Kostsov Matvey
Participant of city scientific readings for children of primary school age in the “World of Space” section. The student talks about the design of the Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz spacecraft.
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Urban scientific readings for primary school children
Section “World of Space”
Topic: “Design of spaceships”
Class 3 B MBOU-gymnasium No. 2
Scientific supervisor Mosolova G.V., primary school teacher
Tula 2013
Introduction
I am very interested in the design of spaceships. Firstly, because it is a large and complex device, on the creation of which many scientists and engineers are working. Secondly, the ship becomes a home for the astronaut for several hours or even days, where normal human conditions are necessary - the astronaut must breathe, drink, eat, sleep. During the flight, the astronaut needs to turn the ship around and change the orbit at his own discretion, that is, the ship must be easily controlled when moving in space. Thirdly, in the future I would like to design spaceships myself.
The spacecraft is designed for flights into outer space by one or more people and a safe return to Earth after completing the mission.
The technical requirements for the spacecraft are more stringent than for any other spacecraft. Flight conditions (overload, temperature, pressure, etc.) must be maintained very precisely for them so that human life is not endangered.
An important feature of a manned spacecraft is the presence of an emergency rescue system.
Only Russia, the USA and China have created manned spacecraft, since this task is highly complex and costly. And only Russia and the USA have reusable manned spacecraft systems.
In this work, I tried to talk about the structure of the Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz spacecraft.
"East"
The Vostok series of Soviet spacecraft is designed for manned flights in low-Earth orbit. They were created under the leadership of general designer Sergei Pavlovich Korolev from 1958 to 1963.
The first manned flight of the Vostok spacecraft with Yu.A. Gagarin took place on board on April 12, 1961; it was the world's first spacecraft that made it possible to carry out a human flight into space.
The main scientific tasks for the Vostok spacecraft were: studying the effects of orbital flight conditions on the condition and performance of an astronaut, testing the design and systems, testing the basic principles of spacecraft construction.
The total mass of the spacecraft is 4.73 tons, length is 4.4 m, maximum diameter is 2.43 m.
The ship consisted of a spherical descent module (weighing 2.46 tons and with a diameter of 2.3 m), which also served as an orbital compartment and a conical instrument compartment. The compartments were mechanically connected to each other using metal bands and pyrotechnic locks. The ship was equipped with systems: automatic and manual control, automatic orientation to the Sun, manual orientation to the Earth, life support, command and logic control, power supply, thermal control and landing. To support tasks related to human work in outer space, the ship was equipped with autonomous and radiotelemetric equipment for monitoring and recording parameters characterizing the state of the astronaut, structure and systems, ultrashort-wave and short-wave equipment for two-way radiotelephone communication between the astronaut and ground stations, a command radio line, a software-time device, a television system with two transmitting cameras for monitoring the astronaut from Earth, a radio system for monitoring orbital parameters and direction finding of the ship, a TDU-1 braking propulsion system and other systems. The weight of the spacecraft together with the last stage of the launch vehicle was 6.17 tons, and their combined length was 7.35 m.
The descent vehicle had two windows, one of which was located on the entrance hatch, just above the astronaut’s head, and the other, equipped with a special orientation system, in the floor at his feet. The astronaut, dressed in a spacesuit, was placed in a special ejection seat. At the last stage of landing, after braking the descent vehicle in the atmosphere, at an altitude of 7 km, the astronaut ejected from the cabin and landed by parachute. In addition, provision was made for the astronaut to land inside the descent vehicle. The descent vehicle had its own parachute, but was not equipped with the means to perform a soft landing, which threatened the person remaining in it with serious injury during a joint landing.
If the automatic systems failed, the astronaut could switch to manual control. The Vostok spacecraft were not adapted for human flights to the Moon, and also did not allow the possibility of flight by people who had not undergone special training.
"Sunrise"
Multi-seat Voskhod spacecraft flew in low-Earth orbit. These ships actually repeated the ships of the Vostok series and consisted of a spherical descent module with a diameter of 2.3 meters, which housed the astronauts, and a conical instrument compartment (weighing 2.27 tons, length 2.25 m and width 2.43 m. ), which contained fuel tanks and a propulsion system. In the Voskhod-1 spacecraft, the cosmonauts were seated without spacesuits to save space. The first space crew included descent vehicle designer Konstantin Feoktistov.
"Union"
Soyuz is a series of multi-seat spacecraft for flights in low-Earth orbit.
The Soyuz rocket and space complex began to be designed in 1962 as a ship of the Soviet program to fly around the Moon.
The ships of this series consist of three modules: an instrumentation compartment, a descent module, and a service compartment.
The power supply system consists of solar panels and batteries.
The descent module contains seats for astronauts, life support and control systems, and a parachute system. The length of the compartment is 2.24 m, the diameter is 2.2 m. The household compartment has a length of 3.4 m, a diameter of 2.25 m.
Conclusion
Spaceships use all the best, most modern developments of mankind, the latest advanced technologies and on-board equipment.
The Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz spacecraft have been replaced by more advanced orbital stations of a new generation and new capabilities.
They opened another page in the history of not only Russian, but also world cosmonautics, and united cosmonauts from many countries.
Later, Shuttles, Burans and other spacecraft appeared, but these three, described in my work, served as the basis for the development of modern aircraft.
I really hope that when I grow up, I can also create or help create a new ultra-modern spaceship that will fly to very distant galaxies.
Bibliography
- Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Astronomer. Moscow. 2006 Compiled by Erpylev N.P.;
- Encyclopedia for children. Cosmonautics. Moscow. 2010
- Great feats. Series "Encyclopedia of Discovery and Adventure". Moscow. 2008
The book covers an area of astronautics that is little known to a wide range of readers, related to the selection, training, psychological, flight and engineering training of astronauts. Almost all areas of the cosmonaut training system that has developed over the past 23 years are reflected. The book will give a clear idea of how high-class professionals are educated and formed. The stages of development of an astronaut's personality are consistently revealed, starting with the selection of cosmonaut candidates and their general space training using various technical means.
For a wide range of readers.
The experience of mankind, on the one hand, teaches that it is almost impossible to embrace the immensity. But on the other hand, humanity strives for this by applying the division of labor. The principle of division of labor also finds its application in the crew of a spacecraft consisting of several people.
The crew of the Soyuz T-10 during one of the training sessions on the Soyuz simulator
In order to concretely imagine much of what is written in this book, it seems advisable to cite as an illustration not an abstract, but a real crew of a spacecraft that completed a specific flight program, for example, the crew of the third main expedition of the Salyut-7 station ", which completed a 237-day space flight, a current record for duration.
The flight of this crew, on the one hand, has already become part of the history of astronautics, but, on the other hand, it is, in our opinion, a convincing example of a friendly, efficient and united crew. Let us briefly formulate the functional responsibilities of the crew members:
The ship's commander is responsible for the safety of the crew and the implementation of the entire flight program, performs all dynamic operations, some experiments;
Flight engineer - analyzes and monitors the performance of all spacecraft systems and research equipment, performs experiments;
Research cosmonaut - responsible for the health of crew members and carries out the research part of the flight program.
Without dwelling on the flight program, we will give an idea of the socio-psychological portraits of the crew members who completed this flight.
Crew commander of the Soyuz T-10 and Soyuz T-15 spacecraft
Kizim Leonid Denisovich, Born in 1941, Ukrainian, has qualifications: 1st class cosmonaut pilot, 1st class military pilot, 3rd class test pilot.
In 1963 he graduated from the Chernigov VVAUL, in 1975 - the correspondence faculty of the VVAUL named after. Yu. A. Gagarin. To date, he has mastered 12 types of aircraft, has 1,448 hours of flight time, and has completed 80 parachute jumps of varying difficulty. Prepared for and performs flights in simple and adverse weather conditions, day and night. In 1966 he was accepted into the ranks of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
At the cosmonaut training center since 1965. In 1967, he completed the general space training course with a “good” grade. Since 1974, he was in preparation for flights on the Soyuz-7 space transport ship and the Salyut orbital station. From 10.79 to 11.80, he successfully completed the training phase for the Salyut-6 station, first as part of the crew: L. D. Kizim and O. G. Makarov, and then from 11.29.80 to 12.11.80 he performed a space flight on the orbital complex “ Salyut-6" - "Soyuz T-3" as crew commander consisting of L. D. Kizim, O. G. Makarov, G. M. Strekalov.
From 7.9.81 to 10.6.82 he underwent direct training under the program of the visiting expedition to Salyut-7 as part of the backup Soviet-French crew: L. D. Kizim, V. A. Solovyov, Patrick Baudry. According to the program of the main expedition to Salyut-7, he prepared from November 22, 1982 as part of the crew: L. D. Kizim, V. A. Solovyov, and from November 1, 1983 - as part of the crew of L. D. Kizim, V. A. Soloviev, O. Yu. Atkov.
L. D. Kizim made his second space flight lasting 237 days in 1984 as commander of the Soyuz T-10 spacecraft and the Salyut-7 orbital station. He made his third space flight as commander of the Soyuz T-15 spacecraft and the Mir orbital station in 1986. In this flight, for the first time in the history of astronautics, a flight was made from the Mir station to the Salyut-7 station and back.
During preparation, I deeply studied the systems of the ship and station, and the means of controlling them. Possesses highly developed and stable professional skills. He is an excellent operator. Works clearly and in an organized manner. All his actions are clearly controlled through on-board documentation. Has a developed sense of time and internal discipline. Deaf chamber tests, repeated training conducted in various climatic and geographical zones with extreme climatic influences, in difficult terrain and on water, as well as the results of space flight demonstrated such personality qualities as endurance, high resistance to stress, love of life and optimism, and the ability for long-term volitional effort and to maintaining a high level of performance. It tolerates overloads, vestibular influences, moderate degrees of hypoxia and high degrees of atmospheric pressure.
Purposeful, highly motivated for professional activities. During the learning process, the material is not absorbed immediately. To assimilate it well, he works hard, shows perseverance, and has a high personal interest in acquiring new knowledge and improving professional qualities. Has developed practical intelligence. Thinking is distinguished by realism and concrete images. In this regard, when assimilating new data, he strives to reach the essence of the phenomenon, to create an object-shaped idea of it. Thanks to this, new skills and abilities are formed slowly, but are highly stable and reliable. Has great development potential. Takes an active position in learning. The comments of instructors, methodologists, teachers are treated with attention. Participates in the analysis of his mistakes and jointly looks for ways to eliminate them.
Behavior is based on previous experience. Prefers a reproductive style of activity, in which the analysis of the situation and decision-making are carried out on the basis of previously worked out and fixed algorithms. He is hardworking, not afraid of difficulties, and does not strive to make his life easier. In flight activities, he prefers the most complex types of flights that require a lot of work with controls and cockpit equipment. During training and survival tests, he takes the complexity of the situation with dignity, as a matter of course. Maintains a high intensity of training at all times, regardless of whether he is serving as a backup or as a primary crew commander. In his personal life he is modest and unpretentious. However, he is attentive to his social status. Cheerful, kind, knows how to enjoy life. Has a developed sense of humor. Emotions are bright and expressive. He is careful in his contacts with others. Pays great attention to emotional nuances and shades of relationships. High sensitivity is masked by the use of established patterns of behavior and relationships. Has a developed ability for reflection, intuitive perception of the feelings and states of other people. He senses the situation well, is socially flexible, with great adaptive capabilities. To achieve this goal, he strives to find mutually acceptable, friendly forms of relationships with others. Shows a strong interest in positive resolution of conflict situations, however, in cases of open infringement of his positions, he can be harsh and irreconcilable.
As a commander of crews undergoing training, he revealed a wide range of tactics of a democratic leadership style, the ability to appreciate and fully use the positive qualities of partners. When working together, he is capable of effective business cooperation, of providing his partners with the opportunity for them to implement proactive actions in order to solve assigned problems.
He occupies a leadership position in the crew. He knows well and skillfully uses the characteristics of his partners in his work. Configured for the fullest possible implementation of the flight program. He sees his main task in the clear organization of work and life activities of the crew. Pays great attention to scientific experiments that require dynamic operations - precise orientation and fuel economy.
The psychological prognosis for the implementation of the space flight program is favorable. Ready for high-quality performance of flight and space testing tasks.
Flight engineer of the Soyuz T-10 and Soyuz T-15 spacecraft
Soloviev Vladimir Alekseevich, Born 1946, Russian. In 1970 he graduated from Moscow Higher Technical School named after. Bauman, specialty: mechanical engineer. In 1977 he was accepted into the ranks of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. For a long time he participated in the development and testing of propulsion systems for spacecraft and stations. Since 1977, he has been developing on-board documentation. Has experience of direct participation in space flight control. Since 1978, he was preparing for a flight as part of a group of test engineers. I passed the theoretical course exams with a “good” grade. In direct training under the program of the visiting expedition to the Salyut-7 station, he was part of the international crew: L. D. Kizim, V. A. Solovyov, Patrick Baudry from 7.9.81 to 10.6.82. According to the program of the main expedition to the station "Salyut-7" was prepared from November 22, 1982 with L. D. Kizim, and from November 1, 1983 - as part of the crew: L. D. Kizim, V. A. Solovyov, O. Yu. Atkov.
V. A. Solovyov made his first space flight lasting 237 days in 1984 as a flight engineer of the Soyuz T-10 spacecraft and the Salyut-7 orbital station. He made his second space flight in 1986 together with L. D. Kizim on the Soyuz T-15 spacecraft.
During the training process, he demonstrated a high initial level of general technical knowledge. He proved himself to be a competent, erudite engineer. He is distinguished by a wide range of intellectual capabilities, harmoniously combining abstract-theoretical and practical thinking. Mental performance is characterized by a high initial level, effective formation and flexibility of intellectual skills. He learns new material quickly, but to maintain a high level of preparedness he needs periodic reinforcement of what he has learned.
Works diligently and conscientiously.
Perceives the situation in all its complexity and integrity. He strives to understand it in detail, identify the most important, key points and concentrate his attention on them. Prone to long-term planning of activities. Has developed mental discipline. Under time pressure, he acts carefully and confidently. The developed ability for intuition, objective observation and controlled thinking ensures independence, criticality, and speed of decision-making. In difficult professional situations he works without much internal tension. Prefers low-regulated activities. Disciplined, internally collected. In behavior, he strives to comply with the rules and norms accepted in the immediate environment. In difficult situations of interpersonal interaction, he shows restraint, caution, and strives for a business-like and conflict-free resolution. In communication, he is reflexive and has a good sense of the states of others. Attentive, prudent, but not inclined to establish close, trusting relationships.
He controls his behavior and emotions well. He is attentive to the assessment of his activities by others. Interested in securing his position. The level of aspirations is high, adequate to one’s intellectual capabilities. Purposeful and persistent in achieving goals. Well adapted socially.
He takes active positions in crews. He is attentive and thoughtful about the activities of his partners, strives to make a significant contribution to the overall result of the work.
As part of a real crew, he feels confident and free. His general theoretical knowledge, great creative potential and developed plasticity of thinking successfully complement the commander’s practical experience. Satisfied with his positions in the crew, well oriented to the individual characteristics of his partners. Reveals positive emotional attitudes towards them.
Cosmonaut-researcher of the Soyuz T-10 spacecraft
Atkov Oleg Yurievich, Born 1949, Russian. In 1973 he graduated from the 1st Moscow Medical Institute. I. M. Sechenov. After graduating from the institute, he worked at the Research Institute of Cardiology named after. A. A. Myasnikova Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR. Currently, he is the head of the laboratory of ultrasound research methods at the All-Union Cardiology Scientific Center of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. Actively and enthusiastically engaged in research work. Has 5 inventions and more than 30 scientific papers. In 1978, he was awarded the Lenin Komsomol Prize for the development and implementation of ultrasound methods for diagnosing heart diseases. Candidate of Medical Sciences. Member of the CPSU since 1977
Since 1975, he took part in clinical and physiological examinations of crews. He knows well the physiological mechanisms of the impact of space flight factors on the human body. In 1977, he began special training at IBMP. From June to September 1983 he completed a general space training course. Since November 1983, he was in direct preparation for a flight on the Soyuz T orbital complex - Salyut-7, which was carried out in 1984 and lasted 237 days. During the preparation process, he showed high activity, interest in mastering special knowledge as fully as possible, and the desire to make a significant contribution to the work of the crew. Has a total flight time on an L-39 aircraft with an instructor - 12 hours, 4 flights on an Il-76K with reproduction of weightlessness modes, 2 parachute jumps. Participated in training for leaving the descent module at sea and for evacuation by helicopter from a tall forest. Showed good resistance to extreme factors, optimism, and a sense of humor. I flew with pleasure. He remained calm during flights and perceived changes in the air situation correctly. When dealing with emergency situations, he was proactive and decisive, quickly navigating the situation. I quickly learned the elements of piloting technique and aerobatic maneuvers shown. He tolerated maximum flight loads, G-forces up to 6g and high angular velocities during aerobatics well, maintaining attention and the ability to analyze information in full. Highly productive in cognitive activity.
The practical orientation of the intellect is combined with abstract forms of thinking, non-standard, original methods of analysis. Perceives the situation in all its integrity and complexity. Has high creative potential and is capable of independent research activities.
The emotional sphere is characterized by high differentiation, maturity and a developed system of volitional self-control. Stable and reliable under stress.
Takes an active life position. Passionate about his profession. Strives to expand the scope of activities. Purposeful. The level of motivation to achieve the goal is high. He builds his behavior on the basis of fairly rigid and stable individual attitudes. Resourceful. Within the limits of his competence, he prefers to have his own opinion. Despite high intellectual self-control and the desire to hide impulsiveness, he may allow actions that lead to complications in interpersonal relationships. In conflict situations, he tends to react radically. A leader by nature. When leading a group, he displays energy and great organizational skills. Demanding and critical of himself and others.
In business he requires clarity, always strives to be as informed as possible, cannot tolerate uncertainty and hesitation on the part of partners, and is intolerant of others violating the accepted rules and norms of relationships. The level of self-esteem and aspiration is high and adequate. He tries to ignore his own emotional problems and weaknesses. Firmness and determination are combined with sensitivity and the ability to deeply empathize. In choosing partners he uses the most stringent criteria. In relationships, he looks for evidence of sincerity. When achieving common goals, he strives for cooperation and harmony in relationships, for mutual understanding and mutual benevolent concessions.
He takes an active position in the crew. He understands his tasks well. Performs the functional duties assigned to him conscientiously, with maximum efficiency. Takes the initiative to resolve all issues related to the health of crew members. Requires commitment, precision in work and organization from performers.
As part of the crew, he completed 15 training sessions on a transport ship. Orients himself in ship and station systems to the extent necessary. Well prepared for the medical research program.
On the simulator of the Salyut orbital station
In general, this expedition was characterized by a high workload of the cyclogram with responsible and labor-intensive work in unfavorable conditions of work and rest, which placed increased demands on the mental sphere of the cosmonauts and required the mobilization of all internal psychophysiological reserves.
The crew coped with all the tasks of going into outer space and carrying out repair and restoration work at a high professional level. The astronauts' goals for performing these works were of a consistently progressive nature and were practically realized in the thoroughness of preparation for them, in the effectiveness of general interaction in working out the cyclogram of upcoming actions, and in the appearance of a large number of proactive, creative proposals. The cosmonauts were deeply satisfied with the work performed. The crew worked purposefully, showing perseverance, perseverance and will in achieving their goals, while revealing a developed sense of duty and responsibility.
A spacecraft used for flights in low-Earth orbit, including under human control.
All spaceships can be divided into two classes: manned and launched in control mode from the surface of the Earth.
In the early 20s. XX century K. E. Tsiolkovsky once again predicts the future exploration of outer space by earthlings. In his work “Spaceship” there is a mention of the so-called heavenly ships, the main purpose of which is the implementation of human flights into space.
The first spacecraft of the Vostok series were created under the strict leadership of the general designer of OKB-1 (now the Energia rocket and space corporation) S.P. Korolev. The first manned spacecraft "Vostok" was able to deliver a person into outer space on April 12, 1961. This cosmonaut was Yu. A. Gagarin.
The main objectives set in the experiment were:
1) study of the impact of orbital flight conditions on a person, including his performance;
2) testing the principles of spacecraft design;
3) testing of structures and systems in real conditions.
The total mass of the ship was 4.7 tons, diameter - 2.4 m, length - 4.4 m. Among the onboard systems with which the ship was equipped, the following can be distinguished: control systems (automatic and manual modes); automatic orientation system to the Sun and manual orientation to the Earth; life supporting system; thermal control system; landing system.
Subsequently, the developments obtained during the implementation of the Vostok spacecraft program made it possible to create much more advanced ones. Today, the “armada” of spacecraft is very clearly represented by the American reusable transport spacecraft “Shuttle”, or Space Shuttle.
It is impossible not to mention the Soviet development, which is currently not in use, but could seriously compete with the American ship.
"Buran" was the name of the Soviet Union's program to create a reusable space system. Work on the Buran program began in connection with the need to create a reusable space system as a means of deterring a potential enemy in connection with the start of the American project in January 1971.
To implement the project, NPO Molniya was created. In the shortest possible time in 1984, with the support of more than a thousand enterprises from all over the Soviet Union, the first full-scale copy was created with the following technical characteristics: its length was more than 36 m with a wingspan of 24 m; launch weight - more than 100 tons with a payload weight of up to
30 t.
The Buran had a pressurized cabin in the bow compartment, which could accommodate about ten people and most of the equipment to ensure flight in orbit, descent and landing. The ship was equipped with two groups of engines at the end of the tail section and in the front of the hull for maneuvering; for the first time, a combined propulsion system was used, which included fuel tanks for oxidizer and fuel, boost thermostatting, fluid intake in zero gravity, control system equipment, etc.
The first and only flight of the Buran spacecraft was made on November 15, 1988 in an unmanned, fully automatic mode (for reference: the Shuttle still lands only using manual control). Unfortunately, the ship's flight coincided with difficult times that began in the country, and due to the end of the Cold War and the lack of sufficient funds, the Buran program was closed.
The American Space Shuttle series began in 1972, although it was preceded by a project for a reusable two-stage vehicle, each stage of which was similar to a jet.
The first stage served as an accelerator, which, after entering orbit, completed its part of the task and returned to Earth with the crew, and the second stage was an orbital ship and, after completing the program, also returned to the launch site. It was a time of an arms race, and the creation of a ship of this type was considered the main link in this race.
To launch the ship, the Americans use an accelerator and the ship's own engine, the fuel for which is located in the external fuel tank. Spent boosters are not reused after landing, with a limited number of launches. Structurally, the Shuttle series ship consists of several main elements: the Orbiter aerospace aircraft, reusable rocket boosters and a fuel tank (disposable).
The first flight of the spacecraft, due to a large number of shortcomings and design changes, took place only in 1981. Between April 1981 and July 1982, a series of orbital flight tests of the Columbia spacecraft were carried out in all flight modes. Unfortunately, the series of flights of the Shuttle series of ships was not without tragedies.
In 1986, during the 25th launch of the Challenger spacecraft, a fuel tank exploded due to imperfections in the design of the vehicle, as a result of which all seven crew members were killed. Only in 1988, after a number of changes were made to the flight program, the Discovery spacecraft was launched. The Challenger was replaced by a new ship, the Endeavor, which has been operating since 1992.
How does the spacecraft crew emergency rescue system work? aslan wrote in October 24th, 2018
The Emergency Rescue System, or SAS for short, is a “rocket within a rocket” that crowns the spire of the Union:
The astronauts themselves sit in the lower part of the spire (which has the shape of a cone):
SAS ensures the rescue of the crew both on the launch pad and during any part of the flight. Here it is worth understanding that the probability of getting lyuli at the start is many times higher than in flight. It's like a light bulb - most burnouts happen the moment you turn it on. Therefore, the first thing the SAS does at the moment of an accident is to fly into the air and take the astronauts somewhere away from the spreading explosion:
The SAS engines are brought into readiness 15 minutes before the rocket launch.
Now comes the most interesting part. The SAS is activated by two attendants who synchronously press a button at the command of the flight director. Moreover, the command is usually the name of some geographical object. For example, the flight director says: “Altai” and the attendants activate the SAS. Everything is the same as 50 years ago.
The worst thing is not the landing, but the overload. In the news about the rescued cosmonauts, the overload was immediately indicated as 9g. This is an extremely unpleasant overload for an ordinary person, but for a trained astronaut it is not fatal or even dangerous. For example, in 1975, Vasily Lazarev achieved an overload of 20, and according to some sources, 26G. He did not die, but the consequences put an end to his career.
As it was said, CAS is already more than 50 years old. During this time, it has undergone many changes, but formally the basic principles of its work have not changed. Electronics have appeared, many different sensors have appeared, reliability has increased, but rescuing astronauts still looks the same as it would have looked 50 years ago. Why? Because gravity, overcoming the first cosmic velocity and the human factor are quantities that are apparently unchanged:
The first successful testing of SAS was carried out in 1967. Actually, they tried to fly around the Moon unmanned. But the first pancake came out lumpy, so we decided to test the CAS at the same time, so that at least some result would be positive. The descent vehicle landed intact, and if there had been people inside, they would have survived.
And this is what the SAS looks like in flight:
Is it so easy to put a person in a jar or about the design of manned spacecraft January 3, 2017
Spaceship. Surely many of you, having heard this phrase, imagine something huge, complex and densely populated, an entire city in space. This is how I once imagined spaceships, and numerous science fiction films and books actively contribute to this.
It's probably good that filmmakers are limited only by their imagination, unlike space technology designers. At least in the movies we can enjoy the gigantic volumes, hundreds of compartments and thousands of crew members...
The size of a real spaceship is not at all impressive:
The photo shows the Soviet spacecraft Soyuz-19, taken by American astronauts from the Apollo spacecraft. It can be seen that the ship is quite small, and given that the habitable volume does not occupy the entire ship, it is obvious that it must be quite cramped there.
This is not surprising: large sizes mean large mass, and mass is enemy number one in astronautics. Therefore, spaceship designers try to make them as light as possible, often to the detriment of crew comfort. Notice how cramped the Soyuz ship is:
American ships in this regard are not particularly different from Russian ones. For example, here is a photo of Ed White and Jim McDivitt in the Gemini spacecraft.
Only the crews of the Space Shuttle could boast of any freedom of movement. They had two relatively spacious compartments at their disposal.
Flight deck (actually the control cabin):
Middle deck (this is a living compartment with sleeping places, a toilet, a storage room and an airlock):
The Soviet ship Buran, similar in size and layout, unfortunately, has never flown in manned mode, just like the TKS, which still has a record habitable volume among all ships ever designed.
But habitable volume is far from the only requirement for a spacecraft. I have heard statements like this: “They put a man in an aluminum can and sent him to spin around Mother Earth.” This phrase is, of course, incorrect. So how is a spaceship different from a simple metal barrel?
And the fact that the spacecraft must:
- Provide the crew with a breathable gas mixture,
- Remove carbon dioxide and water vapor exhaled by the crew from the habitable volume,
- Ensure an acceptable temperature for the crew,
- Have a sealed volume sufficient for the life of the crew,
- Provide the ability to control orientation in space and (optionally) the ability to carry out orbital maneuvers,
- Have food and water supplies necessary for the crew’s life,
- Ensure the possibility of safe return of the crew and cargo to the ground,
- Be as light as possible
- Have an emergency rescue system that allows you to return the crew to the ground in case of an emergency at any stage of the flight,
- Be very reliable. Any one equipment failure should not lead to the cancellation of the flight, any second failure should not threaten the life of the crew.
As you can see, this is no longer a simple barrel, but a complex technological device, stuffed with a variety of different equipment, having engines and a supply of fuel for them.
Here is an example of a model of the first generation Soviet spacecraft Vostok.
It consists of a sealed spherical capsule and a conical instrument-assembly compartment. Almost all ships have this arrangement, in which most of the instruments are placed in a separate unpressurized compartment. This is necessary to save weight: if all instruments were placed in a sealed compartment, this compartment would turn out to be quite large, and since it needs to maintain atmospheric pressure inside itself and withstand significant mechanical and thermal loads during entry into the dense layers of the atmosphere when descending to the ground, the walls it must be thick and durable, which makes the entire structure very heavy. And the leaky compartment, which will separate from the descent vehicle upon returning to earth and burn up in the atmosphere, does not need strong, heavy walls. The descent vehicle, without unnecessary instruments during return, turns out to be smaller and, accordingly, lighter. It is also given a spherical shape to reduce mass, because of all geometric bodies of the same volume, the sphere has the smallest surface area.
The only spacecraft where all the equipment was placed in a sealed capsule was the American Mercury. Here is a photo of him in the hangar:
One person could fit in this capsule, and even then with difficulty. Realizing the ineffectiveness of such an arrangement, the Americans made their next series of Gemini ships with a detachable, leaky instrument and component compartment. In the photo this is the back of the ship in white:
By the way, this compartment is painted white for a reason. The fact is that the walls of the compartment are penetrated by many tubes through which water circulates. This is a system for removing excess heat received from the Sun. Water takes heat from inside the habitable compartment and transfers it to the surface of the instrument compartment, from where the heat is radiated into space. To make these radiators less hot in direct sunlight, they were painted white.
On Vostok ships, radiators were located on the surface of the conical instrument compartment and were closed with shutters similar to blinds. By opening different numbers of dampers, it was possible to regulate the heat transfer of the radiators, and therefore the temperature regime inside the ship.
On the Soyuz ships and their Progress cargo counterparts, the heat removal system is similar to Gemini. Pay attention to the color of the surface of the instrument compartment. Of course, white :)
Inside the instrumentation compartment there are main engines, low-thrust shunting engines, fuel reserves for all this stuff, batteries, oxygen and water supplies, and part of the on-board electronics. Radio communication antennas, proximity antennas, various orientation sensors and solar panels are usually installed outside.
In the descent module, which also serves as the cabin of the spacecraft, there are only those elements that are needed during the descent of the vehicle in the atmosphere and a soft landing, as well as what should be in direct access to the crew: a control panel, a radio station, an emergency supply of oxygen, parachutes , cassettes with lithium hydroxide to remove carbon dioxide, soft landing engines, supports (chairs for astronauts), emergency rescue kits in case of landing at an off-design point, and, of course, the astronauts themselves.
The Soyuz ships have another compartment - a household one:
It contains what is needed during a long flight, but which can be dispensed with at the stage of putting the ship into orbit and upon landing: scientific instruments, food supplies, sewage and sanitary equipment (toilet), spacesuits for extravehicular activities, sleeping bags and other household items. items.
There is a known case with the Soyuz TM-5 spacecraft, when, in order to save fuel, the household compartment was shot not after issuing a braking impulse to deorbit, but before. Only there was no braking impulse: the attitude control system failed, and then it was impossible to start the engine. As a result, the astronauts had to stay in orbit for another day, and the toilet remained in the destroyed utility compartment. It is difficult to convey what inconvenience the astronauts experienced during these days, until they finally managed to land safely. After this incident, we decided to give up on such fuel economy and shoot the household compartment together with the instrumentation compartment after braking.
That's how many complexities there were in the "bank". We will separately go through each type of spacecraft of the USSR, USA and China in the following articles. Stay tuned.
