more developed in ♂.

Laryngeal cartilages:

epiglottis,
thyroid,
cricoid,
two arytenoids.

When swallowing, the epiglottis closes the entrance to the larynx.

From the arytenoids to the thyroid there are mucous folds - vocal cords (there are two pairs of them, and only the lower pair is involved in voice formation). They oscillate at a frequency of 80-10,000 vibrations/s. The shorter the vocal cords, the higher the voice and the more frequent the vibrations.

The ligaments close when talking, rub when screaming and become inflamed (alcohol, smoking).

Functions of the larynx:

1) breathing tube;

Stands calmly, breathes deeply, sings

Articulation- the work of the speech organs performed when pronouncing a particular sound; degree of clarity of pronunciation. Articulate speech sounds are formed in the oral and nasal cavities depending on the position of the tongue, lips, jaws and the distribution of sound flows.

Tonsils- organs of the lymphatic system in terrestrial vertebrates and humans, located in the mucous membrane oral cavity and throats. Participate in protecting the body from pathogenic microbes and in developing immunity.

TRACHEA

Trachea (windpipe)- part of the respiratory tract of vertebrates and humans, between the bronchi and larynx in front of the esophagus. Its length is 15 cm. The anterior wall consists of 18-20 hyaline half-rings connected by ligaments and muscles with the soft side facing the esophagus. The trachea is lined with ciliated epithelium, the vibrations of the cilia of which remove dust particles from the lungs into the pharynx. It divides into two bronchi - this is a bifurcation.

BRONCHI

Bronchi- tubular air-bearing branches of the trachea.

Probably every person loves to sing or tries to sing. If you have never learned to sing or are just starting out, then perhaps you will simply be interested in getting acquainted with vocal terms and learning something new for yourself. Well, if you want to practice vocals professionally, then you simply need to know the structure of your working apparatus, at least in general terms. Knowledge will shorten your path to success in vocals and protect you from many pitfalls. Accurate information will help you “filter” information and not trust all advisers indiscriminately. In addition, it is much easier to perform an action by first visualizing its process in detail in your mind.

“The human voice is the result of the coordinated work of the entire vocal apparatus,” wrote Manuel Garcia, the largest teacher of the 19th century (g.)
The vocal apparatus is a complex system that includes many organs.
The larynx plays a major role in sound production. A relaxed, free position of the larynx is considered the most “favorable” for singing. Here, the air pushed out by the lungs meets the closed vocal cords on its way and causes them to vibrate.

Vocal cords can be long or short, thick or thin. Laryngologists have found that the ligaments of low voices are longer than those of high voices. However, Caruso, a tenor, had bass cords.
The vibrating vocal cords produce a sound wave. But in order for a person to pronounce a letter or a word, the active participation of the lips, tongue, soft palate, etc. is necessary. Only the coordinated work of all vocal organs turns simple sounds into singing.
The nasal cavity also plays an important role. Together with the paranasal sinuses, it takes part in the formation of the voice. Here the sound is amplified, it is given a unique sonority and timbre. For correct pronunciation The condition of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses is of particular importance for speech sounds and the timbre of the voice. It is their individuality that gives each person a unique timbre of voice.
It is interesting that the cavities in the front part of the human skull fully correspond in their purpose to the acoustic vessels walled up in ancient Roman amphitheaters, and perform the same functions as natural resonators.
The mechanism of correct voice formation is based on the maximum use of resonance.
A resonator is primarily a sound amplifier.
The resonator amplifies the sound, requiring virtually no additional energy from the sound source. Skillful use of the laws of resonance makes it possible to achieve enormous sound power up to 120-130 dB, amazing tirelessness and, on top of this, ensures the richness of the overtone composition, individuality and beauty of the singing voice.
In vocal pedagogy, there are two resonators: the head and the chest. Above we talked about the head resonator.
The lower, chest resonator gives the singing sound lower overtones and colors it with soft, dense tones. Those with low voices should use the chest resonator more actively, and those with high voices should use the head resonator. But for each voice it is important to use both chest and head resonators.
The German teacher Yu. Gey believes that “the connection of the chest and head resonators is possible with the help of a nasal resonator, which he calls the “golden bridge.”
The singer's breathing plays an important role.
Breathing is the energy system of the singer's vocal apparatus. Breathing determines not only the birth of sound, but also its strength, dynamic shades, to a large extent timbre, pitch and much more.
In the process of singing, breathing must adjust and adapt to the work of the vocal cords.
This creates the best conditions for their vibration, maintains the air pressure that is needed for a particular amplitude, frequency of contractions and tightness of closure of the vocal cords. Maestro Mazetti considered " a necessary condition singing the ability to consciously control breathing."

How can you develop your breathing muscles?

The singer needs to develop “plasticity” of breathing, strength, and free handling of it through breathing exercises. In former times, Italian vocal teachers would hold a lighted candle to the student's mouth. A fluctuating or dying flame indicated that the student was exhaling too much air without using it. Classes with a candle continued until the vocal breathing technique was perfected. In addition to such exercises with a candle, you can recommend exercises with books, which are placed on the stomach in a supine position and lifted by the force of the diaphragm.

How can this be useful in everyday life?

“Breathing is life!” - says the proverb. “If you breathe well, you will live long on Earth,” say yogis. If you don’t have the time and patience to regularly practice breathing exercises according to the yoga system, combine business with pleasure – sing! Full vocal breathing is very similar to yogi breathing exercises and has the same benefits:

internal organs

And it is not surprising that vocal lessons help you master breathing techniques on and under water, since the basis of swimming is the same deep rhythmic breathing.

Breathing associated with singing is important for a singer. The main thing for a singer is not the force of breathing, not the amount of air that his lungs take in, but how this breath is held and expended, how exhalation is regulated during singing, that is, how its work is coordinated with other components of the vocal apparatus.
Learning to sing beautifully and correctly is not easy. A singer, compared to other performing musicians, has difficulty in self-control. An instrument for sound reproduction - the vocal apparatus is part of his body, and the singer hears himself differently from those around him. During training, the resonator and other sensations associated with singing turn out to be new and unfamiliar to him. Therefore, a singer needs to know and understand a lot.

“Singing is a conscious process, and not spontaneous, as many believe” - .
There are three types of singing voices for both women and men: high, medium and low.
High voices are soprano for women and tenor for men, middle voices are mezzo-soprano and baritone, respectively, and low voices are contralto and bass.
In addition, each group of voices has even more precise divisions:

· soprano - light (coloratura), lyrical, lyric-dramatic (spinto), dramatic;

· mezzo-soprano and contralto are varieties in themselves;

· tenor-altino, lyrical (di-grazia), mezzo-characteristic (spinto), dramatic (di-forza);

· baritone lyrical and dramatic;

· bass high (cantanto), central, low (profundo).

Correctly defining the nature of voice data is the key to its further development. And this is not always easy to do. There are clearly defined categories of voices that do not cause anyone to doubt their nature. But for many singers (not just beginners) it can be difficult to immediately determine the character of their voice.

It should be remembered that the middle register of all singing voices is most convenient when searching for a natural sound and the right vocal sensations.
Staging your voice is about identifying its nature and acquiring the correct singing techniques.

The presence of good, reliable and promising vocal technology leads to the fact that the acoustic indicators of the voice - sonority, flight, voice strength, dynamic range, etc. - improve as a result of “tuning” the voice in the process of singing.
Umberto Masetti believed that "a small range and small voice power are not completely exclusive professional education factor." He believed that with proper treatment and good schooling, the voice could gain strength and develop in range.
The voice is rarely all “on the surface”. More often, its resources are hidden due to inept use of the vocal apparatus, its underdevelopment, and only in the process of training, when the voice develops, its advantages, richness and beauty of timbre become clear to us.

Scientific research.

People have known that the human voice is formed in the larynx since the times of Aristotle and Galen. Only after the invention of the laryngoscope (1840) and the classical works of M. Garcia (gg.) did it become known that the sound of the voice is the result of periodic vibration of the edges of the vocal cords, which occurs under the influence of an air breathing stream. As an active acting force in this process (vibration: closing and opening of the vocal cords) the pressure of the air stream appears. This is the “myoelastic theory” of M. Garcia.

Scientist Raoul Husson in 1960 put forward a new, so-called “neuromotor theory”, the essence of which is as follows: the vocal cords (folds) of a person do not vibrate passively under the influence of a passing air current, like all the muscles of the human body, they contract actively under the influence of air coming from central nervous system impulses of biocurrents. The frequency of impulses is highly dependent on the emotional state of a person and on the activity of the endocrine glands (women's voices are a whole octave higher than men's). If a person begins to sing, then, according to Husson, the regulation of the pitch of the fundamental tone begins to be carried out by the “cerebral cortex.”

The human vocal apparatus is an extremely complex device and, like any complex apparatus, it apparently has not one, but several regulatory mechanisms, to a certain extent independent of each other, controlled by the central nervous system. And that's why both of these theories are valuable.

The sound of a person's voice is a form of energy. This energy, generated by the singer’s vocal apparatus, causes air molecules to periodically vibrate with a certain frequency and strength: the more often the molecules vibrate, the higher the sound, and the greater the amplitude of their vibrations, the stronger the sound. Sound vibrations in air travel at a speed of 340 m per second. The voice apparatus is a living acoustic device, and, therefore, in addition to physiological laws, it also obeys all the laws of acoustics and mechanics.

So, how are they arranged? vocal organs person.

They are based on diaphragm– a muscular-tendon septum (thoraco-abdominal barrier) separating the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.. The diaphragm is the living foundation for a whole and perfect instrument. The diaphragm is a powerful muscular organ that is attached to the lower ribs and spine. During inhalation, the muscles of the diaphragm contract and the volume of the chest increases. But we cannot feel the diaphragm, because its movement during breathing and voice formation occurs at a subconscious level.
Thoracic cavity protected by the ribs and thoracic vertebrae, it contains vital organs - lungs, heart, windpipe, esophagus.

Lungs– like real organ bellows, they participate in sound production, creating the necessary air flow. Air moves from the lungs to bronchi, thin and similar to tree branches. Then they join together and form the trachea, which goes up, vertically. Trachea- consists of cartilaginous half-rings, it is quite mobile, and is connected to the larynx.

Larynx performs a triple function - respiratory, protective and vocal. Its skeleton is made up of cartilage, which is connected to each other by joints, ligaments, and muscles, due to which they have mobility. The largest cartilage of the larynx is the thyroid cartilage, and its size determines the size of the larynx. Low male voices are characterized by a large larynx, protruding on the surface of the neck in the form of an Adam's apple. Superior opening of the larynx, the so-called entrance to the larynx is formed by movable laryngeal cartilage - epiglottis. When breathing, the larynx is free, and when swallowing, the free edge of the epiglottis bends back, closing the opening of the larynx. During singing, the entrance to the larynx is covered by the epiglottis. The larynx tends to be very mobile, mainly in the vertical plane.

IN in the middle the larynx narrows, and in the narrowest place there are two horizontal folds, or - ligaments. The opening between them is called the glottis. Located above the vocal cords - ventricles of the larynx, above each of which there is a fold parallel to the vocal cords. The superior ventricular folds are called false folds and consist of loose connective tissue, glands and poorly developed muscles. The glands in these folds provide hydration to the vocal folds, which is very important for the singing voice. During sound production, the vocal folds join or close and the gap closes. The ligaments are covered with dense, pearl-colored fabric. The ligaments can change their length, thickness, and vibrate in parts, which gives the singer’s voice a variety of colors, richness of sound and mobility.
Sound resonates in the cavity above the larynx, in the pharynx .

Pharynx quite voluminous, irregular in shape. The pharynx is separated from the palate, the so-called velum. A small tongue at the back of the palate seems to form a double arch. The size of the pharynx can change due to movements of the velum and tongue. Also for proper sound production it has great importance articulation. The structure of the vocal apparatus has individual characteristics in each individual case.

That's why pedagogical approach Each vocalist is also very individual. When working with a singer, first of all, the physical condition of the vocal apparatus is taken into account, physiological structure And personal characteristics singer, psychological and emotional states. And based on the received idea, an individual program is drawn up

The main task of the teacher is to select for each singer exactly what he needs from his usual set of exercises. this moment. Or, if none of these exercises are perceived correctly by the student, improvise on the fly exactly what will be understandable for a novice singer. It is important that the singer feels that he can achieve the right result, that his voice sounds better. He should enjoy his vocal lessons.
Undoubtedly, the teacher must be careful not to force a successful result. The main thing is that the student realized and remembered the pleasant feeling when singing and felt his capabilities. Next time he will try to remember and reproduce all his successful moments.

The human vocal apparatus consists of the respiratory organs, the larynx with vocal cords and air resonator cavities (nasal, oral, nasopharynx and pharynx). The resonator sizes are larger for low voices than for high voices.

The larynx is formed by three unpaired cartilages: cricoid, thyroid (Adam's apple) and epiglottis - and three paired ones: arytenoid, Santorini and Wriesberg. The main cartilage is the cricoid. At the back of it, two arytenoid cartilages of a triangular shape are located symmetrically on the right and left sides, movably articulated with its posterior part. When the muscles contracting, pulling back the outer ends of the arytenoid cartilages, and the intercartilaginous muscles relax, the arytenoid cartilages rotate around their axis and the glottis opens wide, necessary for inhalation. With the contraction of the muscles located between the arytenoid cartilages and the tension of the vocal cords, the glottis takes the form of two tightly stretched parallel muscle ridges, which occurs when protecting the respiratory tract from foreign bodies. In humans, the true vocal cords are located in the sagittal direction from the internal angle of the junction of the plates of the thyroid cartilage to the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages. The true vocal cords include the internal thyroarytenoid muscles.

Lengthening of the ligaments occurs when the muscles located in front between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages contract. In this case, the thyroid cartilage, rotating on the joints located in the posterior part of the cricoid cartilage, tilts forward; its upper part, to which the ligaments are attached, extends from the posterior wall of the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages, which is accompanied by an increase in the length of the ligaments. There is a certain relationship between the degree of tension of the vocal cords and the pressure of air coming from the lungs. The more the ligaments close, the more pressure the air leaving the lungs puts on them. Consequently, the main role in regulating the voice belongs to the degree of tension of the muscles of the vocal cords and the sufficient amount of air pressure under them created by the respiratory system. As a rule, the ability to speak is preceded by a deep breath.

Innervation of the larynx. In an adult, the mucous membrane of the larynx contains numerous receptors located where the mucous membrane directly covers the cartilage. There are three reflexogenic zones: 1) around the entrance to the larynx, on the posterior surface of the epiglottis and along the edges of the aryepiglottic folds. 2) on the anterior surface of the arytenoid cartilages and in the space between their vocal processes, 3) on the inner surface of the cricoid cartilage, in a strip 0.5 cm wide under the vocal cords. The first and second receptor zones are diverse. In an adult, they touch only at the apices of the arytenoid cartilages. Surface receptors of both zones are located in the path of inhaled air and perceive tactile, temperature, chemical and pain stimuli. They are involved in the reflex regulation of breathing, voice formation and in the protective reflex of closing the glottis. Deeply located receptors of both zones are located in the perichondrium, in the places of muscle attachment, in the pointed parts of the vocal processes. They become irritated during voice production, signaling changes in the position of the cartilages and contractions of the muscles of the vocal apparatus. Uniform receptors of the third zone are located in the path of exhaled air and are irritated by fluctuations in air pressure during exhalation.

Since muscle spindles are not found in the muscles of the human larynx, unlike other skeletal muscles, the function of proprioceptors is performed by deep receptors of the first and second zones.

Most of the afferent fibers of the larynx pass as part of the superior laryngeal nerve, and a smaller part - as part of the inferior laryngeal nerve, which is a continuation of the laryngeal recurrent nerve. Efferent fibers to the cricothyroid muscle pass in the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, and to the remaining muscles of the larynx - in the recurrent nerve.

Theory of voice formation. To form a voice and produce speech sounds, air pressure under the vocal cords is required, which is created by the expiratory muscles. However, speech sounds are not caused by passive vibrations of the vocal cords by a current of air from the lungs, vibrating their edges, but by active contraction of the muscles of the vocal cords. From the medulla oblongata to the internal thyroarytenoid muscles of the true vocal cords, efferent impulses arrive via the recurrent nerves with a frequency of 500 per 1 s (for the middle voice). Due to the transmission of impulses at different frequencies in individual groups of fibers of the recurrent nerve, the number of efferent impulses can double, up to 1000 per 1 s. Since in the human vocal cords all the muscle fibers are woven, like the teeth of a comb, into the elastic tissue that covers each vocal cord from the inside, a volley of impulses from the recurrent nerve is very accurately reproduced on the free edge of the ligament. Each muscle fiber contracts with extreme speed. The duration of the muscle potential is 0.8 ms. The latency period of the vocal cord muscles is much shorter than that of other muscles. These muscles are distinguished by exceptional fatigue, resistance to oxygen starvation, which indicates the very high efficiency of the biochemical processes occurring in them, and extreme sensitivity to the action of hormones.

The muscle contractions of the vocal cords are approximately 10 times the maximum air capacity beneath them. The pressure under the vocal cords is mainly regulated by the contraction of bronchial smooth muscle. When you inhale, it relaxes somewhat, and when you exhale, the inspiratory striated muscles relax, and the smooth muscles of the bronchi contract. The frequency of the fundamental tone of the voice is equal to the frequency of efferent impulses entering the muscles of the vocal cords, which depends on the emotional state. The higher the voice, the less chronaxy the recurrent nerve and vocal cord muscles are.

During the production of speech sounds (phonation), all the muscle fibers of the vocal cords simultaneously contract in a rhythm exactly equal to the frequency of the voice. Vibration of the vocal cords is the result of rapid rhythmic contractions of the muscle fibers of the vocal cords caused by volleys of efferent impulses from the recurrent nerve. In the absence of air flow from the lungs, the muscle fibers of the vocal cords contract, but there is no sound. Therefore, to produce speech sounds, contraction of the muscles of the vocal cords and the flow of air through the glottis are necessary.

The vocal cords subtly respond to the amount of air pressure beneath them. The strength and tension of the internal muscles of the larynx are very diverse and change not only with the strengthening and raising of the voice, but also with its different timbres, even when pronouncing each vowel. The range of the voice can vary within about two octaves (an octave is a frequency interval corresponding to an increase in frequency sound vibrations 2 times). The following voice registers are distinguished: bass - 80-341 vibrations per 1 s, tenor - 128-518, alto - 170-683, soprano - 246-1024.

The vocal register depends on the frequency of contractions of the muscle fibers of the vocal cords, therefore, on the frequency of the efferent impulses of the recurrent nerve. But the length of the vocal cords also matters. In men, due to the large size of the larynx and vocal cords, the voice is lower than in children and women, by approximately an octave. Bass vocal cords are 2.5 times thicker than sopranos. The pitch of the voice depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords: the more often they vibrate, the higher the voice.

During puberty, the size of the larynx increases significantly in male adolescents. The resulting lengthening of the vocal cords leads to a lowering of the voice register.

The pitch of the sound produced by the larynx does not depend on the amount of air pressure under the vocal cords and does not change when it increases or decreases. The air pressure beneath them only affects the intensity of the sound formed in the larynx (the strength of the voice), which is small at low pressure and increases parabolically with a linear increase in pressure. Sound intensity is measured by power in watts or microwatts per square meter(W/m2, μW/m2). The voice power during a normal conversation is approximately 10 microwatts. The weakest speech sounds have a power of 0.01 microwatts. The sound pressure level for an average spoken voice is 70 dB (decibel).

The strength of the voice depends on the amplitude of vibration of the vocal cords, therefore, on the pressure under the cords. The more pressure, the stronger. Voice timbre is characterized by the presence of certain partial tones, or overtones, in the sound. There are more than 20 overtones in the human voice, of which the first 5-6 are the loudest with a number of vibrations of 256-1024 per 1 s. The timbre of the voice depends on the shape of the resonator cavities.

Resonator cavities have a huge influence on the act of speech. since the pronunciation of vowels and consonants does not depend on the larynx, which determines only the pitch of the sound, but on the shape of the oral cavity and pharynx and relative position organs located in them. The shape and volume of the oral cavity and pharynx vary widely due to the exceptional mobility of the tongue, movements of the soft palate and lower jaw, contractions of the pharyngeal constrictors and movements of the epiglottis. The walls of these cavities are soft, so forced oscillations are excited in them by sounds of different frequencies and in a fairly wide range. In addition, the oral cavity is a resonator with a large opening into the external space and therefore emits sound, or is a sound antenna.

The cavity of the nasopharynx, lying to the side of the main air flow, can be a sound filter, absorbing certain tones and not letting them out. When the soft palate is lifted upward until it touches the back wall of the pharynx, the nose and nasopharynx are completely separated from the oral cavity and are excluded as resonators, while sound waves propagate into space through the open mouth. When all vowels are formed without exception, the resonator cavity is divided into two parts, connected by a narrow gap. As a result, two different resonant frequencies are formed. When pronouncing “u”, “o”, “a”, a narrowing is formed between the root of the tongue and the palatal valve, and when phonating “e” and “i” - between the tongue raised upward and the hard palate. Thus, two resonators are obtained: the rear one - large volume (low tone) and the front one - narrow, small (high tone). Opening the mouth increases the resonator tone and its attenuation. The lips, teeth, hard and soft palate, tongue, epiglottis, pharyngeal walls and false ligaments have a great influence on the sound quality and character of the vowel. When consonants are formed, the sound is caused not only by the vocal cords, but also by the friction of air strings between the teeth (s), between the tongue and the hard palate (g, z, w, h) or between the tongue and the soft palate (d, j), between the lips ( b, p), between the tongue and teeth (d, t), with intermittent movement of the tongue (p), with the sound of the nasal cavity (m, n). When vowels are phonated, overtones are enhanced regardless of the fundamental tone. These increasing overtones are called formants.

Formants - resonant enhancements corresponding to frequency natural vibrations vocal tract. The maximum number of them depends on its total length. An adult male may have 7 formants, but 2-3 formants are important for distinguishing speech sounds.

Each of the five main vowels is characterized by formants of different heights. For “y” the number of oscillations in 1 s is 260-315, “o” - 520-615, “a” - 650-775, “e” - 580-650, “i” 2500-2700. In addition to these tones, each vowel has even higher formants - up to 2500-3500. Consonant sound - a modified vowel that appears when obstacles arise sound wave, coming from the larynx, in the oral and nasal cavities. In this case, parts of the wave collide with each other and noise arises.

Main speech - phoneme. Phonemes do not coincide with sound; they can consist of more than one sound. Set of phonemes in different languages different. There are 42 phonemes in the Russian language. Phonemes remain unchanged features- a spectrum of tones of a certain intensity and duration. A phoneme can have several formants, for example “a” contains 2 main formants - 900 and 1500 Hz, “and” - 300 and 3000 Hz. The phonemes of consonants have the highest frequency (“s” - 8000 Hz, “f” - 12,000 Hz). Speech uses sounds from 100 to 12,000 Hz.

The difference between loud speech and whispering depends on the function of the vocal cords. When whispering, there is a noise of air friction against the blunt edge of the vocal cord as it passes through a moderately narrowed glottis. When speaking loudly due to the position of the vocal processes towards air stream The sharp edges of the vocal cords are directed. The variety of speech sounds depends on the muscles of the vocal apparatus. It is caused mainly by contraction of the muscles of the lips, tongue, lower jaw, soft palate, pharynx and larynx.

The muscles of the larynx perform three functions: 1) opening the vocal cords during inhalation, 2) closing them while protecting the airways, and 3) voice production.

Consequently, during oral speech, a very complex and subtle coordination of the speech muscles occurs, caused by the cerebral hemispheres and primarily by the speech analyzers located in them, which occurs due to hearing and the influx of afferent kinesthetic impulses from the organs of speech and breathing, which are combined with impulses from all external and internal analyzers. This complex coordination of movements of the muscles of the larynx, vocal cords, soft palate, lips, tongue, lower jaw and respiratory, providing oral speech, called articulation. It is carried out by a complex system of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes of these muscles.

In the process of speech formation, the motor activity of the speech apparatus transforms into aerodynamic phenomena and then into acoustic ones.

Under auditory control feedback the kinesthetic feedback that continuously operates when pronouncing words is activated. When a person thinks, but does not utter words (inner speech), kinesthetic impulses arrive in volleys, with unequal intensity and different durations of intervals between them. When solving new and difficult problems in the mind, the strongest kinesthetic impulses enter the nervous system. When listening to speech for the purpose of memorizing, these impulses are also large.

Human hearing is unequally sensitive to sounds of different frequencies. A person not only hears the sounds of speech, but also simultaneously reproduces them with his vocal apparatus in a very reduced form. Therefore, in addition to hearing, proprioceptors of the vocal apparatus are involved in speech perception, especially vibration receptors located in the mucous membrane under the ligaments and in the soft palate. Irritation of vibration receptors increases the tone of the sympathetic nervous system and thereby changes the functions of the respiratory and vocal apparatus.

The human larynx is a flexible, finely structured organ of the respiratory system that connects the pharynx to the trachea. It is extremely important for the breathing and digestion process, as it pushes out harmful elements trying to enter the respiratory tract. Sounds are also produced in the larynx; with the help of the vocal folds, the timbre, tone and volume of a person’s speech are regulated.

The device of the larynx

The larynx consists of dense tissue and is a short tube of nine cartilages, covered with epithelium characteristic only of the throat. The cartilages are connected to each other by special ligaments.

The human larynx is located in the area of the sixth and fourth vertebrae, behind the skin on the front side of the neck. The top of the organ approaches the nasal part of the pharynx, coming into contact with the bone located under the tongue.

The structural features of the larynx completely depend on the functions assigned to this organ. Externally, the tube of the laryngeal system schematically resembles two connected triangles touching at the vertices. The tube tapers towards the center but widens at both edges. The middle of the laryngeal system is the glottis - the uppermost fold of the vestibule of the vocal cords. The areas above and below the glottis are called supraglottic and subglottic, respectively.

On the sides of the organ between the vocal fold and the vestibule of the larynx there are deep pockets - the so-called Morganian ventricles of the larynx. These components of the larynx go up and forward to the arytenoid folds. When infected, they are the first to lose their original shape, which indicates the development of the disease. The vestibular parts of the larynx, which, if the functioning of the vocal cords is disrupted, can perform their function, sometimes become the center of inflammatory processes and swelling.

The pharynx is located at the back of the larynx; large blood vessels and nerve endings run along the sides. The pulsation of the carotid arteries can be easily felt on the neck on both sides of the throat.

The vocal cords are formed by a pair of yellowish-white parallel folds connected by muscles and stretched in the cavity of the larynx. One side of the vocal cords is attached to the angle of the thyroid cartilage, the other - to the arytenoid cartilage. Slightly above the sound gap is the vestibule of the larynx - the upper section of the cavity of this organ. It is surrounded by the edges of the plates of the thyroid cartilage, closed from below with folds, in front above the vestibule there is a corner of the thyroid cartilage (the commissure is the area of the vocal cords where the thyroid plates form an angle) and the epiglottis. Between the lateral sides of the vestibule of the larynx there are slit-like ventricles, stretching to the arytenopharyngeal folds.

The lower part of the larynx, located under the glottis and externally resembling a cone, is connected to the trachea. In a child at an early age, the elastic cone of the larynx consists of plastic connective tissue. This place is prone to increased swelling and the development of inflammatory processes.

Laryngeal cartilages

The anatomy of the larynx is quite complex. This organ is a framework of six forms of cartilage. Three paired and three unpaired cartilages support the overall structure. Let's look at each cartilage separately.

Paired cartilages:

Horn-shaped - elastic formations shaped like a cone. This type of cartilage is found on the top of the two arytenoid elements.
Arytenoids are areas of connective tissue that visually resemble triangles located on the plates of the cricoid cartilage. Consist of hyaline cartilage.
Cuneiform - like horn-shaped, are elastic cartilages located near the top of the arytenoid plates.

Unpaired cartilages:

Cricoid - consists of two parts of different shapes. The first part is a lamellar structure, the second part is formed from hyaline cartilage that forms the laryngeal border of the lower part, shaped like a thin arch.
The epiglottis is an elastic tissue that creates groove-shaped cartilage. Its task is to raise the pharynx during food intake, or more precisely, directly at the moment of swallowing. As it descends, the epiglottic cartilage completely covers the glottis.
The thyroid is a cartilage formed by two plates located at an angle. This cartilage is called the Adam's apple. When the plates are connected at an angle of 90 degrees - typical for men - it protrudes noticeably on the surface of the neck. In women, the cartilages that make up the Adam's apple converge at an angle of more than 90 degrees, which makes it invisible under the skin. A special membrane connects this cartilage to the hyoid bone.

Muscles of the larynx

The structure of the human larynx involves the presence of various muscles. These muscles are divided into two types - external and internal muscles of the larynx. Internal muscles are responsible for changes in the length of the vocal cords, the degree of their tension and location in the throat. During their transformation, the sound produced is regulated. The extrinsic muscles act as a unit to perform the movements of the pharynx during eating, breathing, and voice production. The following types of muscles of the laryngeal cavity are distinguished:

adductors (constrictors) - three types of muscles, two paired and one unpaired, compressing the glottis;
Abductors (dilitors) are a fragile muscle structure, problems with which can lead to paralysis of the laryngeal ligaments. The main task of this type of muscle is to expand and open the glottis - a function opposite to the purpose of the laryngeal adductors;
cricothyroid muscle - when it contracts, the thyroid cartilage moves upward or forward, thereby regulating the tension of the vocal cords and maintaining their tone.

Functions

The anatomy and physiology of the larynx are entirely dependent on the functions of the larynx. Human life activity is directly related to its three main tasks - respiratory, protective and voice-forming. Let's look at each of them in more detail.

Respiratory function: Without air, the human body cannot exist. The larynx, being part of the respiratory system, regulates the flow of oxygen into the throat. This activity is carried out due to the expansion and contraction of the glottis. Also, in the throat, too cold air warms up to pass into the lungs in this form.
Protective function: carried out due to the work of many glands located on the epithelial layer. One of the ways of protection is the presence of so-called cilia - nerve endings. If pieces of food accidentally enter the respiratory system rather than the esophagus, the cilia immediately react and coughing attacks occur, allowing the foreign object to be pushed out. The epithelium directs any harmful element back into external environment. When a foreign object hits the glottis, it completely closes access to the inside of the larynx and pushes it out using reflex actions (clearing the throat). In the larynx there are tonsils - part of the immune system that fights elements of the pathogenic environment and does not allow them to penetrate inside the body. Porous tonsils trap germs and viruses with the help of special depressions - lacunae.
Voice-forming function of the larynx (phonatory): the sound produced by a person is regulated here. The timbre of the voice depends on the structure of the human larynx, its individual characteristics. The length of the vocal cords determines the tone of the voice - the shorter the vocal cords, the higher the pitch. Therefore, high voices are typical for women and children who have short bundles. In boys, by a certain age, a metamorphosis of the laryngeal structure occurs, and the voice begins to break. The phonatory function of the larynx is the most musical: the vocal cords allow us to sing and speak beautifully, subject to professional voice control. Interestingly, only a couple of octaves may be enough for singing, but up to seven octaves are usually involved in speech production.

The respiratory function is directly related to the protective function, since muscles and cartilage control the force and volume of inhalation and warm the air before it enters the lungs.

Voice-forming function

The structure of the throat and larynx may change depending on age. Babies have a short larynx, located three vertebrae higher than that of adults. The entrance to the larynx in children is much wider; they do not yet have corniculate cartilages and sublingual joints, which appear only at the age of seven.

In boys and girls under ten years of age, the structure of the larynx is practically the same. Next, age-related characteristics of the larynx are formed - in adolescence(after twelve years) boys' voices begin to break. This occurs due to the increased production of male sex hormones and the development of the gonads, which leads to an increase in the length of the vocal cords. Transformation of the larynx is also typical for girls, but the change in the voice in women appears slowly and imperceptibly, and in men the voice can be significantly modified within one year.

The male larynx is about a third larger than the female, and the vocal cords are thicker and longer, so the stronger sex usually has a rougher and lower voice. The volume of speech depends on the width of the glottis, which is regulated by five muscles - the larger the gap, the louder the sound. When you exhale air, the vocal cords begin to move, this affects the change in the strength of the voice, its timbre, and pitch. In addition to the larynx, the lungs and chest muscles are involved in the process of speech formation - the sonority of the voice also depends on their strength.

The phonatory function of the larynx is a consequence of the coordinated work of everything human body. The larynx is involved in the formation of sound; the oral cavity, lips and tongue transform it into speech. Many organs are connected to the larynx, and human health depends on their general condition.

This suggests that human speech - timbre and tone of voice - are a reflection not only of the structural features of the larynx, the mood of the individual, and an indicator of the activity of other body systems. A change in a person's voice can indicate his physical condition, presence of health problems. The timbre of the voice changes when a person has a cold, sore throat, or suffers from other throat diseases. Even taking hormones can lead to a temporary change in voice.

Due to the fact that the muscle creates local tension in the vocal cords, it becomes possible to reproduce additional sounds - overtones. It is their combination that determines the timbre of human speech.

Innervation and blood circulation

The blood supply to the larynx and thyroid glands is carried out using the carotid and subclavian arteries. The posterior laryngeal and thyroid arteries are also adjacent to the larynx.

Innervation of the larynx is the presence of nerve endings in the anatomy of the throat. Excitation and transmission of nerve impulses occurs thanks to the vagus nerve, consisting of parasympathetic, sensory motor fibers. The vagus nerve ensures the reflex function of the organ - the transfer of neurons to the cortical speech and sound centers. The nerve fibers form a pair of large nerve ganglia.

The first node consists of two types of fibers: external - innervates the lower muscle, responsible for contractions of the throat and cricothyroid cartilage, and internal - penetrates the mucous membrane of the larynx, located above the sound lumen, the mucous membrane of the epiglottis and the beginning of the tongue.

The recurrent nerve contains the same types of fibers; the right recurrent laryngeal nerve separates from the vagus nerve where it intersects the subclavian artery. On the left, the recurrent nerve splits off from the vagus nerve at the height of the arched aorta. Two nerves surround the vessels and rise up on opposite sides of the larynx, cross under the thyroid gland and adjoin the subglottic cavity of the larynx.