The heyday of social and political thought in Ancient China dates back to the 6th – 3rd centuries. V. BC e. During this period, the country experienced profound economic and political changes caused by the emergence of private ownership of land. The growth of property differentiation within communities led to the rise of the wealthy strata; weakening of patriarchal clan ties; deepening social contradictions.
There is a struggle between the property and hereditary aristocracy. The country is in a protracted political crisis.
In search of a way out of the crisis, various schools and directions are emerging in socio-political thought. The most influential political teachings in Ancient China were Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism.
1. China V-III centuries. BC e. Characteristic features of the social system.
In the history of Ancient China in the 5th century. BC. was a turning point in many respects. At this time, the action of those factors began that led to the unification of the kingdoms into a single empire, where Confucianism became the dominant political ideology. Thanks to the introduction of iron tools, there was a sharp rise in the economy.
The development of new lands, the improvement of irrigation structures, the growth of agricultural and handicraft production contribute to the development of commodity-money relations, the formation of a market, and the emergence of merchants. Under these conditions, there is an intensive decomposition of communal and establishment of private ownership of land, and the creation of large private land ownership.
All this leads to the fact that in the last centuries BC. In China, there is a confrontation between two trends in the development of society. On the one hand, large-scale private ownership of land is developing, based on the exploitation of peasant tenants, hired workers, and slaves; on the other hand, a wide layer of tax-paying peasantry is being formed, directly subordinate to the state.
These were two possible development paths:
1) through the victory of large private ownership of land - the path of fragmentation and civil strife;
2) through strengthening state ownership of land and creating a single centralized state. The second path is being established, the carrier of which is the kingdom of Qin. In 221 BC. it victoriously ended the struggle for the unification of the country.
The foundations of social order and the state machine created in Qin China turned out to be so adapted to the needs of the empire that they were transferred to Han without any changes. Having become traditional, they were actually preserved in imperial China until the bourgeois revolution of 1911-1913.
11. Political system of states of Ancient India.
Organization of the Mauryan Empire (317 - 180 BC)
The state administration was strictly organized. The emperor and the council of dignitaries surrounding him - the parishad - acted as the central executive body responsible for making important decisions and implementing them. In addition to the parishad, the emperor also had a secret council from a narrow circle of trusted persons, and in necessary cases, an advisory representative body, the Rajasabha, was assembled, which apparently included both dignitaries and aristocrats from among the previously independent rulers, but possibly also elected from citizens and communities, at least some. Judging by the organization of individual departments, in particular the military, there was a specialized staff of officials to manage them, groups of which were responsible for their field of activity. Data on the administrative management of cities. Some cities were governed by central officials, others by provincial administrators. The management principle was the same: the department was divided into groups of specialized officials, each of which was responsible for its own area of work - be it control over artisans, collection of taxes and duties, supervision of prices and markets, the safety of public buildings, population registration, etc.
The provincial ones were subordinate to the central apparatus, and their nature varied depending on the degree of importance, level of development or remoteness of a particular region. There were four or five main governorships in the empire, which were administered both by governors from the center (they were mainly princes) and by the local administration that previously existed there, sometimes headed by local rulers-rajas. Likewise, i.e. in the form of a combination of a centralized system of administration with a local one, up to community bodies of self-government, the situation was in the provinces and regions, including in those areas where local autonomy was preserved, such as, for example, in the ghanas and sanghas with non-hereditary elected power of rulers. The maintenance of the cumbersome and ramified administration apparatus, as well as all the aristocrats, warriors and, in general, the entire complex state structure, fell on the shoulders of the working people, primarily communal peasants, who paid a sixth share of the harvest to the treasury as rent-tax and performed various duties. In addition to communal land ownership, as has already been discussed, there was official land ownership, including temple-priestly land (the lands of Brahmans and Buddhist temples, as well as other religious organizations and sects), royal and military.
Varnova-caste social hierarchy
The varna system, developed over centuries, had already changed in many ways at the turn of our era. Changes came in a number of directions. One of them - the rapprochement of the status of the two lower varnas and their opposition to the two upper ones - has already been discussed. But the matter did not stop there. First of all, there was a noticeable differentiation, both property and social, in the upper varnas, especially in the brahmana varna. The number of brahmanas grew, and not all of them were required for ritual and cult priestly needs. And not everyone was inclined or capable of this type of activity. It is not surprising, therefore, that a considerable number of brahmanas, while remaining exactly brahmanas according to varna, began to engage in other activities that were not characteristic of the keepers of wisdom and priests, even very unprestigious ones (healers, actors, shepherds, etc.). As for the Kshatriyas, serious changes also took place here, but of a different kind. The original hereditary kshatriyas, primarily warriors, decreased in number, in no small part due to battles and mutual extermination, court intrigues and dramatic episodes during periods of change of power and dynasties. This also applied to many ancient ruling aristocratic families. At the same time, the rulers, officials and warriors from other varnas who replaced them (remember that a number of dynasties were headed by people from Shudras, and brahmanas often became their advisers) did not have the right to easily penetrate the Kshatriya varna - the law of Indian varna stated that it depends on birth, and not on the property or social status of a person. Of course, there could be exceptions to the general rule, but on the whole the law remained the law and its consequence was a gradual decrease in the number and importance of the Kshatriya varna.
Individual representatives of both lower varnas, Vaishyas and Shudras, greatly increased and strengthened their positions. Among them were many wealthy urban residents. At least some of them penetrated into the upper strata of society, among the rulers, officials, and warriors. A certain paradox emerged: the usual norm still followed the traditional gradation of varnas with corresponding privileges and sanctions in case of offenses for members of each of them, while real life largely shifted the emphasis. In practice, the distances between the varnas turned out to be different than they were before. An adjustment was needed, some other scale of social accounting.
But changes in the traditional varna system did not stop there. Firstly, the Indianization of the southern regions of Hindustan constantly introduced new contingents into Indian culture and Indian society, including the varna system. Of course, the majority of the population of the southern regions, newly introduced to Indian civilization, almost automatically became among the Shudras. But among the converts there were also priests, rulers, officials, warriors
Secondly, within the framework of each of the ancient Indian varnas that existed since ancient times, there was its own process of internal differentiation and specialization. Those who remained within the varna, but specialized in some part of those broad functions that had previously been common to all members of a given varna, began to differ markedly from the rest. This caused a natural fragmentation of the previous four varnas into smaller divisions within them, into a kind of subvarnas, each of which united people of a similar specialty, similar occupation and qualifications and, moreover, had a tendency to subsequent even narrower specialization.
When examining the political system of any state, one should pay attention to its origins, because during the historical evolution of civilization, social ties between people became increasingly more complex. New needs and interests were formed, the natural and social environment, internal and external conditions of existence of politically organized peoples changed. And it was in the political system, first of all, that mechanisms for society’s adaptation to the environment that changed appeared, that is, it acted as a guarantor of a stable society.Today, the features of the development of China's traditional political system are unclear. It seems to us that revealing the stages of the historical formation of the political system, in particular through the institutional and ideological components, will contribute to understanding the phenomenon of the PRC.
Depending on a certain historical period, a people, the type of its culture, the ruling elite or the dominant ideology, both the methods and “slogans” of political modernization changed: the subjugation of barbarians; civilizing mission; decolonization and development of the sovereign state; "Christianization of pagans"; “Islamization of infidels”; export of the “world revolution”, democratization of politics and liberalization of the economy, remission of market relations and others
The history of public administration, especially in the era of the Ancient East, when this institution arose, and the foundation of the public service in the modern sense of the word was laid, is still insufficiently studied. This also applies to Ancient China, where in the Yellow River basin, and later the Yangtze in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. Ancient Chinese civilization with its religious and philosophical teachings (Confucianism, Legalism, Taoism) was formed.
The first sprouts of public administration and elements of public service arose in Ancient China during the birth of the first state of Shang-Yin (XVIII-XII centuries BC). On the basis of tribal leadership, hereditary royal power (vans) was gradually formed, to which the rulers of the lands (kings of the lands) were subordinate. In the Shang-Yin state, local rulers had unlimited rights in their domains. However, in the Shang-Yin era, the centralized state apparatus actually did not exist, and the state was a union of Chinese tribes. The power of the van was limited to the council of the nobility and the people's assembly. In the 12th century. BC e. the state of Shang-Yin was conquered by the Zhou tribes. During the XII-VIII centuries. BC e. On the territory of China there was a state of Western Zhou, and in the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. - Eastern. At this time, 5 highest titles of the nobility were formed - gong, hou, bo, jie, nan, which had 5 levels of land holdings for service - 4 external and 1 internal. The external domains were ruled by princes, and the internal ones by dignitaries.
During the heyday of Western Zhou (10th-9th centuries BC), a hierarchical structure of power was gradually formed, when some officials were subordinate to others. The dignitaries (shanku) who were under the van headed the administration and the army. On the lands of the van, there were so-called “land watchers,” who had local departments and monitored the development of the ruler’s economy. During this period, an office headed by a chief was created at the court of the king. A separate department was responsible for collecting taxes. The lowest level of the administrative-territorial division of China, uniting 5 and 10 villages, was led by special officials appointed by the wang.
In the 4th century. BC e. In most of the kingdoms into which Ancient China broke up, reforms were carried out, thanks to which the rich common people gained access to power. At the courts of the rulers, the leading role in governing the state belonged to professional administrators who received salaries for public service. In many kingdoms, administrative districts were formed, where trusted officials were appointed by the rulers. Gradually, a bureaucratic administrative apparatus is being formed in China.
During the V-IV centuries. BC e. In Ancient China, the main religious and philosophical movements emerged, in whose teachings public administration and public service occupied a prominent place. An important place among them belonged to Confucianism and Legalism. So, in the 5th century. BC e. Confucius (Kung Fu-tzu, 551-479 BC) formulated the philosophical and ethical system of Confucianism, which over the next few millennia became the official imperial ideology and laid the foundations for the construction of a system of public administration and civil service in Ancient China. Confucius's political ideas are aimed at achieving internal communication between the top and bottom of society and stabilizing governance. The regulation of political relations according to the norms of virtue in the teachings of Confucius is sharply contrasted with government based on laws.
The student of Confucius Mencius (372-289 BC) formulated 12 principles of successful government: subjugating people not by force, but by charity; preventing debauchery; respect for the wise; reduction of customs duties, taxes and fees; keeping the people away from their deeds; winning the hearts of his subjects; love for the people; respect for respectful people; preserving the good nature of man; encouraging people to do good; search for lost consciousness; justice. In general, Confucians defended the doctrine of humane government and the right of hereditary aristocratic families to political dominance.
Legalists (legalists) criticized Confucianism. They developed their own doctrine of the technique of exercising power, based on a rigid system of administrative orders. Legist ideology, in addition to building a totalitarian state on the basis of blind implementation of laws, mutual responsibility, denunciations, and total espionage of the population, defended the interests of civil servants in conditions of the political omnipotence of the tribal aristocracy. Having proclaimed the primacy of the law over moral and ethical standards, they entrusted the protection of the rule of law to officials whom they recommended recruiting not necessarily from professionals, but so that civil servants were blindly devoted to the laws.
Emperor Wu Di, when building a system of public administration, combined Confucianism with legalism, came up with an original system for recruiting administrative personnel, which consisted in the fact that an applicant for the position of a civil servant must obtain recommendations from local authorities and pass a competitive exam. ; Under Emperor Wudi, the huge power was divided into 13 districts, which included regions. At the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. the state consisted of 83 regions, which were led by a huge apparatus of civil servants, which was built on a complex hierarchical system.
In general, it can be seen that the state power of Ancient China was at the pole position from weak centralization, the presence of vassal principalities to a pronounced form of totalitarianism with a high level of centralization of state power (the reign of Emperor Qin Shi Huang).
In Ancient China, religious and philosophical movements (Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism) were first formed, and public administration and public service occupied a prominent place in their teachings. The most influential among them was Confucianism, which especially developed in the Middle Ages and paid little attention to the moral qualities of civil servants and the construction of the administrative hierarchy. Finally, in Ancient China, state exams were introduced for the first time, after passing which officials could advance in their careers. In addition, a system of training and retraining of civil servants was formed, for the purpose of which a special Academy was created, and the developed hieroglyphic writing created by the ancient Chinese only contributed to the further development of the system of public administration and civil service.
A striking stage in the development of China's political system appears to be the agrarian, bureaucratic-authoritarian one. China, being a kind of center of the Asian world, was the focus of those values that determined the uniqueness of industrialization processes in countries such as Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong. The rulers of the Chinese Qing dynasty failed to achieve in the 19th century. the country's rapid economic growth, but China's fundamental Confucian values of group responsibility, determination, self-denial, knowledge, and long-term planning have undoubtedly had a decisive influence on its economic and political development in our era of global political transformation. The agrarian, bureaucratic-authoritarian regime of China collapsed only at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, when China experienced foreign invasions and was defeated in a world war. Chiang Kai-shek's nationalist military regime appealed mainly to the conservative landed aristocracy, military leaders, stock speculators, bankers and local elites. However, its fall is not due to the sheer quantity of resources, but to how they were used. The overthrown government was based on personal rule, and not on the firmly organized and functioning institutions of the political system, the population was alienated from political decision-making, so, finally, the deinstitutionalization of government institutions took place. “Political paralysis” led to a weakening of the legitimacy of the Chiang Kai-shek government in China and contributed to the overthrow of the bureaucratic-authoritarian regime, where the state exercised strict control over social groups; material interests and moral (including political) values were sharply separated from one another. It is worth noting that the state policy of China was based on the family, which fostered a loyal attitude to the state; the political elite was characterized by isolation and hierarchy; dynasties, feudal lords, and Confucian scholars had great influence [8, pp. 105-106].
It is appropriate to note that the ideological direction of Confucianism is promising at the present time. Thus, according to A. Toynbee, traces of the Confucian system, dating back more than two thousand years, are also found in the life of post-revolutionary China.
Consequently, religious and philosophical teachings that were involved in public administration, the cult of a charismatic ruler, and deep reverence for the traditions and customs of their ancestors played a significant role in the formation of China's political system.
Ancient China is the most ancient culture, which has practically not changed its way of life to this day. Wise Chinese rulers were able to lead a great empire through the millennia. Let's take a quick look at everything in order.
Ancient humans probably reached East Asia between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. Currently, pieces of pottery, ceramics have been discovered in a Chinese hunter-gatherer cave, the estimated age of the cave is 18 thousand years, this is the oldest pottery ever found.
Historians believe that agriculture appeared in China around 7,000 BC. The first harvest was a grain called millet. Rice also began to be grown around this time, and perhaps rice appeared a little earlier than millet. As agriculture began to provide more food, the population began to increase, and it also allowed people to do other jobs other than constantly searching for food.
Most historians agree that Chinese civilization formed around 2000 BC around the Yellow River. China was home to one of the four early civilizations. China is different from other civilizations, the culture that developed has remained to this day, of course, changes have occurred over the millennia, but the essence of the culture has remained.
The other three civilizations disappeared or were completely absorbed and assimilated by new people. For this reason, people say that China is the oldest civilization in the world. In China, families who controlled land became leaders of family governments called dynasties.
Dynasties of China
The history of China from ancient times to the century before last was divided into different dynasties.
Xia Dynasty
The Xia Dynasty (2000 BC-1600 BC) was the first dynasty in Chinese history. Her period lasted about 500 years and included the reign of 17 emperors - the emperor is the same as the king. The Xia people were farmers and possessed bronze weapons and pottery.
Silk is one of the most important products China has ever created. Most historians agree that the Xia Dynasty produced silk clothing, with silk production possibly beginning much earlier.
Silk is produced by extracting the cocoons of silk insects. Each cocoon produces one silk thread.
Not all historians agree that the Xia was a true dynasty. Some believe that the history of Xia is just a mythical story because some points do not correspond to archaeological discoveries.
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) was originally a clan living along the Yellow River during the Xia Dynasty. A clan is a group of very close families that are often viewed as one large family. The Shang conquered the Xia land and gained control of Chinese civilization. The Shang Dynasty lasted over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors.
The Shang were the oldest Chinese civilization to leave behind written records, which were inscribed on tortoise shells, cattle bones, or other bones.
Bones were often used to determine what nature or nature wanted. If the emperor needed to know the future, such as “what kind of son the king will have” or “whether to start a war,” assistants carved questions on the bones, then heated them until they cracked. The lines of cracks told the wishes of the gods.
During the Shang Dynasty, people worshiped many gods, probably like the Greeks in ancient times. Also, ancestor worship was very important because they believed that their family members became godlike after death.
It is important to understand that other smaller Chinese families also existed in different parts of China at the same time as the Shang, but the Shang seem to have been the most advanced, as they left behind a lot of writing. The Shang were eventually defeated by the Zhou clan.
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history. Due to the split in the dynasty, over time, Zhou was divided into parts called Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou.
The Zhou fought the invading armies from the north (the Mongols), they built large mounds of mud and stone as barriers that slowed down the enemy - this was the prototype of the Great Wall. The crossbow was another invention of this time - it was extremely effective.
During the Zhou, China's Iron Age began. Iron-tipped weapons were much stronger, and the iron plow helped increase food production.
All agricultural land belonged to the nobles (rich). The nobles allowed peasants to work the land, similar to the feudal system that developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.
The emergence of Chinese philosophy
During the Zhou Dynasty, two major Chinese philosophies developed: Taoism and Confucianism. The great Chinese philosopher Confucius developed a way of life called Confucianism. Confucianism says that all people can be taught and improved if one finds the right approach.
Key messages: People should focus on helping others; family is the most important value; the elders of society are the most revered. Confucianism is still important today, but it did not become widespread in China until the Han Dynasty.
The founder of Taoism was Laozi. Taoism is everything that follows “Tao,” which means “the way.” Tao is the driving force of all things in the Universe. The Yin Yang symbol is commonly associated with Taoism. Taoists believe that you should live in harmony with nature, be humble, live simply without unnecessary things and have compassion for everything.
These philosophies are different from religions because they do not have gods, although the idea of ancestors and nature are often seen as gods. The emperor's power was also linked to religious beliefs. Zhou spoke of the Mandate of Heaven as the law that allowed Chinese emperors to rule—he said that the ruler was blessed by Heaven to rule over the people. If he has lost the blessing of heaven, he should be removed.
The things that proved that the ruling family had lost the Mandate of Heaven were natural disasters and rebellions.
By 475 B.C. The provinces of the Zhou kingdom were more powerful than the central Zhou government. The provinces rebelled and fought each other for 200 years. This period is called the Warring States period. Eventually, one family (the Qin) united all the others into one empire. It was during this period that the concept of Imperial China appeared.
Qin Dynasty
From 221 BC e. Before 206 BC e. The Qin dynasty gained control of civilized China. Qin's rule did not last long, but had an important impact on the future of China. The Qin expanded their territory and created the first empire of China. The brutal leader Qin Shi Huang declared himself the first true emperor of China. This dynasty created a standard currency (money), a standard for wheel axle sizes (to make roads all the same size), and uniform laws that applied throughout the empire.
Qin also standardized the various writing systems into one system used in China today. Qin Shi Huang enforced the philosophy of "Legalism", which focuses on people following laws and receiving instructions from the government.
Mongol invasions from the north were a constant problem in China. The Qin government ordered that the walls built earlier be combined. This is considered the beginning of the creation of the Great Wall of China. Each dynasty built a new wall or improved the wall of the previous dynasty. Most of the walls from the Qin period have now been destroyed or have been replaced. The wall that exists today was built by a later dynasty called the Ming.
An amazing tomb was made for the emperor, larger than a football field. It is still sealed, but legend has it that there are rivers of mercury inside it. Outside the tomb is a life-size clay army discovered in 1974.
The Terracotta Army has over 8,000 unique soldiers, over 600 horses, 130 chariots, as well as acrobats and musicians - all made from clay.
Although the Qin dynasty did not rule for long, its standardization of Chinese life left a profound influence on later dynasties in China. It is from this dynasty that we get the name "China". The first emperor of this dynasty died in 210 BC. e. He was replaced by a weak and small son. As a result, a rebellion began and a member of the Qin army took control of the Empire, which began a new dynasty.
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty began in 206 BC and lasted 400 years until 220 AD. and is considered one of the greatest periods in Chinese history. Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty is divided into Western Han and Eastern Han. Han culture defines Chinese culture today. In fact, most Chinese citizens today claim "Han" as their ethnic origin. The government made Confucianism the official system of the empire.
During this time, the empire grew greatly, conquering land in modern-day Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and even Central Asia. The empire grew so large that the emperor needed a larger government to rule it. Many things were invented during this time, including paper, steel, compass, and porcelain.
Porcelain is a very hard type of ceramic. Porcelain is made from special clay that is heated until it melts and becomes almost glass. Porcelain dishes, cups and bowls are often called "Chinese" because several hundred years ago all porcelain was produced in China.
The Han Dynasty was also known for its military might. The empire expanded westward to the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, allowing the government to police trade flows in Central Asia.
The caravan routes are often called the "Silk Road" because the route was used to export Chinese silk. The Han Dynasty also expanded and strengthened the Great Wall of China to protect the Silk Road. Another important product of the Silk Road was the religion of Buddhism, which reached China during this period.
Chinese dynasties would continue to rule China until the Middle Ages. China has retained its uniqueness because from time immemorial they have honored their culture.
Interesting facts about Ancient China
In the 2nd millennium BC. e., far to the east of the ancient civilizations of Western Asia and India, a slave-owning society took shape and the first slave-owning state arose in Northern China. This was of great importance for the history of the peoples inhabiting both China and other countries of the Far East. The most ancient traditions of the Chinese people, the beginnings of their hieroglyphic writing, the growth and spread of the influence of their high culture date back to this time. From this time the centuries-old history of the great Chinese people began.
The decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the Shang (Yin) state
The Russian name “China” was borrowed from the Central Asian peoples, who gave the country this name after the Chinese (people of Mongolian origin), who owned it in the 10th-12th centuries. n. e. northern part of China. Western European and Middle Eastern names for China are derived from the word "Chin", a Tajik-Persian designation for the country's name. This name comes from the name of the ancient Chinese kingdom of Qin, which extended its power to most of China in the 3rd century. BC e.
The Chinese themselves called their country differently, most often by the name of the reigning dynasties, for example: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, etc. Since ancient times, the name “Zhong Guo” (“Middle State”) was also common, which has been preserved until now. Another Chinese name for the country is “Hua” (“Blooming”) or “Zhong Hua” (“Middle Blossoming”); it is now part of the name of the People's Republic of China.
Nature and population
Based on geographic and economic characteristics, modern China is usually divided into two parts: western and eastern. The territory of Western China is a vast plateau with such powerful mountain systems as the Himalayas, Kunlun and Tien Shan. The world's highest mountain ranges, the Himalayas, in some places more than 8 km above sea level, form a barrier between China and India.
Eastern China does not have such powerful mountain systems as Western China; a significant part of the territory here consists of lowlands, coastal plains, adjacent to them are mountains of medium height and plateaus.
Eastern China has more favorable natural conditions than Western China, the climate is much milder, the vegetation is more diverse, etc. All these conditions contributed to the fact that it was in this part of China that the most ancient agricultural culture arose, the first centers of Chinese civilization appeared, earlier than in other parts of the country, a state arose.
China has a significant river network, but all major rivers are in the eastern part of the country. The main rivers of China flow from west to east. River valleys are the most fertile and most populated areas of the country. The ancient population of China was concentrated in river valleys. The basin of the main river of Northern China - the Yellow River, whose length is more than 4 thousand km, was the center of the ancient Chinese civilization. The Yellow River is a stormy river. It repeatedly changed its course, flooded vast expanses of land, bringing great disasters to the population. The largest river in China is the Yangtze Jiang, with a length of over 5 thousand km, its basin is Central China. The largest river in Southern China is the high-water Xijiang (about 2 thousand km).
The depths of China are replete with minerals. Rivers, lakes and seas are rich in fish. In ancient times, large areas in Cathay were covered with forests.
The climate of the eastern part of China is very favorable for agriculture, since the hottest time of the year - summer - accounts for the greatest amount of precipitation, while autumn is warm and dry. The climate of western China is characterized by significant dryness: there are long, cold winters and short, hot summers.
The population of China in ancient times was not homogeneous. The Chinese tribes themselves, which, according to later literary sources, bore the names Xia, Shang, Zhou, etc., occupied a significant part of Eastern, Northern and Northwestern China already in very early times. The south and southwest of the country were inhabited mainly by various tribes of the Sino-Tibetan group of languages. The west, north and northeast of China were inhabited mainly by tribes of the Turkic, Mongolian and Manchu-Tungusic language groups.
The main areas of Chinese settlement in ancient times were the areas of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, as well as the plain adjacent to the Bohai (Zhili) Gulf. Fertile alluvial (alluvial) soil, formed mainly from river silt, predominated here. The fertile soil and temperate climate of the Great Chinese Plain contributed to the development of agriculture here among the ancient Chinese tribes.
In a less advantageous position were the ancient tribes who inhabited the region of loess soils, which occupy a huge area in Northern and Northwestern China. Loess, which is deposits of mineral dust particles blown from mountainous heights by the winter monsoons, contains nutrients (organic residues and easily soluble alkalis) that make it possible to do without fertilizers. But in the area of the loess plateau there is relatively little precipitation, so artificial irrigation is required for the development of agriculture. Due to the conditions noted above, among the tribes that inhabited the loess plateau in ancient times, agriculture was less developed than in the lower reaches of the Yellow River.
Decomposition of the primitive communal system
According to Chinese literary sources, we can conclude that it was preserved in China in the 3rd millennium BC. e. remnants of the maternal family. This is evident from the fact that ancient sources, reporting on the origins of the first ancestors of the Shang, Zhou and Qin tribes, do not talk about their fathers, but only give the names of their mothers; kinship was then calculated along the maternal line. It is known that under the maternal clan (matriarchy), sons could not inherit from their father, since they belonged to another clan, namely the mother’s clan. According to Sima Qian, the author of “Historical Notes” 1 (“Historical Notes” (“Shi Ji”), consisting of 130 chapters, represents the first comprehensive history of the country in China, covering the period from legendary antiquity to the 1st century BC BC Sima Qian (2nd-1st centuries BC), the author of this work, used sources that were available in his time and subsequently lost. “Historical Notes” cover a wide range of issues: internal political events, external relations of China in ancient times times, the economic system of the country (mainly the 2nd-1st centuries BC), cultural development, etc.), the legendary rulers Yao and Shun, before their deaths, chose successors not from among their sons.
“Historical Notes” bring to us memories of the period when there was a council of tribal elders. The tribal leader often consulted with him on important issues. Tribal or clan leaders could be relieved of their duties by decision of the council of elders. From the legends cited in literary sources, we can conclude that at the end of the 3rd millennium the elective principle was replaced by hereditary law: tribal leaders were no longer elected, the hereditary power of the leader appeared, passed from father to son. The leader's family, separated from the rest of the tribe, later became the bearers of royal power. But even in these conditions, the council of elders still exists, although its rights are limited, and its decisions become optional for the hereditary leaders of the tribe.
Data from archaeological excavations allow us to conclude that in the 2nd millennium, when bronze appeared in China, the primitive communal system decomposed and a gradual transition to a class, slave-owning society took place.
The sources do not make it possible to trace the entire process of the decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society in China; they report only fragmentary data on this. From them we can conclude that slavery appears in the depths of tribal society. Prisoners captured during wars between individual tribes and clans were used as labor and turned into slaves. This process took place on the basis of the further development of productive forces, the emergence of private ownership of the means of production and products of labor, on the basis of growing property inequality and took place in continuous struggle both within the tribes that inhabited China in ancient times and between tribes. Based on Chinese literary sources, it can be assumed that the struggle within the tribes was accompanied by the struggle of clan elders against tribal leaders.
By the end of the 3rd millennium, as can be assumed based on ancient legends, the Xia and Shan tribes played a decisive role in the territory of ancient China. Ultimately, the winner was the Shan tribe, whose name is associated with the creation of the first state in Chinese history. Science does not have reliable archaeological data about the Xia tribe. We can judge about it only from some data from literary sources.
Creation of the Shang (Yin) State
Judging by the legends preserved in ancient literary sources, the Shang tribe originally inhabited the Yishui River basin (northwestern part of the present Hebei province). Then, as some modern Chinese researchers suggest, this tribe settled from the Yishui River basin in different directions: to the west - to the territory of the modern Shanxi province, to the south - to Henan, to the southeast - to Shandong, to the northeast - along the coast Bohai Bay to the Liaodong Peninsula.
By the 18th century BC e., when, according to legend, Cheng Tan stood at the head of the Shai tribe, the final conquest of the Xia tribe dates back to him.
Cheng Tang, according to Chinese tradition, founded the Shang dynasty. In later times, after the fall of this dynasty, in inscriptions on bronze vessels, the Shang dynasty and the state as a whole, as well as its crown population, began to be designated for the first time with the hieroglyph “yin.” This name has become widespread both in ancient sources and in modern Chinese and foreign literature. Therefore, we also use two names to designate the same state or period: Shang and Yin.
The name Shan, used until the destruction of this kingdom in the 12th century. BC e., comes from the name of the area where, apparently, the ancestral domains of the leaders of the Shan tribe were located. This name was also used to designate a tribe, then it was adopted as the name of the state and country.
The main source of information about the Shang (Yin) kingdom is data gleaned from excavations of the remains of the last capital of this kingdom, the city of Shang, found near the city of Anyang, near the village of Xiaotun (in modern Henan province). Of particular importance are the inscribed bones found here. These inscriptions are mainly fortune-telling records - questions of the Yin kings to the oracles and the answers of the latter. The inscriptions were made on the bones of various animals (most often bulls and deer) and the scutes (shells) of turtles and can be dated back to the 14th-12th centuries. BC e.
Based on the data from these inscriptions, some researchers conclude that the entire territory of the Shang (Yin) state was divided into five large regions called: Shang, Northern Lands, Southern Lands, Eastern Lands and Western Lands. The Shan region was considered central, the main one, therefore in the inscriptions on the bones it was called Central Shan.
The Shang (Yin) kingdom occupied the territory of modern Henan province, as well as parts of adjacent provinces. Around the Shang kingdom there were a number of semi-independent tribes that were at times subordinate to it, including tribes that were Chinese in language. In the neighborhood of the Western lands lived the Zhou, Qiang, Guifang, and Kufan tribes; the neighbors of the Northern Lands were the Luifang and Tufan tribes; the neighbors of the Southern lands were the Tsaofan and others, and finally, next to the Eastern lands there was the Renfang tribe.
Tools. Agriculture.
Materials from archaeological excavations provide a certain idea of the development of productive forces during the Shang (Yin) period. First of all, bronze products became widespread, but at the same time stone and bone tools still retained great importance.
During excavations in Xiaotong, a Yin city, the capital of the Shang (Yin) kingdom, many items made of copper and bronze were discovered: sacrificial vessels, household utensils and weapons - swords, halberds, axes, arrowheads, spear points. In addition, bronze tools were found: axes, knives, awls, chisels, pitchforks and needles. If we take into account that in the pre-Yin period, vessels were made mainly from clay, and tools and weapons were made from stone and bone, then we should conclude that during the Shang (Yin) period great progress was made in the development of productive forces. This is also evidenced by a wide variety of forms, more skillful manufacture of products, in particular vessels, and rich painting on them.
Although in the life of the population of ancient China during this period primitive forms of economy - fishing and partly hunting - still retained importance, they no longer played a decisive role. They were replaced by cattle breeding and agriculture, and the latter began to play the main role.
To denote various types of concepts related to agriculture, a number of signs are used in the inscriptions on bones, meaning: “field”, “well”, “arable land”, “border”, “wheat”, “millet”, etc. The sign “field” (tian) was depicted in the form of regular four squares connected together, or in the form of a rectangle divided into several parts, or in the form of an uneven pentagon.
The main grain crops in Northern China were millet, which required relatively little moisture, wheat, barley and sorghum (kaoliang). It is possible that rice culture also existed at this time in the Yellow River basin. Inscriptions on the bones indicate the presence of horticultural crops during the Shang (Yin) period, as well as the breeding of silkworms (silkworms) and the cultivation of mulberry trees. According to legend, silkworms have been bred in China since ancient times. Silk cocoons were discovered during excavations at one of the Neolithic sites in the village of Xincun (Shanxi Province). Inscriptions on bones often contain signs depicting a silkworm. Silkworm caterpillars were held in high esteem by the Yin. They even made sacrifices to their spirits. In fortune-telling inscriptions there are also often signs depicting silk threads (a silkworm product), a dress, etc.
The further development of agriculture is evidenced by higher technology for cultivating land than before. A number of modern Chinese scientists suggest that irrigation was already used then, apparently primitively and on a small scale. This conclusion is suggested both by ancient legends, which report the beginnings of artificial irrigation back in the pre-Yin period, and by inscriptions on bones. In the latter there are a number of hieroglyphs expressing the idea of irrigation. One of them depicted a field and streams of water, which were, as it were, irrigation canals.
Metal tools were already used in agriculture. This is evidenced by copper shovels found during excavations in the vicinity of Luoyang and near Anyang. The interpretation of a number of signs in the inscriptions on the bones suggests that the Yin people used livestock to cultivate the land. Thus, one of the signs, “u,” depicted an ox standing at the side of an agricultural implement. Another sign, “li” (plow, to plow), also contains an ox, and sometimes, but rarely, a horse. In fortune-telling inscriptions there are also combinations of two hieroglyphs denoting a plow and an ox.
According to Chinese legends, in ancient times there was a so-called “coupled plowing”, when two people plowed together. This gave more effect when loosening the soil. The concept of “coupled plowing” also had a broader meaning: it meant combining the efforts of two or more people when cultivating the land, i.e., collective cultivation of the field.
Hunting and fishing no longer played a major role in the economy of the Yin people, but continued to retain significant importance. This is evidenced by many inscriptions on the bones.
Cattle breeding occupied a significant place in Yin society. This is evidenced by the number of animals sacrificed to the spirits. Sometimes it also includes white kaolin. At this time, the potter's wheel already existed, although clay vessels were also produced by hand. Clay products were fired, sometimes covered with glaze, and often decorated with delicate ornaments.
We have already talked about the development of sericulture in Yin times. The production of silk fabrics and the development of weaving is evidenced by the existence of such hieroglyphs that denoted the concepts of “silk thread”, “clothing”, “shawl”, etc.
The existence of various branches of crafts and special workshops, as well as the high skill of Yin artisans, indicate that handicraft production has already come a long way in its development.
Development of exchange.
With the advent of the division of labor between agriculture and crafts and the growth of surplus agricultural products and handicrafts, exchange began to develop. Archaeological finds allow us to conclude that there are economic ties between the Yin and other tribes, including very distant ones. 
From the tribes on the Bohai coast, the Yin received fish and sea shells; apparently from modern Xinjiang - jasper. Copper and tin were brought from the areas located in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and in Southern China, from which bronze was smelted. Nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes received agricultural products and handicrafts, in particular weapons, from the Yin. Finds of vessels on the Abakan River, and bronze weapons on the Yenisei River, similar to the products of Shan artisans, indicate connections between the Yin and the tribes of Siberia.
Archaeological excavations indicate that at least after the 14th century. BC e. among the Yin, precious cowrie shells were the measure of value.
In the ruins of the Yin capital, many such shells with a smooth, polished outer side were found. To make the shells more convenient to wear, holes were drilled in them and strung on a thread. The cost of the bundles appears to have been significant. In the inscriptions there is a mention of the king’s gift of several bundles, up to ten at most. Later, as exchange expanded, the number of sea shells in circulation became insufficient and it was difficult to obtain them. Then they began to resort to replacing natural shells with artificial ones made from jasper or bones. Shells, having become a measure of value, later became a symbol of preciousness and wealth. Concepts meaning preciousness, wealth, accumulation and many others, similar in meaning, began to be denoted by hieroglyphs in which the main component was the shell.
The class character of Yin society.
The remains of dwellings and burials indicate a significant stratification of property. While the poor huddled in dugouts, the rich lived in large wooden houses with stone foundations. The burials also reflect class differentiation. The tombs of kings and nobles differ sharply from the burials of ordinary people in the abundance and richness of things found in them. A large number of expensive items made of bronze and jade, as well as decorated weapons, were found in the burials of the nobility. Along with the deceased noble people, their servants, probably slaves, were buried. 
Thus, corpses with severed heads were found in the graves of Yin couples. There is reason to believe that sometimes slaves were buried alive.
Until relatively recently, scientists unanimously considered Yin society to be pre-class, noting that by the end of its existence (12th century BC), primitive communal relations had decomposed and a transition to a slave-owning system had taken place. However, further research into deciphering Yin inscriptions on bones and archaeological excavations carried out by Chinese scientists in recent years have led to a different conclusion, namely: Yin society was a class, slave-owning society. But it is very difficult to establish the exact time of the transition from clan society to class society. Although the data from archaeological excavations, reflecting class relations, date back to the period after the transfer of the capital by King Pan Geng to Shang, i.e. to the 14th century. BC e., it can be assumed that class society arose even before this time. For a long time, this system, of course, retained significant remnants of primitive communal relations.
The most reliable literary monument, the data of which about the Yin people shed light on the period preceding the creation of the Shang dynasty, is the chapter “Basic Records of Yin” from Sima Qian’s “Historical Notes”. It is characteristic that the list of Yin Wangs (rulers, kings) given by Sima Qian is mainly confirmed by inscriptions on the bones. This gives reason to consider Sima Qian’s materials quite reliable. According to Sima Qian, Cheng Tang, addressing the zhuhou (military leaders) and the population, said: “Those of you who do not respect my orders, I will severely punish and destroy. There will be no mercy for anyone." This could be said by a ruler who was already in complete control of the lives of his subordinates.
Chinese ancient civilization is about 5000 years. Found ancient sources prove that China is no less 3500 years. For several centuries after the death of the first emperor, China was torn apart by war. By 626 BC. The country has once again entered a golden age. Power passed to the first emperor of the dynasty Tan
- Taizong
. To the capital of the empire, which moved to Chang'an, merchants arrived along the Great Silk Road. Markets were bustling all over the city. Different religions coexisted peacefully. For the first time, ordinary people, and not just nobles, could hold government positions. Everyone who expected to get a place in the civil service had to pass an exam. The population worked in the production of salt, paper, and iron. Arts and crafts flourished. Peasants sold their goods on the streets, and many were drafted into the army.
First Emperor
Before 221 BC China was divided into several kingdoms, each with its own ruler, which fought among themselves for more than 250 years. The state won Qin(from this word comes the name of China in European languages). Its ruler took the title Qin Shi Huang, which means "first emperor of Qin". He ascended the throne at just 13 years old. A brilliant commander and politician, he swept away anyone who stood in his way. Because of his tough temperament he was nicknamed " Qin tiger". Qin He ordered books that contradicted his ideas to be burned, and dissenting scientists to be thrown into a pit. But the emperor was afraid to die. In his magnificent palace there were more 1000 bedrooms, and every night he changed his sleeping place, fearing to be killed in his sleep.
Qin Shi Huang sought to maintain the unity of the empire. He removed the previous rulers from power, settling them in the capital Chang'an, re-divided the country into regions and appointed his own officials. On his instructions, a network of roads and canals was built. To secure the northern border, the emperor ordered the construction of a gigantic structure - the Great Wall of China, part of which has survived to this day. The emperor undertook to restore the strength and wealth of the country after long wars. Writing was unified. All products, even bricks, had to have the name of the manufacturer: the craftsmen could be punished for poor work. The length of the cart axles had to be the same, corresponding to the rut cut out on the roads. Chinese kingdoms minted their own coins. At Qin Shi Huang all the coins were round, with a hole for a cord.
Despite all efforts, the empire collapsed soon after his death Qin Shi Huang, V 210 BC
the great Wall of China
For a long time, China was threatened by the nomadic tribes of the Xiongnu (Xiongnu, or Huns) who lived to the north of it. Local rulers tried to protect themselves by building large walls. IN 214 BC the emperor ordered to connect them into one gigantic border wall more than 3460 km. The construction was supervised by a military commander Meng Tian, who sent officials to monitor the work. The wall was built by thousands of peasants. Overseers with a whip constantly monitored the pace and speed of work. Soldiers guarded the construction site from enemy attacks. Cold, dampness and dangerous working conditions killed people. The dead were buried right where they fell.
The workers used simple tools - picks, shovels, baskets and wheelbarrows. To lift huge cobblestones, slabs and stones, scaffolding made from tied bamboo poles was used. The mound of stones and earth was covered with stone slabs.
The height of the wall was 9 meters, and the width is such that a chariot could drive along it. Watchtowers were built in the upper parts of the fortification. Slit-like openings were also constructed in the wall for shooting from bows and crossbows.
Ultimately it was believed that Great Wall has a silhouette Chinese dragon
head to the west and tail to the east.
Capital of China - Chang'an
During the Tang dynasty Chang'an became the largest city in the world. Chang'an means " forever safe".The city was home to more than a million permanent residents and many foreign merchants, travelers and scientists. The clothes were made of colored silk. Only the emperor could wear yellow clothes. The emperor's palace, surrounded by a high wall, was located in the northern part of the city. Musicians and dancers. Houses made of wood were varnished. Roof tiles were constructed on the roofs of the houses.
Life of the rich nobility
The rich lived large. Wealthy families had beautiful houses of 2-3 floors. Lush silk robes, luxurious feasts at which servants served pork or venison dishes and drinks made from millet and rice. Long hours were devoted to enjoying music and poetry, playing chess and cards. Homes were decorated with luxury items made of gold and silver, jade and porcelain. Lacquerware and painting on silk were popular. Noble Chinese moved around the city in a stretcher - a palanquin.
Great inventions
The Chinese were great inventors. In 2nd century BC they invented paper, and later printing using wooden stamps. They also constructed an instrument to determine the strength of earthquakes. During the Tang Dynasty, mechanical water clocks, a magnetic compass, paper playing cards and fine porcelain appeared. Gunpowder was invented, which was used to set off fireworks. The Chinese invented printing. The pages were connected into a long strip, the book was rolled up like a scroll.
The Great Silk Road
The Tang emperors encouraged trade. Caravans of camels and horses carried silk, porcelain, salt, tea and paper along the Great Silk Road, which was more than 7000 km. It connected China with the Mediterranean and went through Central Asia, Persia, and Syria. The Chinese bought furs, horses, gold, and spices from their neighbors. Fur products were brought from the north.
The journey along the Great Silk Road was long. Merchants set off in caravans. We set up camp for the night. The Great Silk Road was named so because of the enormous importance of the silk trade.
Craft and art of China
The Chinese have learned to extract salt from underground salty waters. The brine was raised to the surface and sent through bamboo pipes into vats where the water evaporated. In the 2nd century BC. paper began to be made in China. Pulp was made from mulberry wood and dried on wooden frames. Buddhist monks first brought tea bushes from the Himalayas, which they soon began to grow. Farmers plowed the fields before planting millet and grew rice. Irrigation made it possible to develop new lands for crops .About 6th century BC. The Chinese learned to make silk from silkworm cocoons. Craftsmen learned to build blast furnaces and smelt steel. Their weapons and tools became stronger. Road workers compacted the earth to build a road.
Was very popular in China calligraphy- the art of beautiful writing. Artists decorated ceramic dishes with colored glazes. The outlines of the superb beautiful rock scenery in South China have become a favorite subject of painters and artists.
Philosophy and the path of knowledge
The Chinese have never believed in one God. They deified nature, worshiping the spirits of mountains, rivers and trees. They also developed two religious and philosophical schools, indicating the norms of human relations. These are the teachings of Laozi (Taoism) and Confucius (Confucianism). The basis of Taoism is the belief in harmony with nature. Confucians placed their faith in virtue, family, and social stability. However, when in 1st century BC. was borrowed from India Buddhism, it has spread very widely. Monk Xuan Zang returned to India with Buddhist treatises for his learned brethren in 629. Pilgrims walked to the sacred “Caves of a Thousand Buddhas”. More than in 1000 caves there were wall paintings, Buddhist sculptures and an extensive library.
Taoist sages contemplated the symbol Yin Yang. The Chinese believed that yin and yang have great power with the universe, and their balance ensures the harmony of the world.
The Chinese believed that in the human body there is a network of pathways through which energy flows. Needles inserted into special points affect the flow of energy and heal diseases. This treatment method is called
Since ancient times, the Chinese have buried their dead along with items for the afterlife. In the graves of rulers they find not only food, drinks and personal property, but also the bodies of servants who were supposed to remain in eternal service to their master. The Chinese revered their dead ancestors, believing in their help and protection.
Princess Dou Wan buried in a robe made of pieces of jade joined with gold. Jade was supposed to protect her body from decay.
Buried in the emperor's tomb was a life-size replica of his army, made from terracotta: 7,500 infantry, archers, officers, chariots and horses. The crossbows were cocked to fire during the robbery attempt. There were models of palaces, and channels filled with mercury driven by wheels, depicting a river Yangtze. Thousands of people worked to create this. IN 1974 The tomb was accidentally discovered by workers digging a well.
Imperial tomb with " terracotta army"built on Mount Li. The bodies of the figures were made separately, then the head and arms were attached. Inside the tomb, in the underground corridors, row after row stood warriors and horses. The face of each warrior was different from the other.
