DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS
Like any academic discipline, geography has many terms, concepts, specific expressions, and phrases, without which it is impossible to appreciate the essence of the material presented by geographers.
Every civilized person needs a dictionary of geographical names. It contains information about numerous countries, lost corners of the planet, peoples inhabiting the Earth, etc.
The dictionary contains terms and concepts that reveal the meaning of words that are often found not only in geography lessons and extracurricular activities, but also in the everyday life of students.
Geographical concepts and terms are combined into sections for basic courses in physical and economic geography.
The publication is addressed to students of secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, and colleges. Can also be used by teachers, parents, educators. The Geographical Dictionary is an excellent universal reference book for applicants when preparing for entrance exams.
The dictionary includes terms and concepts necessary for successfully passing exams both in the traditional form (translated) and in preparation for the Unified State Exam and Unified State Exam.
The source documents for compiling the dictionary were geography textbooks for grades 5-9, corresponding to the educational and methodological complex of the line of textbooks from the Drofa publishing house, edited by V.P. Dronov, as well as the textbook “Geography of the Samara Region”. Authors V.V. Voronin, V.A. Gavrilenkova. A manual for students in grades 8-9 of secondary school. Samara: GOU SIPKRO, 2010.
Physiography
Absolute altitude
– vertical distance from sea level to a given point. Those located above sea level are considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth
– the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° in a clockwise direction.
Iceberg
- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or stranded.
Antarctic belt
– descends from the South Pole to 70° S.
Anticyclone
– an area of high air pressure in the atmosphere. Habitat is the area of distribution of a phenomenon or group of living organisms.
Arctic belt
– descends from the North Pole to 70° N latitude.
Archipelago
- a group of islands.
Atmosphere
– the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll
– a coral island in the shape of a ring.
Beam
- a dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan
- an accumulation of loose sand blown by the wind and not secured by vegetation.
Pool
– an area of depression that has no drainage on the surface.
Shore
– a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending towards a water basin.
Biosphere
- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.
Breeze
– local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers. Daytime wind (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night B. (or coastal) - from land to sea.
“Brocken Ghost"
(along Mount Brocken in the Harz massif, Germany) is a special type of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.
Wind
– the movement of air relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low. The direction of the east is determined by the side of the horizon from which it comes. Air speed is determined in m/s, km/h, knots, or approximately on the Beaufort scale. Air humidity is the content of water vapor in it.
Watershed
– the boundary between drainage basins.
Hill - an area raised above the surrounding area.
Waves
- oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure (anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands
– a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, sharp peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights are more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems on the planet: the Himalayas, the peak of Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China - Karakorum, peak Chogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zone
– a change in natural zones in the mountains from the base to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the altitude above sea level.
Geographical coordinates
– angular values that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and prime meridian.
Geospheres
– shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.
Hydrosphere
- the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain
1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
Mountains
– vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their boundaries.
Mountain system
- a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges that extend in one direction and have a common appearance.
Ridge
– elongated, relatively low relief shape; formed by hills lined up in rows merging at their bases.
Delta
- an area where river sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographical
– the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the initial meridian; measured in degrees and counted from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley
– negative linearly elongated relief shape.
Dunes
- accumulation of sand on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
Bay
- a part of the ocean (sea or lake) that extends quite deeply into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
Earth's crust
– the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell
– a small, calm, uniform wave, disturbance of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere
– high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source
– the place where the river begins.
Canyon
– a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the underwater edge of the continent.
Karst is the dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomena associated with it. Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or zone)
- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe
- a sandy or pebble shaft stretching along the shore or protruding in the form of a promontory far into the sea.
Crater
- a depression created after a volcano explosion.
Ridge
- a sharply rising large rise, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche
- a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.
Lagoon
- a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
Geographic landscape
– a relatively homogeneous area of the geographical envelope.
Glacier
- a mass of ice slowly moving under the influence of gravity along a mountain slope or along a valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total volume of ice is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
glacial period
- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.
Forest-steppe
- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.
Forest-tundra
- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman
– shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by a spit or bar.
Lithosphere
- one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle
- the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland
- a large part of land surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.
Australia
- in South. hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents); North and South America - to the West. hemispheres, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;
Antarctica
– in the central part of South. polar region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet); Africa - to South. hemisphere (second largest continent);
Eurasia
- all in. hemisphere (the largest continent on Earth).
Meridians geographical
– imaginary circles passing through the poles and intersecting the equator at a right angle; all their points lie at the same geographical longitude.
World Ocean
- the entire body of water on Earth.
Monsoons
- winds that periodically change their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands
– a mountainous country, characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet is in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highland on Earth. Its base rests at absolute altitudes of 3500-5000 m or more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Lowlands
- the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from the north to the south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500m.
Lowland is a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazonian lowland with an area of more than 5 million km2 in the South. America.
Lake
- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Lake Baikal.
Oceans
- parts of the World Ocean separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean; The Pacific Ocean (Great), the largest and deepest ocean on Earth.
Landslide
– downslope displacement of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island
- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The world's largest island is Greenland with an area of 2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height is the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.
Geographical parallels
– imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect (atmospheric greenhouse effect)
– protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds
– constant winds in tropical areas, blowing towards the equator.
Plateau
1) high plain, limited by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain peak. P. underwater - an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos
– a deep section of the river bed between the rifts.
Plateau
- a vast area of land with an altitude from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain
- part of a river valley that is flooded during high water.
Semi-desert
- a transitional landscape that combines the features of a steppe or desert.
Earth's hemisphere
- half of the earth’s sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160° east. and 20° W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or according to other characteristics.
Geographic poles are the points of intersection of the Earth's rotation axis with the earth's surface. Magnetic poles of the Earth are points on the earth's surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where a magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation by cardinal directions.
Polar Circles (Northern and Southern)
– parallels located 66° 33′ north and south of the equator.
Threshold
– a shallow area in a river bed with a large slope and fast current.
Foothills
– hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairies
- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebbs and flows
- periodic fluctuations in the water level of seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Deserts
– vast spaces with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe is the Sahara in the North. Africa.
Plains
– vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on Earth is the Eastern European, or Russian, with an area of more than 6 million km2 and the West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of about 3 million km2.
River
- a constant stream of water flowing in a riverbed. Amazon is a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7,000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in basin area (7,180 m2) and in water content; the Mississippi is the largest river of the North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River is 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief
– a set of various irregularities of the earth’s surface (forms of R.) of various origins; they are formed through a combination of impacts on the earth’s surface by endogenous and exogenous processes.
Bed
- the deepened part of the valley bottom occupied by a river.
Savannah
- a tropical and subtropical landscape in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or groups of trees.
The North Pole is the point of intersection of the Earth's axis with the Earth's surface in the North. hemispheres.
Sel
- a mud or mud-stone stream that suddenly passes through the valley of a mountain river.
Smerch (American name for tornado)
– vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Srednegorye
– mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are the most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and northeast of Siberia. They occupy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indochina Peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope
- an inclined area on land or seabed. Windward North - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow. Leeward North - facing the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe
– treeless spaces with an arid climate, characterized by grassy vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining the savannas of the tropical belt in the south.
Stratosphere
– layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical zones (subtropics)
– located between tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts
– located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga
– zone of temperate coniferous forests. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon
- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takyr
- a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements
– movements of the earth’s crust that change its structure and shape.
Tropics
1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, spaced 23°30° north and south of the equator: tropics of Capricorn (Northern t.) - tropics of North. hemispheres and tropics of Cancer (Southern t.) - tropicsSouth. hemispheres; 2) natural belts.
Tropical zones
– located between subtropical and subequatorial zones.
Troposphere
– lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra
– treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Temperate zones
– located in temperate latitudes.
Temperate latitudes
– located between 40° and 65° N. and between 42° and 58° S.
Hurricane
– a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
Estuary
– the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
Atmospheric front
- a zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fjord (fjord)
- a narrow, deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill
– a small height and gently sloping hill.
Cyclones
– area of low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami
- Japanese name for huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world
– regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf
– continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographical
– the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and counted from the equator to the north and south.
Squall
– a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm
- calm, calm.
Storm
– very strong wind, accompanied by strong rough seas.
Equator
- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere
– layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere
- an area of outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion
– destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole
– the point of intersection of the earth’s axis with the earth’s surface in the South. hemispheres.
Earth's core
– the central part of the planet with a radius of approx. 3470 km.
Economic and social geography
Enclave
A part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and having no access to the sea.
Urban agglomeration
A group of nearby cities, united by close labor, cultural, social, and infrastructure ties into a complex system.
Trade balance
The difference between goods exported from a country (country exports) and goods imported (imports).
Population reproduction
The set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase that ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.
Geographical environment
Part of the earth's nature with which society interacts at a given stage of historical development.
Geopolitics
Dependence of the state’s foreign policy on geographical location and other physical, economic and geographical factors.
Global Population Issues
A set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all humanity, creating a threat to its present and future; United efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Population policy
A system of administrative, economic, and propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences natural population growth in the direction it desires.
Demographic revolution
Transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography
Spider about population, patterns of its reproduction.
Natural population growth
The difference between the birth rate and death rate per 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration
Entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.
Import
Import of goods into the country from other countries.
Industrialization
Creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, transformation of the country from agrarian to industrial.
International economic integration
The process of establishing deep and sustainable economic relations between countries, based on their implementation of coordinated interstate policies.
Intensive development path
Increasing production volumes through additional capital investments in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure
A set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and provision of daily life of the population.
Conversion
Transfer of military production to civilian production.
Megalopolis
The largest form of settlement that arose as a result of the fusion of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Intersectoral complex
A group of industries that produce homogeneous products or have close technological connections.
Population migration
Movement of the population across a territory associated with a change of place of residence.
National economy
Interaction of people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.
Science intensity
The level of costs for research and development in the total costs of production.
Scientific and technological revolution (STR)
A radical qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.
Nation
A historical and social community of people, formed in a certain territory in the process of development of social market relations of an industrial type and inter-district (international) division of labor.
Special economic zone
A territory with a favorable EGP, in which, in order to attract foreign capital, preferential tax and customs regimes and special pricing conditions are established.
Industry
A set of enterprises that produce homogeneous products or provide homogeneous services.
Socio-economic region
The territory of the country, including several units of ADU, differs from others in terms of historical development, geographical location, natural and labor resources, and economic specialization.
Zoning
Dividing the territory into regions according to a number of characteristics.
Regional policy
A set of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational distribution of production across the territory and equalization of people’s living standards.
Resource availability
The relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use.
Production specialization
Enterprises produce individual parts and assemblies, certain types of products, and perform one or more technological operations.
Territory specialization
Concentration in the area of production of certain products or certain services
Structure of the national economy
The relationship between various areas and industries in terms of product value, number of employees, or value of fixed production assets.
Suburbanization
The process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to an outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor
Specialization of individual regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
Labor resources
The part of the country's population that is capable of working and has the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization
The process of urban growth and the spread of the urban lifestyle throughout the entire network of populated areas.
Service
Work aimed at meeting the needs of the individual consumer.
Economic-geographical location (EGP)
The position of the object in relation to other geographical objects that have economic significance for it.
Economically active population
Part of the country's population, comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively looking for work and ready to work.
Export
Export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path
Increasing production volumes due to quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration
Departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long period.
Power system
A group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.
Ethnos
A historically established stable community of people with a unique internal structure and an original pattern of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the “native” landscape.
To learn to distinguish Austria from Australia, north from south, dune from dune, you should study geography well. The definition of the word and its meaning can be found in this article. In addition, you will learn what one of the most ancient sciences studies and what its main features are.
What is geography: definition and meaning of the term
Geography is the oldest existing scientific discipline. Its foundations were laid back in the Hellenistic era. Her areas of interest include seas and oceans, mountains and plains, as well as society. More precisely, the features of human interaction with the surrounding nature.
Defining the concept of “geography” is impossible without an interpretation of the word itself. It is of ancient Greek origin and is translated as “description of the earth.” The term consists of two Greek words: “geo” (earth) and “grapho” (write, describe).
In the third century BC (when geography was emerging as a science), this term was quite consistent with its essence. Ancient Greek thinkers really were engaged in “description of the earth”, without going much into the intricacies of natural processes and phenomena. However, the current definition of geography cannot be reduced to such a narrow interpretation.
What is science doing at the present stage? To answer this question, you need to understand what geography is. You will find the definition of this scientific discipline further in our article.
Early history of geographical science
So, as we have already figured out, the term “geography” was invented by the ancient Greeks. They also created the first detailed maps of the area. Actually, the foundations of this science were laid precisely in the Hellenic era. Later, the center of its development smoothly moved to the Arab world. Islamic geographers not only explored and mapped a lot of new lands, but also made many important innovative discoveries.
Chinese civilization also greatly contributed to the development of geographical science. In particular, instrumentally. It was the Chinese who developed such a useful thing as a compass, which is actively used in the 21st century.
The most famous representatives of the early period in the history of geographical science:
- Eratosthenes ("father of geography").
- Claudius Ptolemy.
- Strabo.
- Muhammad al-Idrisi.
- Ibn Battuta.
Development of geography in the 16th-20th centuries
During the European Renaissance, the enormous empirical heritage accumulated by geographers of previous generations and cultures was systematized and rethought. The so-called period of the Great Geographical Discoveries set completely new tasks and goals for the “science of geographies,” and a fresh and genuine interest in the profession of geographer arose in society.
In the 18th century, this science began to be studied in universities as a separate discipline. In the first half of the 19th century, Alexander Humboldt and Karl Ritter laid the foundation for modern academic geography as we know it today. Nowadays, thanks to satellite technologies and the latest geographic information systems, geography is entering a completely new stage of its development.
Scientists who made a significant contribution to the development of European geographical science:
- Gerhard Mercator.
- Alexander von Humboldt.
- Karl Ritter.
- Walter Christaller.
- Vasily Dokuchaev.
Definition of geography as a science
“A linear image of the entire known part of the Earth, with everything that is located on it - bays, large cities, peoples, significant rivers.” This definition of geography was given by Claudius Ptolemy back in the second century. Thanks to this science, as the famous ancient Greek astronomer said, we get a unique opportunity to “view the entire Earth in one picture.”
At the beginning of the 19th century, the German geographer Karl Ritter proposed replacing “geographic description” with the term “geography.” By the way, it was he who first divided geography into two independent branches: physical and social (political). “The territory influences the inhabitants, and the inhabitants influence the territory” - Ritter expressed this fair thought back in 1804.
Another German scientist, Hermann Wagner, gave the following definition of geography: this is the science of the power of space, which manifests itself in local differences in its material filling. Wagner was quite close in his scientific views to Karl Ritter.
An interesting definition of geography was given by the famous Soviet soil scientist Arseny Yarilov. According to him, this is the science that should orient a person within the boundaries of the home assigned to him by nature.
There are many other interesting interpretations of this scientific discipline. To summarize all of the above, a modern definition should be given: geography is a science that studies the so-called geographical shell of the Earth, in all its natural and socio-economic diversity. We will talk about what this is in more detail in the next section.
Geographical envelope is...
The geographic shell refers to the shell of planet Earth, consisting of four structural layers:
- Troposphere.
- Earth's crust.
- Hydrospheres.
- Biospheres.
Moreover, all these “spheres” are in close interaction, intersecting and penetrating each other. The essence of the concept of the geographical shell of the Earth was first described back in 1910 by the Russian scientist P. I. Brounov.
Within the geographical envelope there is a constant and continuous process of movement of matter and energy. Thus, water from rivers and lakes constantly enters the lower layers of the atmosphere, as well as into the earth’s crust (through cracks and pores). In turn, gases and solid particles from the troposphere enter water bodies.
The boundaries of the geographical envelope are not clearly defined. Most often, its lower line is drawn along the base of the earth’s crust, the upper line at an altitude of 20-25 kilometers. Thus, the average thickness of the Earth's geographic shell is approximately 30 km. Compared to the parameters of our planet, this is minuscule. But it is precisely this thin “film” that is the main object of study for geographical science.
Structure of geographical science
Modern geography is a complex and very voluminous science, which includes dozens of special disciplines. As a rule, it is divided into two large blocks - physical and social (or socio-economic). The first studies the general patterns of development and existence of the geographical shell and its individual parts, and the second studies the processes of interaction between society and the natural environment.
Among the physical and geographical disciplines, the following stand out:
- Geodesy.
- Geomorphology.
- Hydrology.
- Oceanology.
- Landscape science.
- Soil science.
- Paleogeography.
- Climatology.
- Glaciology, etc.
Among the socio-geographical sciences, it is customary to distinguish the following disciplines:
- Demography.
- Economical geography.
- Geopolitics.
- Geography of culture.
- Medical geography.
- Geo-urbanistics.
- Political geography.
- Regional studies, etc.
Main problems and discussions of modern geography
Oddly enough, the question “what is geography?” remains one of the most complex and controversial among representatives of this science. What geography should study, what goals it should set for itself - these problems still cannot be solved by the minds of the current generation of geographers.
In addition, theoretical geography is trying to solve a number of other pressing problems today. The most basic ones include the following:
- The problem of loss of interest in geography in society.
- The problem of the “dying away” of such purely practical disciplines as land reclamation, land management, and soil science.
- The problem of the general classification of geographical science.
- Definition of a number of key concepts: “geographical envelope”, “landscape”, “geosystem”, etc.
Recently, such a fresh direction as “constructive geography” has been gaining popularity. First of all, due to the strategic nature of their research. This discipline can transform traditionally descriptive and theoretical geography into practical and useful one.
Finally
Geography is one of the most ancient sciences. It originated in the 3rd century BC. Today, geography is an independent scientific branch that deals with a deep and comprehensive study of the geographical shell of the Earth, starting from processes in the thickness of the earth’s crust and ending with human production activities.
Geographical terms and concepts. Geographical definitions. Absolute altitude– vertical distance from sea level to a given point.a.v. points located above sea level are considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth– the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° in a clockwise direction.
Iceberg- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or stranded.
Antarctic belt– descends from the South Pole to 70° S.
Anticyclone– an area of high air pressure in the atmosphere.
Area– the area of distribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.
Arctic belt– descends from the North Pole to 70° N latitude.
Archipelago- a group of islands.
Atmosphere– the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll– a coral island in the shape of a ring.
Beam- a dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan- an accumulation of loose sand blown by the wind and not secured by vegetation.
Pool– an area of depression that has no drainage on the surface.
Shore– a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending towards a water basin.
Biosphere- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.
Breeze– local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers. Day breeze. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night breeze (or coastal) - from land to sea.
"Brocken Ghost"(along Mount Brocken in the Harz massif, Germany) is a special type of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.
Wind– the movement of air relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows. Wind speed is determined in m/s, km/h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Air humidity– content of water vapor.
Watershed– the boundary between drainage basins.
Elevation- an area elevated above the surrounding area.
Waves– oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure (anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands– a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights are more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems on the planet: the Himalayas, Mount Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China - Karakorum, peak Chogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zone– a change in natural zones in the mountains from the base to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates– angular values that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and the prime meridian.
Geospheres– shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.
Hydrosphere- the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain- 1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
Mountains– vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their borders.
Mountain system- a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges that extend in one direction and have a common appearance.
Ridge– elongated, relatively low relief shape; formed by hills lined up in a row and merging at their bases.
Delta- an area where river sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographical– the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the prime meridian; measured in degrees and counted from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley– negative linearly elongated relief shape.
Dunes- accumulation of sand on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
Bay- a part of the ocean (sea or lake) that extends quite deeply into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
The Earth's crust is the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell– a small, calm, uniform wave, disturbance of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere– high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source– the place where the river begins.
Canyon– a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the underwater edge of the continent.
Karst– dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomena associated with it. Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or zone)- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe- a sandy or pebble ridge stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater- a depression created after a volcano explosion.
Ridge- a sharply rising large rise, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche- a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.
Lagoon- a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
Geographic landscape– type of terrain, a relatively homogeneous area of the geographical envelope.
Glacier- a mass of ice moving slowly under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, its maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total volume of ice is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
glacial period- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.
Forest-steppe- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.
Forest-tundra- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman– shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by a spit or bar.
Lithosphere- one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle- the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland- a large part of land surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.
Australia– in the Southern Hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents);
America North and South– in the Western Hemisphere, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;
Antarctica– in the central part of the South Polar Region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);
Africa– in the Southern Hemisphere (the second largest continent);
Eurasia– in the Northern Hemisphere (the largest continent on Earth).
Meridians geographically e – imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographical longitude.
World Ocean- the entire body of water on Earth.
Monsoons are winds that periodically change their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands– a mountainous country, characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet- in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highland on Earth. Its base rests at absolute altitudes of 3500-5000 m or more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Lowlands- the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland– a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazon Lowland with an area of more than 5 million km2 in South America.
Lake- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Lake Baikal.
Oceans- parts of the World Ocean separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean; The Pacific Ocean (Great), the largest and deepest ocean on Earth.
Landslide– downslope displacement of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world is Greenland with an area of 2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height is the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.
Geographical parallels– imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect(atmospheric greenhouse effect) – protective effects of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds– constant winds in tropical areas, blowing towards the equator.
Plateau- 1) high plain, limited by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain top.
Plateau underwater– an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos– a deep (wide) section of the river bed between the rifts.
Plateau- a vast area of land with an altitude from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain- part of a river valley that is flooded during high water.
Semi-desert- a transitional landscape that combines the features of a steppe or desert.
Earth's hemisphere- half of the earth’s sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160° east. and 20°W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or according to other characteristics.
Geographic poles– points of intersection of the Earth’s rotation axis with the earth’s surface. Magnetic points of the Earth are points on the earth’s surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where a magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation by cardinal directions.
Arctic Circles(North and South) - parallels located 66° 33′ north and south of the equator.
Threshold– a shallow area in a river bed with a large slope and fast current.
Foothills– hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairies- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebbs and flows– periodic fluctuations in the water level of seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Deserts– vast spaces with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe is the Sahara in the North. Africa.
Plains– vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on Earth is the Eastern European, or Russian, with an area of more than 6 million km2 and the West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of about 3 million km2.
River- a constant stream of water flowing in a riverbed. Amazon is a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7,000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in basin area (7,180 m2) and in water content; Mississippi is the largest river in the North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief– a set of various irregularities of the earth’s surface of various origins; are formed through a combination of impacts on the earth's surface by endogenous and exogenous processes.
Bed- the deepened part of the valley bottom occupied by a river.
Savannah- a tropical and subtropical landscape in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or groups of trees.
North Pole- the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the North. hemispheres.
Sel- a mud or mud-stone stream that suddenly passes through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado(American name tornado) – vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Srednegorye– mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are the most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and northeast of Siberia. They occupy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indochina Peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope- an inclined area on land or seabed. Windward slope - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow. Leeward slope – facing the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe– treeless spaces with an arid climate, characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining the savannas of the tropical belt in the south.
Stratosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical zones(subtropics) - located between tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts– located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga– zone of temperate coniferous forests. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takyr- a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements– movements of the earth’s crust that change its structure and shape.
Tropics- 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, located 23°30° north and south of the equator: the tropics of Capricorn (northern tropic) - the tropics of the northern hemisphere and the tropics of Cancer (southern tropic) - the tropics of the southern hemisphere; 2) natural belts.
Tropical zones– located between subtropical and subequatorial zones.
Troposphere– lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra– treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Temperate zones– located in temperate latitudes.
Temperate latitudes– located between 40° and 65° N. and between 42° and 58° S.
Hurricane– a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
Estuary– the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
Atmospheric front- a zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord)- a narrow, deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill– a small height and gently sloping hill.
Cyclones– area of low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami is the Japanese name for huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world– regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf– continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographical– the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and counted from the equator to the north and south.
Squall– a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm- calm, calm.
Storm– very strong wind, accompanied by strong rough seas.
Equator- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere- an area of outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion– destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole– the point of intersection of the earth’s axis with the earth’s surface in the Southern Hemisphere.
Earth's core– the central part of the planet with a radius of about 3470 km.
Economic and social geography
Enclave- part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and having no access to the sea.
Urban agglomeration- a group of closely located cities, united by close labor, cultural, social, and infrastructure ties into a complex system.
Trade balance- the difference between goods exported from the country (export of the country) and imported (import).
Population reproduction- a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase that ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.
Geographical environment- part of the earth’s nature with which society interacts at a given stage of historical development.
Geopolitics- dependence of the state’s foreign policy on geographic location and other physical and economic geographic factors.
Global Population Issues- a set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all humanity, creating a threat to its present and future; United efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Population policy- a system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences natural population growth in the direction it desires.
Demographic revolution- transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography- a spider about population, the patterns of its reproduction.
Natural population growth- the difference between the birth rate and death rate per 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration- entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.
Import- import of goods into the country from other countries.
Industrialization is the creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, the transformation of the country from an agricultural to an industrial one.
International economic integration- the process of establishing deep and sustainable economic relations between countries, based on their implementation of coordinated interstate policies.
Intensive development path- increase in production volumes due to additional capital investments in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure- a set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and provision of daily life of the population.
Conversion- transfer of military production to the production of civilian products.
Megalopolis (metropolis)- the largest form of settlement that arose as a result of the fusion of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Intersectoral complex- a group of industries that produce homogeneous products or have close technological connections.
Population migration- movement of the population across the territory associated with a change of place of residence.
National economy- interaction between people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.
Science intensity- the level of costs for research and development in the total costs of production.
Scientific and technological revolution (STR)- a radical qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.
Nation- a historical and social community of people formed in a certain territory in the process of development of social market relations of the industrial type and inter-district (international) division of labor.
Industry- a set of enterprises producing homogeneous products or providing homogeneous services.
Socio-economic region- the territory of a country, including several administrative units, differing from others in terms of historical development, geographical location, natural and labor resources, and economic specialization.
Zoning- division of territory into districts according to a number of characteristics.
Regional policy- a set of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational distribution of production across the territory and equalization of people’s living standards.
Resource availability- the relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use.
Free economic zone- a territory with a profitable EGP, in which, in order to attract foreign capital, preferential tax and customs regimes and special pricing conditions are established.
Production specialization- production by enterprises of individual parts and assemblies, certain types of products, performance of one or more technological operations.
Territory specialization- concentration in the area of production of certain products or certain services
Structure of the national economy- the relationship between various spheres and industries in terms of product value, number of employees or the value of fixed production assets.
Suburbanization- the process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to an outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor- specialization of individual regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
Labor resources- part of the country's population capable of working and possessing the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization- the process of urban growth and the spread of urban lifestyle to the entire network of populated areas.
Service- work aimed at meeting the needs of the individual consumer.
Economic-geographical location (EGP)- the position of the object in relation to other geographical objects that have economic significance for it.
Economically active population- part of the country's population, a comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively looking for work and ready to work.
Export- export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path- increase in production volumes due to quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration- departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long period.
Power system- a group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.
Ethnos- a historically established stable community of people that has a unique internal structure and an original pattern of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the “native” landscape.
Geography is one of the oldest sciences in the world. Even primitive people studied their terrain, drawing the first primitive maps on the walls of their caves. Of course, the modern science of geography sets itself completely different tasks. Which ones exactly? What is she studying? And what definition can be given to this science?
Defining Geography: Main Issues and Difficulties
If physics teaches “how”, history explains “when” and “why”, then geography tells “where”. Of course, this is a very simplified view of this subject.
Geography is a very old science. The term itself has ancient Greek roots and is literally translated as “land description”. And its foundation was laid precisely in antiquity. The first geographer is called Claudius Ptolemy, who in the second century published a book with an ambiguous title: “Geography”. The work consisted of eight volumes.
Among other scientists who made a significant contribution to the development of geography as a science, it is worth highlighting Gerhard Mercator, Alexander Humboldt, Karl Ritter, Walter Christaller, Vladimir Vernadsky,
An accurate and uniform definition of geography still remains a rather difficult task. According to one of several interpretations, sciences that study various aspects of the functioning and structure of geography. There is another definition of geography, according to which this science studies the patterns of distribution of any phenomenon across the earth's surface. But Professor V.P. Budanov wrote that although the content of geography is very difficult to determine, its object, without any doubt, is the surface of the entire globe.
Geography as the science of the geographical envelope of the Earth
Nevertheless, the main object of study is the geographical shell of the Earth. Domestic science gives the following definition of this term. is a holistic and continuous shell of planet Earth, which consists of five structural parts:
- lithosphere;
- hydrosphere;
- atmosphere;
- biosphere;
- anthroposphere.
Moreover, they are all in close and constant interaction, exchanging matter, energy and information.
The geographic envelope has its own parameters (thickness is approximately 25-27 kilometers), and also has certain patterns. Among these are integrity (unity of components and structures), rhythm (periodic repetition of natural phenomena), latitudinal zonality, altitudinal zonation.
Structure of geographical science
The distinction between natural and thick lines passed through the “body” of the once unified geographical science, scattering its individual disciplines into completely different planes of scientific research. Thus, some physiographic branches are more closely related to physics or chemistry than to population or economics.
Geography of the Earth is divided into two large disciplines.
- Physical.
- Social and economic.
The first group includes hydrography, climatology, geomorphology, glaciology, soil geography and others. It is not difficult to guess that they are studying natural objects. The second group includes population, urban studies (the science of cities), regional studies and others.
Connections with other sciences
How closely is geography related to other sciences? What place does it occupy in the system of scientific disciplines?
Geography has the closest connections with such sciences as mathematics, history, physics and chemistry, economics, biology and psychology. Like any other discipline, it is also genetically related to philosophy and logic.
It is worth noting that some of these interscientific connections were so strong that they gave rise to entirely new so-called cross-cutting disciplines. These include the following:
- cartography (geography + geometry);
- toponymy (geography + linguistics);
- historical geography (geography + history);
- soil science (geography + chemistry).
The main geographical problems at the present stage of scientific development
Strange as it may sound, one of the most important geographical problems is the definition of geography as a science. Moreover, methodologists and theorists are so keen on solving this problem that the question has already arisen: does such a science exist at all?
In the 21st century, the role of the predictive function of geographical science has increased. Using a huge amount of analytical and factual data, various geomodels (climatic, geopolitical, environmental, etc.) are built.
The main task of geography at the present stage is not only to understand the deep connections between natural phenomena and social processes, but also to learn to predict them. One of the most important branches of science today is geourbanism. The world's urban population is growing every year. The largest cities on the planet are facing new problems and challenges that require immediate and constructive solutions.
Geographical concepts
Absolute altitude - vertical distance from sea level togivenpoints.A.v. points located above sea level are considered positive,below - negative.
Azimuth - the angle between the direction north anddirection toany itemon the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° in directionclockwork movementsarrows.
Iceberg - a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or stranded
Antarctic belt - descends from the South Pole to 70° S.Anticyclone - area of increased air pressure inatmosphere.Area - area of distribution of any phenomenon or group of living thingsorganisms.
Arctic belt - descends from the North Pole to 70°N.Archipelago - group of islands.
Atmosphere - the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll - coral island in the shape of a ring.
Beam - dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan - an accumulation of loose sand blown by the wind and not secured by vegetation.
Pool - an area of depression that has no drainage on the surface.Shore - a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending towards a water basin.
Biosphere - one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.Breeze - local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers.Daytime B. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land.Night B. (or coastal) -Withsushionsea.
"Brocken Ghost" (along the Brocken mountain in the Harz massif, Germany)- a special type of mirage observed on clouds or fog whensunrise or sunset.
Wind - air movement relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low.Direction B. determined by the side of the horizon from wherehe blows.Speed V. determined in m/s, km/h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Air humidity - content of water vapor.
Watershed - boundary between drainage basins.Elevation - an area elevated above the surrounding area.
Waves - oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seasAndoceanscaused bytidal forces of the Moon and the Sun(tidal V.), by the wind(wind V.), atmospheric pressure fluctuations(anemobaric V.), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands - a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; absolute altitudes over 3000m. The highest mountain systems on the planet:Himalayas, vertexEverest (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China -Karakoram, vertexChogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zone - a change in natural zones in the mountains from the base to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates - angular values that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and the prime meridian.
Geospheres - shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.Hydrosphere - the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain: 1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
Mountains - vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their borders.
Mountain system - a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges that extend in the same direction and have a common appearance.
Ridge - elongated, relatively low relief shape; formed by hills lined upVrow and merging with their bases.
Delta - the area where river sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographical - the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the prime meridian; measured in degrees and counted from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley - negative linearly elongated relief shape.
Dunes - accumulation of sand on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
Bay - part of the ocean (sea)orlakes), protruding quite deeply into the land, but having free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
Earth's crust - the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell - a small, calm, uniform wave, disturbance of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere - high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source - the place where the river begins.
Canyon - a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom.K. underwater -a deep valley within the underwater edge of the continent.
Karst - dissolution of rocks by natural waters and phenomena associated with it.
Climate - long-term weather regime in a particular area.Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.Climate zone (or belt) is a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe - a sandy or pebble shaft stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater - a depression created after a volcano explosion.
A ridge is a sharply rising large rise, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche - a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.Lagoon - a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
Geographic landscape - a relatively homogeneous area of the geographical envelope.
Glacier - a mass of ice moving slowly under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km 2 , the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total volume of ice is about 25-27 million km 3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
glacial period - a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.Forest-steppe - a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.Forest-tundra - a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman - shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by a spit or bar.
Lithosphere - one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle - the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland - a large part of land surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.Australia - in South hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents);North and Yuzh. America - in the West hemispheres, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;Antarctica - in the central part of the South. polar region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);Africa - in South hemisphere (second largest continent);Eurasia - all in. hemisphere (the largest continent on Earth).
Meridians geographical - imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographical longitude.
World Ocean - the entire body of water on Earth.
Monsoons - winds that periodically change their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands - a mountainous country characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet is in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highland on Earth. Its base rests at absolute altitudes of 3500-5000 m or more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Lowlands - the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan, the vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m .
Lowland - a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazonian lowland with an area of more than 5 million km 2 in South America.
Lake - a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Lake Baikal.
Oceans - parts of the World Ocean separated from each other by continents and islands.Atlantic; Indian - an ocean of heated waters;Arctic - the smallest and shallowest ocean;Pacific Ocean (Great), the largest and deepest ocean on Earth.
Landslide - downslope displacement of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island - a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The world's largest island -Greenland area 2 million 176 thousand km 2 .
Relative height - vertical distance between the top of the mountain and its foot,
Geographical parallels - imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect (atmospheric greenhouse effect) - protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds - constant winds in tropical areas, blowing towards the equator.
Plateau: 1) high plain, limited by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain top.P. underwater - an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos - a deep section of the river bed between the rifts.
Plateau - a vast area of land with an altitude from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example:East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain - part of a river valley that is flooded during high water.Semi-desert - a transitional landscape that combines the features of a steppe or desert.
Earth's hemisphere - half of the earth’s sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160° east. and 20°W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or according to other characteristics.
Geographic poles - points of intersection of the Earth’s rotation axis with the earth’s surface.
Magnetic items of the Earth - points on the earth’s surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where a magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation by cardinal directions.
Arctic Circles (Northern AndSouthern) - parallels located 66° 33" north and south of the equator.
Threshold - a shallow area in a river bed with a large slope and fast current.
Foothills - hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairies - vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebbs and flows - periodic fluctuations in the water level of seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Deserts - vast spaces with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe -Sahara all in. Africa,
Plains - vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on EarthEastern European, orRussian, with an area of more than 6 million km 2 AndZapodno-Sibirskaya in northern Eurasia, with an area of about 3 million km 2 .
River - a constant stream of water flowing in a riverbed.Amazon - river in South America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in terms of basin area (7180 μm G) and water content;Mississippi - the largest river Sev. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km);Nile - river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief - a set of various irregularities of the earth’s surface (forms of R.) of various origins; are formed through a combination of impacts on the earth's surface by endogenous and exogenous processes.
Bed - the deepened part of the valley bottom occupied by the river.
Savannah - a tropical and subtropical landscape in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or groups of trees.
North Pole - the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the surface of the Earth in the North. hemispheres.
Sel - a mud or mud-stone stream that suddenly passes through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado (American name for tornado) - vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Srednegorye - mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are the most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and northeast of Siberia. They occupy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indochina Peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope - an inclined area on land or seabed.Windward S. - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow.Leeward S. - facing the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe - treeless spaces with an arid climate, characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining the savannas of the tropical belt in the south.
Stratosphere - layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical zones (subtropics) - located between tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts - located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga - zone of temperate coniferous forests. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon - the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takyr - a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements - movements of the earth's crust that change its structure and shape.
Tropics: 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, located 23°30° north and south of the equator:tropics of Capricorn (Northern t.) - tropics of the North. hemispheres andTropics of Cancer (South. t.) - South tropics hemispheres; 2) natural belts.
Tropical zones - located between subtropical and subequatorial zones.
Troposphere - lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra - treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Temperate zones - located in temperate latitudes.
Temperate latitudes - located between 40° and 65° N. and between 42° and 58° S.Hurricane - storm with wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
Estuary - the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
Atmospheric front - a zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord) - a narrow, deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill - small in height and gently sloping hill.Cyclones - area of low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami - Japanese name for huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world - regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf - continental shallows with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographical - the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and counted from the equator to the north and south.
Squall - a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm - calm, calm.
Storm - very strong wind, accompanied by strong rough seas.
Equator - an imaginary line connecting points on the globe equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere - layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere - an area of outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion, destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole, the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the surface of the earth in the South. hemispheres.
Earth's core, the central part of the planet with a radius of approx. 3470 km.
Standard plans for describing geographical objects
Geographical location of the mainland
1. The location of the continent relative to the equator, the tropics (arctic circles) and the prime meridian.
2. The extreme points of the continent, their coordinates and the length of the continent in degrees and kilometers from north to south and from west to east.
3. In what climatic zones is the continent located?
4. Oceans and seas washing the continent.
5. The location of the continent relative to other continents.
Terrain relief
1. What is the general nature of the surface? How can this be explained?
2. How are landforms located in the study area?
3. What are the highest and most dominant altitudes?
Climate
1. In what climatic zone and in what region is the territory located?
2. Average temperatures in July and January. Direction and reasons for their change.
3. Prevailing winds (by season).
4. Annual precipitation and its regime. Reasons for differences in precipitation.
River
1. In what part of the continent does it flow?
2. Where does it start? Where does it flow?
3. In what direction does it flow?
4. Explain the dependence of the nature of the flow on the relief.
5. Identify the river's food sources.
6. What is the river regime and how does it depend on climate?
Natural area
1. Geographical location of the zone.
2. Geology, tectonics, relief.
3. Climate.
4. Inland waters.
5. Soils.
6. Vegetation.
7. Animal world.
Population of the country
1. Number, type of population reproduction, demographic policy.
2. Age and sex composition of the population, availability of labor resources.
3. National (ethnic) composition of the population.
4. Social class composition of the population.
5. The main features of population distribution, the influence of migration on its distribution.
6. Levels, rates and forms of urbanization, main cities and urban agglomerations.
7. Rural settlement.
8. General conclusion. Prospects for population growth and labor supply.
EGP of the country (region)
1. Position in relation to neighboring countries.
2. Position in relation to the main land and sea transport routes.
3. Position in relation to the main fuel and raw material bases, industrial and agricultural areas.
4. Position in relation to the main distribution areas of products.
5. Change in EGP over time.
6. General conclusion about the influence of EGP on the development and location of the country’s economy.
Industry
1. The importance of the industry and the size of its products.
2. Natural prerequisites for the development of the industry.
3. Industry structure.
4. The main factors influencing the location of the industry and the main features of its geography; sectoral industrial districts.
5. Industry dependence on exports and imports.
6. General conclusion. Industry development prospects.
Agriculture of the country
1. Industry importance and product size.
2. Natural conditions for the development of the industry.
3. Features of agricultural relations.
4. Industry structure, ratio of crop production and livestock production.
5. Geography of crop and livestock production, agricultural areas.
6. The country's dependence on the export and import of agricultural products.
7. General conclusion. Prospects for population growth and labor supply.
Territory of the economic region
1. EGP of the district.
2. Natural conditions, resources of the area and their economic assessment.
3. Labor resources and possibilities for their use.
4. Historical background for the development of the national economy of the economic region.
5. Specialization of the economy (industry and agriculture).
6. Relationships between industries and territories within the region, forms of production location (TPK, nodes, centers).
7. Cities.
8. Prospects for the development of the region.
