In 518, after the death of Anastasius, a rather dark intrigue brought the chief of the guard, Justin, to the throne. He was a peasant from Macedonia, who about fifty years ago came to Constantinople in search of his fortune, brave, but completely illiterate and a soldier who had no experience in state affairs. That is why this upstart, who became the founder of a dynasty at the age of about 70, would have been very difficult with the power entrusted to him if he had not had an adviser in the person of his nephew Justinian.

A native of Macedonia like Justin - the romantic tradition that makes him a Slav arose at a much later time and has no historical value - Justinian, at the invitation of his uncle, came to Constantinople as a youth, where he received a full Roman and Christian education. He had experience in business, had a mature mind, an established character - everything necessary to become an assistant to the new ruler. Indeed, from 518 to 527 he effectively ruled on behalf of Justin, awaiting an independent reign that lasted from 527 to 565.

Thus, Justinian controlled the destinies of the Eastern Roman Empire for almost half a century; he left a deep mark on the era dominated by his majestic appearance, for his will alone was enough to stop the natural evolution that carried the empire towards the East.

Under his influence, from the very beginning of Justin's reign, a new political orientation was determined. The first concern of the Constantinople government was to reconcile with Rome and put an end to the schism; In order to cement the alliance and give the pope a pledge of his zeal in orthodoxy, Justinian for three years (518-521) fiercely persecuted the Monophysites throughout the East. This rapprochement with Rome strengthened the new dynasty. In addition, Justinian very far-sightedly managed to take the necessary measures to ensure the strength of the regime. He freed himself from Vitalian, his most terrible enemy; He gained particular popularity thanks to his generosity and love of luxury. From now on, Justinian began to dream of more: he perfectly understood the significance that an alliance with the papacy could have for his future ambitious plans; That is why, when Pope John, the first Roman high priest to visit the new Rome, appeared in Constantinople in 525, he was given a solemn reception in the capital; Justinian felt how the West liked such behavior, how it inevitably led to comparisons between the pious emperors who ruled in Constantinople and the Arian barbarian kings who dominated Africa and Italy. Thus Justinian cherished great plans when, after the death of Justin, which followed in 527, he became the sole ruler of Byzantium.

II

CHARACTER, POLITICS AND ENVIRONMENT OF JUSTINIAN

Justinian is completely different from his predecessors, the sovereigns of the 5th century. This upstart, who sat on the throne of the Caesars, wanted to be a Roman emperor, and indeed he was the last great emperor of Rome. However, despite his undeniable diligence and hard work - one of the courtiers spoke of him: “the emperor who never sleeps” - despite his genuine concern for order and sincere concern for good administration, Justinian, due to his suspicious and jealous despotism, naive ambition, restless activity, combined with an unsteady and weak will, could seem on the whole to be a very mediocre and unbalanced ruler if he did not have a great mind. This Macedonian peasant was a noble representative of two great ideas: the idea of ​​empire and the idea of ​​Christianity; and because he had these two ideas, his name remains immortal in history.

Filled with memories of the greatness of Rome, Justinian dreamed of restoring the Roman Empire to what it had once been, strengthening the inviolable rights that Byzantium, the heir of Rome, retained over the western barbarian kingdoms, and restoring the unity of the Roman world. Heir to the Caesars, he wanted, like them, to be a living law, the most complete embodiment of absolute power and at the same time an infallible legislator and reformer, caring for order in the empire. Finally, proud of his imperial rank, he wanted to decorate it with all the pomp and splendor; the splendor of his buildings, the splendor of his court, the somewhat childish way of calling by his name (“Justinian’s”) the fortresses he built, the cities he restored, the magistrates he established; he wanted to perpetuate the glory of his reign and make his subjects, as he said, feel the incomparable happiness of being born in his time. He dreamed of more. The chosen one of God, the representative and vicegerent of God on earth, he took upon himself the task of being a champion of Orthodoxy, be it in the wars he undertook, the religious character of which is undeniable, be it in the enormous effort that he made to spread Orthodoxy throughout the world, be it in the way in which he ruled the church and destroyed heresies. He devoted his whole life to the realization of this magnificent and proud dream, and was fortunate to find intelligent ministers such as the legal advisor Tribonianus and the praetorian prefect John of Cappadocia, brave generals like Belisarius and Narses, and especially, an excellent adviser in the person of “the most honorable, God-given wife ”, the one whom he liked to call “his most tender charm”, in the Empress Theodora.

Theodora also came from the people. The daughter of a bear keeper from the hippodrome, she, according to the gossip of Procopius in The Secret History, infuriated her contemporaries with her life as a fashionable actress, the noise of her adventures, and most of all, because she won the heart of Justinian, forced him to marry her and with him took the throne.

There is no doubt that while she was alive - Theodora died in 548 - she exercised enormous influence on the emperor and ruled the empire to the same extent as he did, and perhaps even more. This happened because despite her shortcomings - she loved money, power and, in order to maintain the throne, often acted treacherously, cruelly and was adamant in her hatred - this ambitious woman had excellent qualities - energy, firmness, decisive and strong will, a cautious and clear political mind and, perhaps, saw many things more correctly than her royal husband. While Justinian dreamed of reconquering the West and restoring the Roman Empire in alliance with the papacy, she, a native of the East, turned her gaze to the East with a more accurate understanding of the situation and the needs of the time. She wanted to put an end to the religious quarrels there that were harming the peace and power of the empire, to return the apostate peoples of Syria and Egypt through various concessions and a policy of broad religious tolerance, and, at least at the cost of a break with Rome, to recreate the strong unity of the eastern monarchy. And one can ask oneself whether the empire she dreamed of would not have been better able to resist the onslaught of the Persians and Arabs - more compact, more homogeneous and stronger? Be that as it may, Theodora made her hand felt everywhere - in administration, in diplomacy, in religious politics; still to this day in the church of St. Vitaliy in Ravenna, among the mosaics decorating the apse, her image in all the splendor of royal grandeur flaunts as an equal to the image of Justinian.

III

FOREIGN POLICY OF JUSTINIAN

At the moment when Justinian came to power, the empire had not yet recovered from the serious crisis that had gripped it since the end of the 5th century. In the last months of Justin's reign, the Persians, dissatisfied with the penetration of imperial policy into the Caucasus, Armenia, and the borders of Syria, again started a war, and the best part of the Byzantine army found itself chained in the East. Within the state, the struggle between green and blue maintained an extremely dangerous political excitement, which was further aggravated by the deplorable corruption of the administration, which caused general discontent. Justinian's urgent concern was to remove these difficulties which were delaying the fulfillment of his ambitious dreams for the West. Not seeing or not wanting to see the extent of the eastern danger, at the cost of significant concessions, he signed peace with the “great king” in 532, which gave him the opportunity to freely dispose of his military forces. On the other hand, he mercilessly suppressed internal unrest. But in January 532, a formidable uprising, which retained the name “Nike” from the rebels’ cry, filled Constantinople with fires and blood for a week. During this uprising, when it seemed that the throne was about to collapse, Justinian found himself owing his salvation mainly to the courage of Theodora and the energy of Belisarius. But in any case, the brutal suppression of the uprising, which covered the hippodrome with thirty thousand corpses, resulted in the establishment of lasting order in the capital and the transformation of imperial power into more absolute than ever before.

In 532, Justinian's hands were untied.

Restoration of the Empire in the West. The situation in the West was favorable to his projects. Both in Africa and in Italy, the inhabitants under the rule of heretical barbarians had long called for the restoration of imperial power; the prestige of the empire was still so great that even the Vandals and Ostrogoths recognized the legitimacy of the Byzantine claims. That is why the rapid decline of these barbarian kingdoms made them powerless against the advance of Justinian's troops, and their differences did not give them the opportunity to unite against a common enemy. When, in 531, the seizure of power by Gelimer gave Byzantine diplomacy a reason to intervene in African affairs, Justinian, relying on the formidable strength of his army, did not hesitate, seeking at one blow to liberate the African Orthodox population from “Arian captivity” and force the Vandal kingdom to enter the fold. imperial unity. In 533, Belisarius sailed from Constantinople with an army consisting of 10 thousand infantry and 5-6 thousand cavalry; the campaign was swift and brilliant. Gelimer, defeated at Decimus and Tricamara, surrounded during the retreat on Mount Pappua, was forced to surrender (534). Within a few months, several cavalry regiments - for it was they who played the decisive role - destroyed the kingdom of Genseric against all expectations. The victorious Belisarius was given triumphal honors in Constantinople. And although it took another fifteen years (534-548) to suppress the Berber uprisings and the riots of the dissolute mercenaries of the empire, Justinian could still be proud of the conquest of most of Africa and arrogantly appropriated the title of Emperor of the Vandals and Africans.

The Ostrogoths of Italy did not move during the defeat of the Vandal kingdom. Soon it was their turn. The murder of Amalasuntha, daughter of the great Theodoric, by her husband Theodagatus (534) gave Justinian the occasion to intervene; this time, however, the war was more difficult and prolonged; despite the success of Belisarius, who conquered Sicily (535), captured Naples, then Rome, where he1 besieged the new Ostrogothic king Vitiges for a whole year (March 537-March 538), and then took possession of Ravenna (540) and brought the captive Vitiges to the feet emperor, the Goths recovered again under the leadership of the clever and energetic Totilla, Belisarius, sent with insufficient forces to Italy, was defeated (544-548); it took the energy of Narses to suppress the resistance of the Ostrogoths at Tagina (552), crush the last remnants of the barbarians in Campania (553) and liberate the peninsula from the Frankish hordes of Leutaris and Butilinus (554). It took twenty years to reconquer Italy. Again, Justinian, with his characteristic optimism, too quickly believed in the final victory, and perhaps that is why he did not make the necessary effort in time to break the power of the Ostrogoths with one blow. After all, the subjugation of Italy to imperial influence was begun with a completely insufficient army - with twenty-five or barely thirty thousand soldiers. As a result, the war dragged on hopelessly.

Likewise, in Spain, Justinian took advantage of the circumstances to intervene in the dynastic feuds of the Visigothic kingdom (554) and reconquer the southeast of the country.

As a result of these successful campaigns, Justinian could flatter himself with the thought that he had succeeded in realizing his dream. Thanks to his persistent ambition, Dalmatia, Italy, all of East Africa, southern Spain, the islands of the western Mediterranean - Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands - again became parts of a single Roman Empire; The territory of the monarchy almost doubled. As a result of the capture of Ceuta, the power of the emperor extended all the way to the Pillars of Hercules and, if we exclude the part of the coast preserved by the Visigoths in Spain and Septimania and the Franks in Provence, it can be said that the Mediterranean Sea again became a Roman lake. Without a doubt, neither Africa nor Italy entered the empire in its former size; Moreover, they were already exhausted and devastated by long years of war. However, as a result of these victories, the influence and glory of the empire undeniably increased, and Justinian took every opportunity to consolidate his successes. Africa and Italy formed, as once upon a time, two praetorian prefectures, and the emperor tried to return to the population their former idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe empire. Restoration measures partially smoothed over the war devastation. The organization of defense - the creation of large military commands, the formation of border marks (limites), occupied by special border troops (limitanei), the construction of a powerful network of fortresses - all this guaranteed the security of the country. Justinian could be proud that he had restored that perfect peace, that “perfect order” in the West, which seemed to him the sign of a truly civilized state.

Wars in the East. Unfortunately, these large enterprises exhausted the empire and caused it to neglect the East. The East took revenge for itself in the most terrible way.

The First Persian War (527-532) was only a harbinger of the danger that threatened. Since neither opponent went very far, the issue of the struggle remained undecided; Belisarius's victory at Dara (530) was offset by his defeat at Callinicus (531), and both sides were forced to conclude an unstable peace (532). But the new Persian king Khosroy Anushirvan (531-579), active and ambitious, was not one of those who could be satisfied with such results. Seeing that Byzantium was busy in the West, especially concerned about the projects of world domination, which Justinian did not hide, he rushed to Syria in 540 and took Antioch; in 541, he invaded the Laz country and captured Petra; in 542 he destroyed Commagene; in 543 he defeated the Greeks in Armenia; in 544 he devastated Mesopotamia. Belisarius himself was unable to defeat him. It was necessary to conclude a truce (545), which was renewed many times, and in 562 a peace was signed for fifty years, according to which Justinian undertook to pay tribute to the “great king” and abandoned any attempt to preach Christianity on Persian territory; but although at this price he preserved the country of the Laz, ancient Colchis, the Persian threat after this long and devastating war did not become less terrifying for the future.

At the same time, in Europe, the border on the Danube succumbed to the pressure of the barbarians. In 540, the Huns put Thrace, Illyria, Greece to fire and sword up to the Isthmus of Corinth and reached the approaches to Constantinople; in 547 and 551. the Slavs devastated Illyria, and in 552 they threatened Thessalonica; in 559 the Huns again appeared before the capital, saved with great difficulty thanks to the courage of old Belisarius.

In addition, Avars appear on the stage. Of course, none of these invasions established lasting foreign domination of the empire. But still, the Balkan Peninsula was brutally devastated. The Empire paid dearly in the east for Justinian's triumphs in the west.

Protection measures and diplomacy. Nevertheless, Justinian sought to ensure the protection and security of the territory in both the west and the east. By organizing large military commands entrusted to the masters of the army (magist ri militum), creating military lines (limites) on all borders, occupied by special troops (l imitanei), in the face of the barbarians, he restored what was once called the “cover of the empire” (praetentura imperii). . But chiefly he erected on all the frontiers a long line of fortresses, which occupied all important strategic points and formed several successive barriers against invasion; The entire territory behind them was covered with fortified castles for greater security. To this day, in many places one can see the majestic ruins of the towers, which rose in hundreds in all the imperial provinces; they serve as magnificent evidence of the colossal effort by which, in the words of Procopius, Justinian truly “saved the empire.”

Finally, Byzantine diplomacy, in addition to military action, sought to secure the prestige and influence of the empire throughout the outside world. Thanks to the deft distribution of favors and money and the skillful ability to sow discord among the enemies of the empire, she brought the barbarian peoples who wandered on the borders of the monarchy under Byzantine rule and made them safe. She included them in the sphere of influence of Byzantium by preaching Christianity. The activities of missionaries who spread Christianity from the shores of the Black Sea to the plateaus of Abyssinia and the oases of the Sahara were one of the most characteristic features of Byzantine politics in the Middle Ages.

In this way the empire created for itself a clientele of vassals; among them were Arabs from Syria and Yemen, Berbers from North Africa, Laz and Tsani on the borders of Armenia, Heruli, Gepids, Lombards, Huns on the Danube, right up to the Frankish sovereigns of distant Gaul, in whose churches they prayed for the Roman emperor. Constantinople, where Justinian solemnly received the barbarian sovereigns, seemed to be the capital of the world. And although the elderly emperor last years government indeed allowed the military institutions to decay and was too carried away by the practice of ruinous diplomacy, which, due to the distribution of money to the barbarians, aroused their dangerous lusts, nevertheless it is certain that so long as the empire was strong enough to defend itself, its diplomacy, operating with the support of arms, was represented contemporaries with a miracle of prudence, subtlety and insight; Despite the heavy sacrifices that Justinian's enormous ambition cost the empire, even his detractors admitted that “the natural desire of an emperor with a great soul is the desire to expand the boundaries of the empire and make it more glorious” (Procopius).

IV

THE INTERNAL RULE OF JUSTINIAN

The internal administration of the empire gave Justinian no less concern than the defense of the territory. His attention was occupied by urgent administrative reform. A terrible religious crisis insistently demanded his intervention.

Legislative and administrative reform. Troubles continued in the empire. The administration was corrupt and corrupt; disorder and poverty reigned in the provinces; the legal proceedings, due to the uncertainty of the laws, were arbitrary and biased. One of the most serious consequences of this state of affairs was the very poor collection of taxes. Justinian's love of order, desire for administrative centralization, and concern for the public good were too developed for him to tolerate such a state of affairs. Besides this, he constantly needed money for his great endeavors.

So he undertook a double reform. To give the empire “firm and immutable laws,” he entrusted his minister Tribonian with great legislative work. A commission convened in 528 to reform the code collected and classified into a single body the main imperial regulations promulgated since the era of Hadrian. This was the Code of Justinian, published in 529 and reprinted in 534. It was followed by the Digests or Pandects, in which a new commission appointed in 530 collected and classified the most important extracts from the works of the great jurists of the second and third centuries, - a huge work completed in 533, the Institutions - a manual intended for students - summarized the principles of the new law. Finally, the collection of new decrees published by Justinian between 534 and 565 was supplemented by an impressive monument known as the Corpus juris civilis.

Justinian was so proud of this great legislative creation that he forbade it to be touched in the future or altered by any comments, and in the schools of law reorganized at Constantinople, Beirut and Rome, he made it the inviolable basis for legal education. And indeed, despite some shortcomings, despite the haste in work, which caused repetitions and contradictions, despite the pitiful appearance of the excerpts from the most beautiful monuments of Roman law included in the code, it was a truly great creation, one of the most fruitful for the progress of mankind. If Justinian's law provided the rationale for the absolute power of the emperor, it later preserved and recreated the idea of ​​state and social organization in the medieval world. In addition, it infused into the harsh old Roman law a new spirit of Christianity and thus introduced into the law a hitherto unknown concern for social justice, morality and humanity.

In order to transform the administration and court, Justinian promulgated two important decrees in 535, establishing new duties for all officials and requiring them, above all, to be scrupulously honest in governing their subjects. At the same time, the emperor abolished the sale of positions, increased salaries, destroyed useless institutions, and united a number of provinces in order to better ensure order and civil and military authority there. This was the beginning of a reform that was to have significant consequences for the administrative history of the empire. He reorganized the judicial administration and police in the capital; throughout the empire he carried out extensive public works, forced the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters, churches, and with unheard-of luxury he rebuilt Constantinople, partially destroyed by the uprising of 532. Finally, through skillful economic policy Justinian achieved the development of rich industry and trade in the empire and, as was his habit, boasted that “with his magnificent undertakings he gave the state a new flourishing.” However, in reality, despite the good intentions of the emperor, the administrative reform failed. The enormous burden of expenditure and the resulting constant need for money established a cruel fiscal tyranny that exhausted the empire and reduced it to poverty. Of all the great transformations, only one succeeded: in 541, for reasons of economy, the consulate was destroyed.

Religious politics. Like all the emperors who succeeded Constantine to the throne, Justinian was involved in the church as much because the interests of the state required it as because of his personal inclination to theological disputes. To better emphasize his pious zeal, he severely persecuted heretics, in 529 ordered the closure of the Athenian University, where a few pagan teachers still secretly remained, and fiercely persecuted schismatics. In addition, he knew how to rule the church like a master, and in exchange for the patronage and favors with which he showered it, he despotically and rudely prescribed his will to it, openly calling himself “emperor and priest.” Nevertheless, he repeatedly found himself in difficulty, not knowing what line of conduct he should follow. For the success of his Western enterprises it was necessary for him to maintain the established harmony with the papacy; in order to restore political and moral unity in the East, it was necessary to spare the Monophysites, very numerous and influential in Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. Often the emperor did not know what to decide in the face of Rome, which demanded the condemnation of dissenters, and Theodora, who advised a return to the policy of unity between Zinon and Anastasius, and his wavering will tried, despite all the contradictions, to find the basis for mutual understanding and find a means to reconcile these contradictions. Gradually, to please Rome, he allowed the Council of Constantinople in 536 to anathematize dissidents, began to persecute them (537-538), attacked their stronghold - Egypt, and to please Theodora, he gave the Monophysites the opportunity to restore their church (543) and tried to Council of 553 to obtain from the Pope an indirect condemnation of the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. For over twenty years (543-565), the so-called “case of the three heads” worried the empire and gave rise to schism in the Western Church, without establishing peace in the East. Justinian's rage and arbitrariness directed at his opponents (his most famous victim was Pope Vigilius) did not bring any useful results. The policy of unity and toleration that Theodora advised was, without a doubt, cautious and reasonable; The indecision of Justinian, who wavered between the disputing parties, led, despite his good intentions, only to the growth of the separatist tendencies of Egypt and Syria and to the exacerbation of their national hatred of the empire.

V

BYZANTINE CULTURE IN THE 6TH CENTURY

In the history of Byzantine art, the reign of Justinian marks an entire era. Talented writers, historians such as Procopius and Agathius, John of Ephesus or Evagrius, poets such as Paul the Silentiary, such theologians as Leontius of Byzantium, brilliantly continued the traditions of classical Greek literature, and it was at the dawn of the 6th century. Roman Sladkopevets, “the king of melodies,” created religious poetry - perhaps the finest and most original manifestation of the Byzantine spirit. Even more remarkable was the splendor of the visual arts. At this time, a slow process that had been prepared for two centuries in the local schools of the East was being completed in Constantinople. And since Justinian loved buildings, since he was able to find outstanding craftsmen to carry out his intentions and put inexhaustible resources at their disposal, the result was that the monuments of this century - miracles of knowledge, courage and splendor - marked the pinnacle of Byzantine art in perfect creations.

Never has art been more varied, more mature, more free; in the 6th century all architectural styles, all types of buildings are found - basilicas, for example St. Apollinaria in Ravenna or St. Demetrius of Thessalonica; churches that represent polygons in plan, for example the Church of St. Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople or St. Vitaliy in Ravenna; buildings in the shape of a cross, topped with five domes, like the Church of St. Apostles; churches such as Hagia Sophia, built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus in 532-537; Thanks to its original plan, light, bold and precisely calculated structure, skillful solution of problems of balance, harmonious combination of parts, this temple remains an unsurpassed masterpiece of Byzantine art to this day. The skillful selection of multi-colored marble, the fine sculpting of sculptures, and the mosaic decorations on a blue and gold background inside the temple represent incomparable splendor, an idea of ​​which can still be obtained today, in the absence of the mosaic destroyed in the church of St. Apostles or barely visible under the Turkish painting of St. Sofia, - from the mosaics in the churches of Parenzo and Ravenna, as well as from the remains of the wonderful decorations of the church of St. Demetrius of Thessalonica. Everywhere - in jewelry, in fabrics, in ivory, in manuscripts - the same character of dazzling luxury and solemn grandeur is manifested, which marks the birth of a new style. Under the combined influence of the East and ancient tradition, Byzantine art entered its golden age in the era of Justinian.

VI

DESTRUCTION OF JUSTINIAN'S CASE (565 - 610)

If we consider Justinian's reign as a whole, it is impossible not to admit that he was able to short term return the empire to its former greatness. However, the question arises whether this greatness was not more apparent than real, and whether, on the whole, these great conquests did not do more harm than good, stopping the natural development of the eastern empire and exhausting it in favor of the extreme ambition of one man. In all of Justinian's enterprises, there was always a discrepancy between the goal pursued and the means for its implementation; lack of money was a constant ulcer that corroded the most brilliant projects and the most laudable intentions! Therefore, it was necessary to increase fiscal oppression to the extreme limit, and since in the last years of his reign the aging Justinian increasingly left the course of affairs to the mercy of fate, the position of the Byzantine Empire when he died - in 565, at the age of 87 years - was absolutely deplorable. Financially and militarily, the empire was exhausted; a formidable danger was approaching from all borders; in the empire itself, state power weakened - in the provinces due to the development of large feudal property, in the capital as a result of the constant struggle between green and blue; Deep poverty reigned everywhere, and contemporaries asked themselves in bewilderment: “Where did the wealth of the Romans disappear?” Policy change has become an urgent need; it was a difficult undertaking, fraught with many disasters. It fell to the lot of Justinian's successors - his nephew Justin II (565-578), Tiberius (578-582) and Mauritius (582-602).

They decisively initiated a new policy. Turning away from the West, where, moreover, the Lombard invasion (568) took half of Italy from the empire, Justinian's successors limited themselves to organizing a solid defense, founding the African and Ravenna exarchates. At this price, they again gained the opportunity to take care of the situation in the East and take a more independent position in relation to the enemies of the empire. Thanks to the measures they took to reorganize the army, the Persian war, renewed in 572 and lasting until 591, ended with a favorable peace, according to which Persian Armenia was ceded to Byzantium.

And in Europe, despite the fact that the Avars and Slavs brutally devastated the Balkan Peninsula, capturing fortresses on the Danube, besieging Thessalonica, threatening Constantinople (591) and even beginning to settle on the peninsula for a long time, nevertheless, as a result of a series of brilliant successes, the war was transferred to that side of the borders, and the Byzantine armies reached Tissa (601).

But the internal crisis ruined everything. Justinian too firmly pursued the policy of absolute rule; When he died, the aristocracy raised its head, the separatist tendencies of the provinces began to appear again, and the circus parties became agitated. And since the government was unable to restore the financial situation, discontent grew, facilitated by administrative collapse and military rebellions. Religious politics further aggravated the general confusion. After a brief attempt at religious toleration, fierce persecution of heretics began again; and although Mauritius put an end to these persecutions, the conflict that broke out between the Patriarch of Constantinople, who claimed the title of ecumenical patriarch, and Pope Gregory the Great, increased the ancient hatred between West and East. Despite its undoubted merits, Mauritius was extremely unpopular. The weakening of political authority facilitated the success of the military coup, which placed Phocas on the throne (602).

The new sovereign, a rude soldier, could only hold on through terror (602 - 610); with this he completed the ruin of the monarchy. Khosroes II, taking upon himself the role of avenger of Mauritius, renewed the war; the Persians conquered Mesopotamia, Syria, and Asia Minor. In 608 they found themselves in Chalcedon, at the gates of Constantinople. Within the country, uprisings, conspiracies, and rebellions succeeded each other; the entire empire was calling for a savior. He came from Africa. In 610, Heraclius, the son of the Carthaginian exarch, deposed Phocas and founded a new dynasty. After almost half a century of unrest, Byzantium again found a leader capable of leading its destiny. But during this half-century, Byzantium gradually returned to the East. The transformation in the Eastern spirit, interrupted by the long reign of Justinian, was now to be accelerated and completed.

It was during the reign of Justinian that two monks brought the secret of breeding silkworms from China around 557, which allowed the industry of Syria to produce silk, partially freeing Byzantium from foreign imports.

This name is due to the fact that the dispute was based on excerpts from the works of three theologians - Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus and Willow of Edessa, whose teaching was approved by the Council of Chalcedon, and Justinian, to please the Monophysites, forced them to condemn.

Flavius ​​Peter Sabbatius Justinian (lat. Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus, Greek. Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός), better known as Justinian I (Greek Ιουστ ινιανός Α) or Justinian the Great (Greek Μέγας Ιουστινιανός; 483, Tauresium, Upper Macedonia - November 14, 565 , Constantinople). Byzantine Emperor from August 1, 527 until his death in 565. Justinian himself in his decrees called himself Caesar Flavius ​​Justinian of Alaman, Gothic, Frankish, Germanic, Antian, Alanian, Vandal, African.

Justinian, a general and reformer, is one of the most prominent monarchs of late antiquity. His reign marks an important stage in the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages and, accordingly, the transition from Roman traditions to the Byzantine style of government. Justinian was full of ambition, but he failed to accomplish the “restoration of the empire” (Latin: renovatio imperii). In the West, he managed to take possession of most of the lands of the Western Roman Empire, which collapsed after the Great Migration, including the Apennine Peninsula, the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula and part of North Africa. Another important event is Justinian's order to revise Roman law, which resulted in a new set of laws - the Justinian Code (lat. Corpus iuris civilis). By decree of the emperor, who wanted to surpass Solomon and the legendary Temple of Jerusalem, the burnt Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was completely rebuilt, striking in its beauty and splendor and remaining for a thousand years the most grandiose temple in the Christian world.

In 529 Justinian closed the Platonic Academy in Athens, and in 542 the emperor abolished the post of consul, possibly for financial reasons. Increasing worship of the ruler as a saint finally destroyed the illusion of the principate that the emperor was first among equals (Latin primus inter pares). During the reign of Justinian, the first plague pandemic in Byzantium and the largest riot in the history of Byzantium and Constantinople took place - the Nika uprising, provoked by tax oppression and the emperor's church policies.

There are various versions and theories regarding the origins of Justinian and his family. Most sources, mainly Greek and Eastern (Syrian, Arabic, Armenian), as well as Slavic (entirely based on Greek), call Justinian a Thracian; some Greek sources and the Latin chronicle of Victor Tonnennesis call him an Illyrian; finally, Procopius of Caesarea claims that the homeland of Justinian and Justin was Dardania. There is no contradiction in all these three definitions. At the beginning of the 6th century, the civil administration of the Balkan Peninsula was divided between two prefectures. Praefectura praetorio per Illyricum, the smaller of them, included two dioceses - Dacia and Macedonia. Thus, when sources write that Justin was an Illyrian, they mean that he and his family were residents of the Illyrian prefecture. In turn, the province of Dardania was part of the diocese of Dacia. The Thracian theory of the origin of Justinian can also be confirmed by the fact that the name Sabbatius most likely comes from the name of the ancient Thracian deity Sabazius.

Up to late XIX century, the theory of the Slavic origin of Justinian, based on the work of a certain abbot Theophilus (Bogumil) published by Niccolo Alamanni under the name Iustiniani Vita, was popular. It introduces special names for Justinian and his relatives that have a Slavic sound.

Thus, Justinian's father, called Savvatius according to Byzantine sources, was called Istokus by Bogomil, and the name of Justinian himself sounded like Upravda. Although the origins of Alleman's published book were in doubt, theories based on it were intensively developed until James Bryce conducted research on the original manuscript in the library of the Barberini Palace in 1883. In an article published in 1887, he argued that this document was of no historical value, and Bohumil himself hardly existed. Nowadays, Iustiniani Vita is considered as one of the legends linking the Slavs with great figures of the past such as Alexander the Great and Justinian.

Regarding the place of Justinian's birth, Procopius speaks out quite definitely, placing it in a place called Tauresium, next to the fort of Bederiana. About this place, Procopius further says that next to it the city of Justiniana Prima was subsequently founded, the ruins of which are now located in the south-east of Serbia. Procopius also reports that Justinian significantly strengthened and made numerous improvements in the city of Ulpiana, renaming it Justiniana Secunda. Nearby he built another city, calling it Justinopolis, in honor of his uncle.

Most of the cities of Dardania were destroyed during the reign of Anastasius powerful earthquake 518 Justinopolis was built next to the destroyed capital of the province of Scupi, and a powerful wall with four towers was erected around Tauresia, which Procopius calls Tetrapyrgia.

The names “Bederiana” and “Tavresius” have come down to our time in the form of the names of the villages of Bader and Taor near Skopje. Both of these places were explored in 1885 by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans, who found rich numismatic material there confirming the importance of the settlements located here after the 5th century. Evans concluded that the Skopje area was the birthplace of Justinian, confirming the identification of old settlements with modern villages.

The name of Justinian's mother, Justin's sister, Biglenica, is given in Iustiniani Vita, the unreliability of which is stated above. Since there is no other information on this matter, we can assume that her name is unknown. The fact that Justinian's mother was Justin's sister is confirmed by numerous sources.

There is more reliable news about Father Justinian. In The Secret History, Procopius gives the following account: “They say that his [Justinian’s] mother used to tell someone close to him that he was not born from her husband Savvatius or from any other person. Before she became pregnant with him, she was visited by a demon, invisible, but leaving her with the impression that he was with her and had intercourse with her, like a man with a woman, and then disappeared, as in a dream..

From here we learn the name of Justinian's father - Savvaty. Another source where this name is mentioned is the so-called “Acts regarding Callopodium”, included in the chronicle of Theophanes and the “Easter Chronicle” and relating to the events immediately preceding the uprising of Nika. There, the Prasins, during a conversation with the emperor’s representative, utter the phrase “It would have been better if Savvaty had not been born, he would not have given birth to a murderer son”.

Savvaty and his wife had two children, Peter Savvaty (lat. Petrus Sabbatius) and Vigilantia (lat. Vigilantia). Written sources nowhere mention the real name of Justinian, and only on the consular diptychs of 521 do we see the inscription lat. Fl. Petr. Sabbat. Justinian. v. i., com. mag. eqq. et p. praes., et c. od., meaning lat. Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus, vir illustris, comes, magister equitum et peditum praesentalium et consul ordinarius.

The marriage of Justinian and Theodora was childless, however, he had six nephews and nieces, of whom Justin II became heir.

Justinian's uncle, Justin, along with other Illyrian peasants, fleeing extreme poverty, came on foot from Bederiana to Byzantium and hired himself into military service. Arriving at the end of the reign of Leo I in Constantinople and enlisting in the imperial guard, Justin quickly rose in service, and already during the reign of Anastasia he took part in the wars with Persia as a military leader. Further, Justin distinguished himself in suppressing the uprising of Vitalian. Thus, Justin won the favor of Emperor Anastasius and was appointed chief of the palace guard with the rank of comite and senator.

The time of Justinian's arrival in the capital is not known exactly. It is assumed that this happened around the age of twenty-five, and then Justinian studied theology and Roman law for some time, after which he was awarded the title of Lat. candidati, that is, the emperor's personal bodyguard. Somewhere around this time, the adoption and change of name of the future emperor took place.

After the death of Anastasius in 518, Justin was able to seize power with relative ease, despite the fact that there were a large number of richer and more powerful candidates. According to Procopius, this was the will of higher powers interested in the ultimate rise of Justinian. The election procedure is described by Peter Patricius. Among the reasons that ensured the election of Justin and the rise of Justinian is the support of Patriarch John II, who was assured that the new dynasty would be faithful to the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, in contrast to the pro-Monophysite Anastasius. Probably, important role The theologically educated Justinian played a role in this. Immediately after the election of Justin as emperor, he appointed his nephew Lat. comes domesticorum as the head of a special corps of palace guards, as is known from a letter from Pope Hormizd, dated early 519.

In 521, as mentioned above, Justinian received a consular title, which he used to increase his popularity by staging magnificent shows in the circus, which grew so much that the Senate asked the aged emperor to appoint Justinian as his co-emperor. According to the chronicler John Zonara, Justin refused this offer. The Senate, however, continued to insist on Justinian's elevation, asking that he be given the title of Lat. nobilissimus, which happened until 525, when he was awarded the highest rank of Caesar. Although such a distinguished career was bound to have real influence, there is no reliable information about Justinian's role in the administration of the empire during this period.

Over time, the emperor's health deteriorated, and the illness caused by an old wound in the leg worsened. Feeling the approach of death, Justin responded to another petition from the Senate to appoint Justinian as co-emperor. The ceremony, which has come down to us in the description of Peter Patricius in the treatise lat. De ceremoniis of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, occurred on Easter, April 4, 527 - Justinian and his wife Theodora were crowned Augustus and Augustus.

Justinian finally gained full power after the death of Emperor Justin I on August 1, 527.

Few descriptions of Justinian's appearance have survived. Justinian was depicted on one of the largest (36 solidi or ½-pound) known medallions, stolen in 1831 from the Paris medal cabinet. The medallion was melted down, but its images and a cast were preserved, allowing copies to be made from it.

The Roman-German Museum in Cologne houses a copy of the statue of Justinian made of Egyptian marble. Some idea of ​​the emperor’s appearance is given by the surviving drawings of Justinian’s Column, erected in 542. Discovered in Kerch in 1891 and now kept in the Hermitage, the silver missorium was originally considered to be an image of Justinian. Perhaps Justinian is also depicted on the famous Barberini diptych, kept in the Louvre.

A large number of coins were issued during the reign of Justinian. Donative coins of 36 and 4.5 solidi are known, a solidi with a full-figure image of the emperor in consular vestments, as well as an exceptionally rare aureus weighing 5.43 g, minted on an Old Roman foot. The obverse of all these coins is occupied by either a three-quarter or profile bust of the emperor, with or without a helmet.

A vivid portrayal of the early career of the future empress is given in copious detail in The Secret History; John of Ephesus simply notes that “she came from a brothel.” Despite the opinion of some scholars that all these claims are unreliable and exaggerated, the generally accepted view generally agrees with Procopius's account of the events of Theodora's early career.

Justinian's first meeting with Theodora took place around 522 in Constantinople. Then Theodora left the capital and spent some time in Alexandria. How their second meeting took place is not known for certain. It is known that, wanting to marry Theodora, Justinian asked his uncle to assign her the rank of patrician, but this caused strong opposition from Empress Euphemia, and until the latter’s death in 523 or 524, the marriage was impossible.

Probably related to Justinian's desire was the adoption of the law "On Marriage" (lat. De nuptiis) during Justin's reign, which repealed the law of Emperor Constantine I prohibiting a person who had reached the senatorial rank from marrying a harlot.

After marriage, Theodora completely broke with her turbulent past and was a faithful wife.

In foreign policy, the name of Justinian is associated primarily with the idea "restoration of the Roman Empire" or "Reconquista of the West". There are currently two theories regarding the question of when this goal was set. According to one of them, now more widespread, the idea of ​​​​the return of the West existed in Byzantium since the end of the 5th century. This point of view is based on the thesis that after the emergence of the barbarian kingdoms professing Arianism, there must have been social elements that did not recognize the loss of Rome's status as a great city and capital of the civilized world and did not agree with the dominant position of the Arians in the religious sphere.

An alternative point of view, which does not deny the general desire to return the West to the fold of civilization and orthodox religion, places the emergence of a program of specific actions after successes in the war against the Vandals. This is supported by various indirect signs, for example, the disappearance from legislation and state documentation of the first third of the 6th century of words and expressions that somehow mentioned Africa, Italy and Spain, as well as the loss of interest of the Byzantines in the first capital of the empire.

Perceiving himself as the heir of the Roman Caesars, Justinian considered it his duty to recreate the Roman Empire, while wanting the state to have one law and one faith. Based on the principle of absolute power, he believed that in a well-established state everything should be subject to the imperial attention. Understanding the importance of the church for government, he made every effort to ensure that it carried out his will. The question of the primacy of Justinian's state or religious interests is debatable. It is at least known that the emperor was the author of numerous letters on religious topics addressed to popes and patriarchs, as well as treatises and church hymns.

This is what the emperor’s contemporary, Procopius of Caesarea, wrote about his attitude towards the church and the Christian faith: “He seemed to be firm in the Christian faith, but this also turned out to be death for his subjects. Indeed, he allowed the clergy to oppress their neighbors with impunity, and when they seized the lands adjacent to their possessions, he shared their joy, believing that in this way he was demonstrating his piety. And when he judged such cases, he believed that he was doing a good deed if someone, hiding behind shrines, walked away, appropriating what did not belong to him.” (Procopius of Caesarea “The Secret History” ch. XIII, part 4.5).

In accordance with his desire, Justinian considered it his right not only to decide issues related to the leadership of the church and its property, but also to establish a certain dogma among his subjects. Whatever religious direction the emperor adhered to, his subjects had to adhere to the same direction. Justinian regulated the life of the clergy, filled the highest hierarchical positions at his discretion, and acted as a mediator and judge in the clergy. He patronized the church in the person of its ministers, contributed to the construction of churches, monasteries, and the increase in their privileges; finally, the emperor established religious unity among all subjects of the empire, gave the latter the norm of orthodox teaching, participated in dogmatic disputes and gave the final decision on controversial dogmatic issues.

Such a policy of secular predominance in religious and church affairs, right down to the secret places of a person’s religious beliefs, especially clearly demonstrated by Justinian, received in history the name of Caesaropapism, and this emperor is considered one of the most typical representatives of this trend.

Justinian took steps to completely eradicate the remnants of paganism. In 529 he closed the famous philosophical school in Athens. This had a predominantly symbolic meaning, since by the time of the event this school had lost its leading position among the educational institutions of the empire after the University of Constantinople was founded in the 5th century under Theodosius II. After the school was closed under Justinian, Athenian professors were expelled, some of them moved to Persia, where they met an admirer of Plato in the person of Khosrow I; the school's property was confiscated. John of Ephesus wrote: “In the same year in which St. Benedict destroyed the last pagan national sanctuary in Italy, namely the temple of Apollo in the sacred grove on Monte Cassino, and the stronghold of ancient paganism in Greece was also destroyed." From then on, Athens finally lost its former significance as a cultural center and turned into a remote provincial city. Justinian did not achieve the complete eradication of paganism; it continued to hide in some inaccessible areas. Procopius of Caesarea writes that the persecution of pagans was carried out not so much out of a desire to establish Christianity, but rather out of a thirst to seize the gold of pagan temples.

In The Divine Comedy, having placed Justinian in Paradise, he is entrusted with making a historical survey of the Roman Empire ( The Divine Comedy, Paradise, song 6). According to Dante, Justinian's main services to history were the reform of law, the renunciation of Monophysitism and the campaigns of Belisarius.

Flavius ​​Peter Savvaty. Byzantine emperor in 527-565. Genus. OK. 482 + 11/14 November 565

Justinian came from a family of Illyrian peasants. When his uncle, Justin (), rose to eminence under Emperor Anastasia (), he brought his nephew closer to him and managed to give him a diversified education. Capable by nature, Justinian little by little began to gain fame and influence at court, especially after Justin himself became emperor. In 521 he was awarded a consular title. (Dashkov: “Justinian the Great”). Over the years, Justin fell into apparent dementia and the reins of power passed to Justinian. This was a man, according to Procopius, full of cunning and deceit, distinguished by insincerity, and good at hiding his anger. He was two-faced, dangerous, an excellent actor and knew how to shed tears not from joy or grief, but artificially causing them at the right time as needed. He constantly lied: having sealed the agreement with a letter and the most terrible oaths, he immediately retreated from his promises and vows. An unfaithful friend, an implacable enemy, easily susceptible to evil, he did not disdain denunciations and was quick to punish. But, being of this nature, he tried to show himself accessible and merciful to everyone who turned to him. Access to him was open to anyone, and he never became angry with those who stood in front of him or spoke inappropriately. At the same time, he never showed embarrassment in front of those whom he was going to destroy. He never outwardly showed any anger or irritation towards those who annoyed him. In his appearance, neither then nor later, there was anything of royal dignity, and he did not consider it necessary to guard it, but in his language, appearance, and way of thinking he was like a barbarian. He had almost no need for sleep and never ate or drank to his fullest, but it was enough for him to barely touch food with his fingertips to stop eating. As if this seemed to him a minor matter, imposed on him by nature, for he often remained without food for two days.

He also chose a girlfriend to match himself, since his wife, Theodora, with whom he lived long before the wedding, also combined many vices. Her father was an overseer of circus animals, and since childhood she herself took part in mime performances and was engaged in prostitution. According to Procopius, she often came to dinner, put together by ten or even more young men, distinguished by enormous bodily strength and experienced in debauchery, and during the night she gave herself to all the guests; then, when all of them, exhausted, were unable to continue this activity, she went to their servants, mating with each of them, but even then she did not feel satiated with this lust. Often in the theater, in front of all the people, she took off her dress and found herself naked in the middle of the meeting, having only a narrow strip on her groin and private parts, not because she was ashamed to show them in public, but because no one was allowed to appear here at all. naked Justinian fell madly in love with her. At first he became friends with her as a mistress, although he elevated her to the rank of patrician. While Empress Euphemia, Justin's wife, was alive, Justinian could not make Theodora his legal wife. But after her death in 523, he began to seek betrothal to Theodora. Since a man who had achieved senatorial rank was not allowed to marry a harlot, he forced the emperor to change the ancient laws and from then on lived with Theodora as his legal wife.

In April 527, Justinian was proclaimed emperor of the Romans, along with his uncle. He ascended the throne together with Theodora, and four months later Justin died of illness. Both his subjects and neighboring peoples immediately felt the harsh hand of the new emperor. (Procopius: “The Secret History”; 8,9,13,14). In matters of faith, he tried to adhere to Orthodoxy and in 529 he launched a great persecution against pagans and all kinds of heresy, and ordered their property to be taken to the treasury. The emperor promulgated a decree not to allow pagans and heretics into public service, but only Orthodox Christians. (Theophanes: 521). “It is fair,” wrote Justinian, “to deprive the one who worships God incorrectly of earthly blessings.” (Dashkov: “Justinian the Great”). He ordered the temples of these heretics, and especially those who professed Arianism, and all their property to be transferred to the treasury. (Procopius: “The Secret History”; 11). The persecution did not affect only the Monophysites, for they were openly patronized by the empress. Whether this really was so, or whether they agreed among themselves so that one would defend the confessors of one movement, and the other - the other - the opposite - is unknown. (Evagrius: 4; 10). However, they considered it necessary to pretend that in religious disputes they were taking opposite paths. (Procopius: “The Secret History”; 10). As for non-Christians, Justinian spoke even more harshly in their regard: “There should be no pagans on earth!” At the same time, the Platonic Academy in Athens was closed. (Dashkov: “Justinian the Great”). Troops were sent against the Samaritans who refused to be baptized. As a result of a three-year brutal war (529-532), more than twenty thousand of them were killed, another twenty thousand were sold into slavery abroad, and the rest were forcibly baptized. It is believed that about one hundred thousand Roman subjects died in the Samaritan War, and the fertile province turned into a desert covered with ash and ruins. (Gibbon: 47). Justinian's greed knew no bounds. According to Procopius, he took into his own hands the private property of the Romans from all over the world, accusing some of them of something they did not do, and convincing others that they had given this property to him. Many, convicted of murder or other similar crimes, gave him all their money and thereby avoided punishment for their sins. He established many monopolies, selling the welfare of his subjects to those who did not hesitate to commit such abomination. He himself, having received payment for such a transaction, withdrew from this business, giving those who gave him the money the opportunity to run the business as they pleased. (Procopius: “The Secret History”; 8.19).

However, despite the lawlessness reigning everywhere, it was during the reign of Justinian that important reforms in the field of law were carried out. Implementing his extensive plans for the revival of the former greatness of Rome, Justinian could not do without putting things in order in legislative affairs. In the middle of the sixth century, the old Roman law, due to the mass of new, often contradictory imperial and praetorian edicts, turned into a confusing jumble of the fruits of legal thought, providing a skillful interpreter with the opportunity to lead litigation in one direction or another, depending on the benefit. For these reasons, as soon as he took the throne, Justinian ordered colossal work to be carried out to streamline a huge number of decrees of rulers and the entire inheritance of ancient jurisprudence. In 528-529. A commission of ten jurists codified the decrees of emperors from Hadrian to Justinian in twelve books of the Justinian Code. Resolutions not included in this code were declared invalid. By 534, fifty books of the Digest, a legal canon based on extensive material from all Roman legislation, had been published. At the end of the commissions' activities, Justinian officially banned all legislative and critical activities of lawyers. It is no longer possible to comment on or interpret laws. This became the exclusive prerogative of the emperor. (Dashkov: “Justinian the Great”).

Justinian had to assert his power not only by law, but also by direct violence. At the beginning of the sixth century, the population of the capital did not yet have the respect for their basileus that was established later. Residents of the capital, especially at the hippodrome during the races, were not embarrassed to shout out their unforgiving opinion about the rulers, and if something happened, the mob took up arms. Emperors Zinon and Anastasius waged a formal war with the people of Constantinople for many years and sat in their palaces, as if in besieged fortresses. Justinian had to strengthen the authority of his power with iron and blood. The beginning of his reign was marked by a powerful uprising in the capital, known as the Nika. It all started when the city authorities of Constantinople sentenced a rebel to death. On January 14, 532, the townspeople captured those who were being led to execution and immediately, breaking into the prison, freed all those imprisoned there for rebellion or another crime. The city was set on fire, as if it were in the hands of the enemy. The Temple of Sophia, the baths of Zeuxippus and the imperial palace from the Propylaea to the house of Ares were destroyed in flames, and many private houses were burned down at the same time. Justinian and the empress and some of the senators were in fear and inaction. On January 17, Justinian ordered Hypatius and Pompey, nephews of the former emperor Anastasius, to go home as soon as possible; either he suspected them of encroaching on his life, or fate itself was leading them to this. (Procopius: “The Wars of Justinian”; 1; 24). On the morning of the 18th, the emperor himself came out with the Gospel in his hands to the hippodrome, persuading the residents to stop the riots. He said that he regretted not listening to the demands of the people earlier. However, he was booed and forced to leave in disgrace. Some of the crowd shouted: “You’re lying, you ass!” Others demanded that Hypatius become emperor. Immediately crowds of people burst into his house and, despite desperate resistance and the tears of his wife, dressed him in the captured royal clothes. A significant part of the senators joined the rebellion. (Dashkov: “Justinian the Great”). The soldiers, both those who were entrusted with guarding the palace and everyone else, did not show loyalty to the emperor, but did not clearly take part in the matter, waiting to see what the outcome of events would be. Tormented by fear, Justinian gathered a council in the palace from the courtiers who remained with him. They consulted among themselves on what was best to do: stay in the capital or flee on ships. Many speeches were made in favor of both. Many were inclined to think that they should flee, but Empress Theodora objected to them: “In my opinion, flight, even if it ever brought salvation, and perhaps will bring it now, is unworthy. For someone who was born, it is impossible not to die, but for someone who once reigned, being a fugitive is unbearable... We have a lot of money, and the sea is nearby, and there are ships. But be careful that you, who have been saved, do not have to choose death over salvation. I like the ancient saying that purple is the best shroud.” That's what Theodora said. Her words inspired everyone, and having regained their lost courage, they began to discuss how they should act. Justinian placed all his hopes on the commanders Belisarius and Mundus. Belisarius had just returned from the war with the Persians and brought with him many spear and shield bearers. Mund was in command of the Heruli barbarians. (Procopius: “The Wars of Justinian”; 1; 24). It was decided to attack the rebels who had gathered at the hippodrome on the occasion of the coronation of Hypatius. Belisarius with difficulty led his detachment through the burned-out part of the city and suddenly appeared before the stands. At his order, the warriors began to shoot arrows into the crowd and strike left and right with swords. A huge but unorganized mass of people mixed up and then three thousand Heruli Munda made their way into the arena through the “gate of the dead”. As a result of the terrible massacre, about thirty thousand people were killed. (Dashkov: “Justinian the Great”). Hypatius was pulled from the throne and taken along with Pompey to the emperor. The next day, the soldiers killed both of them, and their bodies were thrown into the sea. Justinian confiscated their property, as well as the property of all other members of the Senate who took their side. (Procopius: “The Wars of Justinian”; 1; 24). The unheard of cruelty with which “Nica” was suppressed frightened the Romans for a long time. Then, almost until his death, Justinian ruled calmly.

After peace was established, the capital appeared before the eyes of the residents, disfigured by fires and destruction. The city was a heap of blackened hills, it was filled with smoke and ash, the burning smell spreading everywhere made it uninhabitable and its whole appearance inspired horror mixed with pity in the spectators. (Dashkov: “Justinian the Great”). The townspeople especially regretted the destruction of the Church of St. Sofia, founded by Constantine the Great. But less than forty days had passed before the workers, at the order of the emperor, began construction of a new temple (). Ten thousand people, under the guidance of the best architects, worked day after day on this grandiose construction site for five years and eleven months. The emperor himself, dressed in a linen tunic, daily watched the progress of their work and encouraged their diligence with his familiar address, his solicitude and his rewards. (Gibbon: 40). The newly recreated temple amazed with its size, the size of its dome and the unprecedented beauty and richness of its interior decoration. They say that after the consecration of the cathedral, Justinian walked around it and exclaimed: “Glory to God, who recognized me worthy to perform such a miracle. I have defeated you, O Solomon!” (Dashkov: “Justinian the Great”).

The revival of Sofia marked the beginning of Justinian's construction activity, unprecedented in its scale. The palace of Constantinople, damaged by fire, was restored with unprecedented luxury. On the Asian shore of the Propontis, not far from Chalcedon, the Herea Palace, the summer residence of the emperor, was built surrounded by gardens. In Constantinople alone and in the neighboring suburbs, Justinian built twenty-five churches in the name of Christ, the Holy Virgin and saints; these churches were mostly decorated with marble and gold. But not only the capital felt the care of the emperor - almost every saint on the calendar was honored with the construction of a special temple; Almost every city in the empire was blessed with the construction of bridges, hospitals and water pipelines, and Carthage and Antioch, destroyed by wars and earthquakes, were completely rebuilt by him. On the borders of the empire, many fortresses and fortifications were erected to contain the pressure of the barbarians. Eighty castles were rebuilt on the Danube border alone. In Thrace and Dacia, turned into desert by the Huns, cities were refounded and settled by colonists. In Greece, the collapsed fortifications of Athens, Corinth and Plataea were repaired, and the Isthmus of Corinth and the Thermopylae Passage were protected by fortifications. No less powerful fortifications were erected on the Persian border, in Thracian Chersonesus, in Crimea and Ethiopia. (Gibbon: 40).

Justinian's entire reign was spent in fierce wars with barbarians and neighbors. He dreamed of expanding the borders of his power to the borders of the former Roman Empire, and although his plans were far from being fully realized, the scale of the conquests made under him was impressive.

In 532, after making peace with Persia, Justinian focused his efforts on returning Africa, which had been captured by the Vandals. Internal strife in the Vandal kingdom was used as a reason to start the war. Back in 531, the usurper Gelimer () seized power in Carthage, overthrowing and killing Childeric, who was friendly to the Romans. Justinian declared war on him, although the majority of the Senate spoke out against this idea. In June 533, a 15,000-strong army under the command of Belisarius was sent to Africa on six hundred ships. In September, the Romans landed on the African coast, in the autumn and winter of 533-534. near Decimus and Tricamarus, Gelimer was defeated, and in March 534 surrendered to Belisarius.

Immediately after that the Italian War began. In the summer of 535, two small but well-trained and equipped armies invaded the Ostrogothic state (): Mund captured Dalmatia, and Belisarius captured Sicily. The Franks, bribed with Roman gold, threatened from the west of Italy. The frightened king of the Goths, Theodat, began negotiations for peace and agreed to abdicate the throne, but at the end of the year Mund died in a skirmish, and Belisarius hastily sailed to Africa to suppress the soldiers' rebellion. Theodat, emboldened, interrupted the negotiations and took the imperial ambassador into custody.

The rebellion in Africa was caused by Justinian's decision to annex all the lands of the Vandals to the fiscus, while the soldiers hoped that the emperor would divide them between them. The legions rebelled, proclaiming the commander of a simple soldier, Stotsu. Almost the entire army supported him, and Stots besieged Carthage, where the few troops loyal to the emperor were locked in. With the arrival of Belisarius, the rebels retreated from the city, but the war did not cease. Having gathered slaves and surviving vandals under his banner, Stotsa fought against the imperial troops for another ten years. Africa was finally conquered only by 548 (Procopius: “The Wars of Justinian”; 3.4). By this time, Libya, which stretched over such vast spaces, according to Procopius, was so devastated that meeting a person there along a long journey was not easy and even remarkable. Meanwhile, in this richest province, before the war, about eight million people lived alone among the Vandals, not counting the descendants of those who arrived here during Roman rule. The blame for this horrific defeat lay entirely with the emperor, who, without taking care to firmly ensure his power, hastily recalled Belisarius from Africa, completely unfoundedly accusing him of tyranny. After this, he immediately sent land appraisers and imposed previously unprecedented and severe taxes. He appropriated the better lands for himself, began to persecute the Arians, and stopped paying salaries to the soldiers. The rebellion that arose as a result of these reasons led to the final ruin of Africa. (Procopius: “The Secret History”; 18).

Simultaneously with the African War, the conquest of Italy continued. In the winter of 536, Belisarius returned to Sicily. In mid-November, the Romans took Naples by storm. The Gothic king Theodotus was killed by the conspirators, and Vitigas seized the throne. But this change could no longer save the Goths. On the night of December 9-10, 536, Belisarius entered Rome. Vitigas's attempt to recapture the city, despite more than tenfold superiority in forces, was unsuccessful. At the end of 539, Belisarius besieged Ravenna, and the following spring the capital of the Goths fell. They offered Belisarius to be their king, but the general refused. Nevertheless, a suspicious Justinian recalled Belisarius from Italy and sent him to fight the Persians, who in 540 suddenly attacked the eastern provinces of Byzantium. The next ten years, when the empire had to fight three difficult wars simultaneously, were the most difficult of Justinian's reign. (Procopius: “Justinian’s Wars”; 5.6).

The Persian attack on Syria in 540 was sudden and stunning. “Then,” writes Pseudo-Dionysius, “the east wind arose, that is, the kingdom of Persia. It also strengthened itself and prepared for war with the help of the strong peoples of the entire East. All the kings of the eastern land rose and headed to the land of the Romans. They marched, ravaged and conquered the country as far as the great city of Antioch and besieged it. Since the city erected fortifications to resist the enemy, the enemy defeated it, conquered it, ravaged it, burned it, captured it and destroyed it to the ground. He even carried away the marble slabs that were embedded in the walls and houses, and took the entire city into captivity.” After this raid, the Persian army retreated to its territory, but the war that began in this way continued for many more years, drawing on significant forces of the empire. In the same year, the Huns (Bulgars) crossed the Danube and devastated Scythia and Moesia. “Because of their large number, no one could resist them,” writes Pseudo-Dionysius. - They treated this kingdom with such contempt that they sent word through ambassadors: prepare your palace for us - here we are going there. So fear fell on the emperor and the nobles. The gates of the palace were immediately locked and reinforced with iron chains, as if the entire city was surrendering without a fight and they tried to strengthen only the palace. Nothing like this has been seen or heard since the founding of the city.” The emperor's nephew Justus, sent against the Huns, died. (Theophanes: 531). Three years later, the same Bulgars, attacking Greece, reached the outskirts of the capital. “They broke through the outer wall, plundered and burned all the suburbs,” writes Mikhail the Syrian, “they captured everyone they found there and left. And they came again a second and third time. Then, when the Romans gathered forces against them, they destroyed them all with the sword in battle.” The Slavs, who participated in these campaigns at first as allies of the Bulgars, later continued their raids independently (). No fortifications could hold back their terrible onslaught. According to Procopius, the Huns, Slavs and Ants almost every year raided Illyria and Thrace and committed horrific violence against the local population. So many people were killed and enslaved here that the entire area became like the Scythian desert. (Procopius: “The Secret History”; 18).

In Italy, things were also not going well for the Romans. In 541, Totila became king of the Goths. He managed to gather the broken squads and organize skillful resistance to Justinian’s small and poorly equipped detachments. Over the next five years, the Romans lost almost all of their conquests in Italy. The disgraced Belisarius again arrived in the Apennines in 545, but without money and troops, almost certain death. The remnants of his army were unable to break through to the aid of besieged Rome, and on December 17, 546, Totila occupied and plundered the Eternal City. Soon the Goths themselves left there and Rome briefly returned to the rule of Justinian. The bloodless Roman army, which received no reinforcements, no money, no food, began to support itself by robbing the civilian population. This, as well as the restoration of harsh Roman laws, led to a massive flight of slaves and colons, who continuously replenished Totila's army. By 550, he again captured Rome and Sicily, and only four cities remained under the control of Constantinople - Ravenna, Ancona, Croton and Otrante. (Procopius: “Justinian’s Wars”; 7). According to Procopius, Italy by this time was even more ruined than Africa. (Procopius: “The Secret History”; 18).

In 552, Justinian sent an army of thirty thousand to Italy, led by the energetic and talented commander Narses. In June, at the Battle of Tagin, Totila's army was defeated, and he himself died. The remnants of the Goths, together with Totila's successor, Theia, retreated to Vesuvius, where they were finally destroyed in the second battle. (Procopius: “The Wars of Justinian”; 8). In 554, Narses defeated a 70,000-strong army of Franks and Alemanni. (Agathias: 2).

In the same year, taking advantage of the internecine war of the Visigoths, the Romans captured the southeast of Spain with the cities of Corduba, Cartago Nova and Malaga. (Dashkov: “Justinian the Great”).

Meanwhile, the Danube provinces continued to be devastated by barbarians. At the end of 559, huge hordes of Bulgars and Slavs attacked Thrace, conquered it, killed many and took them prisoner (). When the barbarians approached the walls of the capital, Justinian mobilized everyone capable of bearing arms, sent the city militia of circus parties, palace guards and even members of the Senate to the battlements. He entrusted Belisarius with command of the defense. The need for funds turned out to be such that to organize the cavalry, Belisarius collected horses from the imperial hippodrome, from charitable institutions, and even took them from wealthy townspeople. The emperor ordered ships to be prepared in order to go to the Danube and take the crossing away from the barbarians. Having learned about this, the Bulgars and Slavs asked through the ambassador to allow them to return unhindered to their side of the Danube. (Theophanes: 551).

Finally, in 562, peace was concluded with the Persians. Moreover, after a twenty-year devastating war, the borders of both empires remained virtually unchanged. (Gibbon: 42).

The daily audience of the Proza.ru portal is about 100 thousand visitors, who in total view more than half a million pages according to the traffic counter, which is located to the right of this text. Each column contains two numbers: the number of views and the number of visitors.

The burnt Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was completely rebuilt, striking in its beauty and splendor and remaining for a thousand years the most grandiose temple in the Christian world.

Place of Birth

Regarding the place of birth of Justinian, Procopius speaks out quite definitely, placing it in a place called Taurusium (lat. Tauresium), next to Fort Bederian (lat. Bederiana) . About this place, Procopius further says that next to it the city of Justiniana Prima was subsequently founded, the ruins of which are now located in the south-east of Serbia. Procopius also reports that Justinian significantly strengthened and made numerous improvements in the city of Ulpiana, renaming it Justiniana Secunda. Nearby he built another city, calling it Justinopolis, in honor of his uncle.

Most of the cities of Dardania were destroyed during the reign of Anastasius by a powerful earthquake in 518. Justinopolis was built next to the destroyed capital of the province of Scupi, and a powerful wall with four towers was erected around Tauresia, which Procopius calls Tetrapyrgia.

The names "Bederiana" and "Tavresius" have survived to this day in the form of the names of the villages of Bader and Taor near Skopje. Both of these places were explored in 1885 by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans, who found rich numismatic material there confirming the importance of the settlements located here after the 5th century. Evans concluded that the Skopje area was the birthplace of Justinian, confirming the identification of old settlements with modern villages.

Justinian's family

Name of Justinian's mother, Justin's sister, Biglenica is given in Iustiniani Vita, the unreliability of which was stated above. Since there is no other information on this matter, we can assume that her name is unknown. The fact that Justinian's mother was Justin's sister is confirmed by numerous sources.

There is more reliable news about Father Justinian. In The Secret History, Procopius gives the following story:

From here we learn the name of Justinian's father - Savvaty. Another source where this name is mentioned is the so-called “Acts regarding Callopodium”, included in the chronicle of Theophanes and the “Easter Chronicle” and relating to the events immediately preceding the uprising of Nika. There, the prasins, during a conversation with a representative of the emperor, utter the phrase “It would have been better if Savvaty had not been born, he would not have given birth to a murderer son.”

Savvaty and his wife had two children, Peter Savvaty (lat. Petrus Sabbatius) and Vigilantia (lat. Vigilantia). Written sources nowhere mention the real name of Justinian, and only on the consular diptychs of 521 do we see the inscription lat. Fl. Petr. Sabbat. Justinian. v. i., com. mag. eqq. et p. praes., et c. od. , meaning lat. Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus, vir illustris, comes, magister equitum et peditum praesentalium et consul ordinarius.

The marriage of Justinian and Theodora was childless, however, he had six nephews and nieces, of whom Justin II became heir.

Early years and reign of Justin

Justinian's uncle, Justin, along with other Illyrian peasants, fleeing extreme poverty, came on foot from Bederiana to Byzantium and hired himself into military service. Arriving at the end of the reign of Leo I in Constantinople and enlisting in the imperial guard, Justin quickly rose in service, and already during the reign of Anastasia he took part in the wars with Persia as a military leader. Further, Justin distinguished himself in suppressing the uprising of Vitalian. Thus, Justin won the favor of Emperor Anastasius and was appointed chief of the palace guard with the rank of comite and senator.

The time of Justinian's arrival in the capital is not known exactly. This is believed to have occurred around the age of twenty-five, and Justinian then studied theology and Roman law for some time, after which he was given the title of Lat. candidati, that is, the emperor's personal bodyguard. Somewhere around this time, the adoption and change of name of the future emperor took place.

In 521, as mentioned above, Justinian received a consular title, which he used to increase his popularity by staging magnificent shows in the circus, which grew so much that the Senate asked the aged emperor to appoint Justinian as his co-emperor. According to the chronicler John Zonara, Justin refused this offer. The Senate, however, continued to insist on Justinian's elevation, asking that he be given the title of Lat. nobilissimus, which happened until 525, when he was awarded the highest rank of Caesar. Although such a distinguished career was bound to have real influence, there is no reliable information about Justinian's role in the administration of the empire during this period.

Over time, the emperor's health deteriorated, and the illness caused by an old wound in the leg worsened. Feeling the approach of death, Justin responded to another petition from the Senate to appoint Justinian as co-emperor. The ceremony, which has come down to us in the description of Peter Patricius in the treatise lat. De ceremonies Constantine Porphyrogenitus, occurred on Easter, April 4, 527 - Justinian and his wife Theodora were crowned Augustus and Augustus.

Justinian finally gained full power after the death of Emperor Justin I on August 1, 527.

Appearance and lifetime images

Few descriptions of Justinian's appearance have survived. In his Secret History, Procopius describes Justinian as follows:

He was not big and not too small, but of average height, not thin, but slightly plump; His face was round and not devoid of beauty, for even after two days of fasting there was a blush on him. To give an idea of ​​his appearance in a few words, I will say that he was very similar to Domitian, the son of Vespasian, whose malice the Romans were fed up with to such an extent that, even tearing him to pieces, they did not quench their anger against him, but endured the decision of the Senate that his name should not be mentioned in the inscriptions and that not a single image of him should remain. "The Secret History", VIII, 12-13

A large number of coins were issued during the reign of Justinian. Donative coins of 36 and 4.5 solidi are known, a solidi with a full-figure image of the emperor in consular vestments, as well as an exceptionally rare aureus weighing 5.43 g, minted on an Old Roman foot. The obverse of all these coins is occupied by either a three-quarter or profile bust of the emperor, with or without a helmet.

Justinian and Theodora

A vivid portrayal of the early career of the future empress is given in copious detail in The Secret History; John of Ephesus simply notes that "she came from a brothel." Despite the opinion of some scholars that all these claims are unreliable and exaggerated, the generally accepted view generally agrees with Procopius' account of the events of Theodora's early career. Justinian's first meeting with Theodora took place around 522 in Constantinople. Then Theodora left the capital and spent some time in Alexandria. How their second meeting took place is not known for certain. It is known that wanting to marry Theodora, Justinian asked his uncle to assign her the rank of patrician, but this caused strong opposition from the empress, and until the death of the latter in 523 or 524, the marriage was impossible.

Probably, the adoption of the law “On Marriage” (lat. De nuptiis), which repealed the law of Emperor Constantine I prohibiting a person who had achieved senatorial rank from marrying a harlot.

After marriage, Theodora completely broke with her turbulent past and was a faithful wife.

Foreign policy

Directions of diplomacy

Main article: Byzantine diplomacy

In foreign policy, the name of Justinian is associated primarily with the idea of ​​“restoration of the Roman Empire” or “reconquista of the West.” There are currently two theories regarding the question of when this goal was set. According to one of them, now more widespread, the idea of ​​​​the return of the West existed in Byzantium since the end of the 5th century. This point of view is based on the thesis that after the emergence of the barbarian kingdoms professing Arianism, there must have been social elements that did not recognize the loss of Rome's status as a great city and capital of the civilized world and did not agree with the dominant position of the Arians in the religious sphere.

An alternative point of view, which does not deny the general desire to return the West to the fold of civilization and orthodox religion, places the emergence of a program of specific actions after successes in the war against the Vandals. This is supported by various indirect signs, for example, the disappearance from legislation and state documentation of the first third of the 6th century of words and expressions that somehow mentioned Africa, Italy and Spain, as well as the loss of interest of the Byzantines in the first capital of the empire.

Justinian's Wars

Domestic policy

Structure of government

The internal organization of the empire in the era of Justinian was based on the reforms of Diocletian, whose activities were continued under Theodosius I. The results of this work are presented in the famous monument Notitia dignitatum dating back to the beginning of the 5th century. This document is a detailed list of all ranks and positions of the civil and military departments of the empire. He gives a clear understanding of the mechanism created by Christian monarchs, which can be described as bureaucracy.

The military division of the empire did not always coincide with the civilian division. The highest power was distributed among certain military leaders, magistri militum. In the eastern empire, according to Notitia dignitatum, there were five of them: two at court ( magistri militum praesentales) and three in the provinces of Thrace, Illyria and the East (respectively magistri militum per Thracias, per Illyricum, per Orientem). Next in the military hierarchy were the Duci ( duces) and comites ( comites rei militares), equivalent to vicars of the civil authority, and having the rank spectabilis, however, the governors of districts are inferior in size to dioceses.

Government

The basis of Justinian's government was made up of ministers, all of whom bore the title glorious, under whose command the entire empire was. Among them the most powerful was Prefect of the Praetorium of the East, who ruled the largest of the regions of the empire, also determining the situation in finance, legislation, public administration, and legal proceedings. The second most important was Prefect of the City- manager of the capital; then head of services- manager of the imperial house and office; Quaestor of the Sacred Chambers- Minister of Justice, committee of sacred bounties- Imperial Treasurer, private property committee And committee of patrimonies- those who managed the emperor's property; finally three presented-the chief of the city police, whose command was the city garrison. The next most important were senators- whose influence under Justinian was increasingly reduced and committees of the sacred consistory- members of the imperial council.

Ministers

Among the ministers of Justinian, the first should be called Quaestor of the Sacred Chambers-Tribonia - Minister of Justice and Head of the Chancellery. Justinian's legislative reforms are inextricably linked with his name. He was originally from Pamphilus and began serving in the lower ranks of the chancellery and, thanks to his hard work and sharp mind, quickly reached the position of head of the office department. From that moment on, he was involved in legal reforms and enjoyed the exceptional favor of the emperor. In 529 he was appointed to the post of palace quaestor. Tribonius is entrusted with the responsibility of chairing the commissions editing the Digests, the Code and the Institutions. Procopius, admiring his intelligence and gentle manners, nevertheless accuses him of greed and bribery. Nick's rebellion was largely caused by the abuses of Tribonius. But even in the most difficult moment, the emperor did not abandon his favorite. Although the quaestor was taken away from Tribonius, he was given the post of chief of services, and in 535 he was again appointed quaestor. Tribonius retained the position of quaestor until his death in 544 or 545.

Another culprit in the Nika revolt was the praetorian prefect John of Cappadocia. Being of humble origin, he rose to prominence under Justinian, thanks to his natural insight and success in financial enterprises, he managed to win the favor of the king and receive the post of imperial treasurer. He was soon elevated to the dignity illustris and received the post of provincial prefect. Possessing unlimited power, he stained himself with unheard-of cruelty and atrocities in extorting the subjects of the empire. His agents were allowed torture and murder to achieve the goal of increasing John’s own treasury. Having achieved unprecedented power, he formed a court party and tried to claim the throne. This led him into an open conflict with Theodora. During the Nika uprising, he was replaced by prefect Phocas. However, in 534, John regained the prefecture. In 538, he became consul and then patrician. Only Theodora's hatred and unusually increased ambition led to his fall in 541

Among other important ministers of the first period of Justinian's reign, one should name Hermogenes the Hun by birth, chief of services (530-535); his successor Basilides (536-539) quaestor in 532, in addition to the comites of the sacred bounties of Constantine (528-533) and Strategy (535-537); also comita of private property Florus (531-536).

John of Cappadocia was succeeded in 543 by Peter Barsimes. He began as a silver merchant, quickly becoming rich thanks to merchant dexterity and trading machinations. Having entered the chancellery, he managed to win the favor of the empress. Theodora began promoting her favorite with such energy that it gave rise to gossip. As prefect, he continued John's practice of illegal extortion and financial abuse. Speculation in grain in 546 led to famine in the capital and popular unrest. The emperor was forced to depose Peter, despite Theodora's defense. However, through her efforts, he soon received the position of imperial treasurer. Even after the death of his patroness, he retained his influence and in 555 returned to the prefecture of the praetorium and retained this position until 559, combining it with the treasury.

The other Peter served as chief of services for many years and was one of Justinian's most influential ministers. He was originally from Thessalonica and was originally a lawyer in Constantinople, where he became famous for his eloquence and legal knowledge. In 535, Justinian entrusted Peter with conducting negotiations with the Ostrogoth king Theodatus. Although Peter negotiated with exceptional skill, he was imprisoned in Ravenna and returned home only in 539. The returning ambassador was showered with awards and received the high post of chief of services. Such attention to the diplomat gave rise to gossip about his involvement in the murder of Amalasunta. In 552 he received the quaestorship, continuing to remain chief of services. Peter held his position until his death in 565. The position was inherited by his son Theodore.

Among the highest military leaders, many combined military duty with government and court posts. The commander Sitt successively held the positions of consul, patrician and finally reached a high position magister militum praesentalis. Belisarius, in addition to military posts, was also the committee of the sacred stables, then the committee of the bodyguards, and remained in this position until his death. Narses performed a number of positions in the inner chambers of the king - he was a cubicular, a spatarian, the main head of the chambers - having won the exclusive trust of the emperor, he was one of the most important keepers of secrets.

Favorites

Among the favorites it is necessary, first of all, to include Marcellus, the committee of the emperor’s bodyguards from 541. A just man, in highest degree honest, in devotion to the emperor reaching the point of self-forgetfulness. He had almost limitless influence on the emperor; Justinian wrote that Marcellus never left his royal presence and his commitment to justice was surprising.

Another significant favorite of Justinian was the eunuch and commander Narses, who repeatedly proved his loyalty to the emperor and never came under his suspicion. Even Procopius of Caesarea never spoke ill of Narses, calling him too energetic and brave for a eunuch. Being a flexible diplomat, Narses negotiated with the Persians, and during the Nika uprising he managed to bribe and recruit many senators, after which he received the position of preposite of the sacred bedchamber, a kind of first adviser to the emperor. A little later, the emperor entrusted him with the conquest of Italy from the Goths. Narses managed to defeat the Goths and destroy their kingdom, after which he was appointed to the post of Exarch of Italy.

Another person who cannot be forgotten is the wife of Belisarius, Antonina, Chief Chamberlain and friend of Theodora. Procopius writes about her almost as badly as he writes about the queen herself. She spent a stormy and shameful youth, but, being married to Belisarius, she was often at the center of court gossip because of her scandalous adventures. Belisarius's passion for her, which was attributed to witchcraft, and the condescension with which he forgave all of Antonina's adventures caused general surprise. Because of his wife, the commander was repeatedly involved in shameful, often criminal affairs, which the empress carried out through her favorite.

Construction activities

The destruction that took place during the Nika Revolt allowed Justinian to rebuild and transform Constantinople. The emperor left his name in history by building a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture - the Hagia Sophia.

Conspiracies and rebellions

Nick's Rebellion

The party scheme in Constantinople was laid down even before the accession of Justinian. The “green” supporters of Monophysitism were favored by Anastasius, the “blue” supporters of the Chalcedonian religion strengthened under Justin, and they were patronized by the new empress Theodora. The energetic actions of Justinian, with the absolute arbitrariness of the bureaucracy, and constantly growing taxes fueled the discontent of the people, also inflaming the religious conflict. On January 13, 532, the speeches of the “greens,” which began with the usual complaints to the emperor about oppression by officials, grew into a violent rebellion demanding the removal of John of Cappadocia and Tribonian. After the emperor's unsuccessful attempt to negotiate and the dismissal of Tribonian and his two other ministers, the spearhead of the rebellion was directed towards him. The rebels tried to overthrow Justinian directly and install Senator Hypatius, who was the nephew of the late Emperor Anastasius I, at the head of the state. The “blues” joined the rebels. The slogan of the uprising was the cry “Nika!” (“Win!”), which was how circus wrestlers were encouraged. Despite the continuation of the uprising and the outbreak of unrest on the streets of the city, Justinian, at the request of his wife Theodora, remained in Constantinople:

Relying on the hippodrome, the rebels seemed invincible and actually laid siege to Justinian in the palace. Only through the joint efforts of the combined forces of Belisarius and Mundus, who remained loyal to the emperor, was it possible to drive the rebels out of their strongholds. Procopius says that up to 30,000 unarmed citizens were killed at the hippodrome. At the insistence of Theodora, Justinian executed Anastasius' nephews.

Artaban's Conspiracy

During the uprising in Africa, Preyeka, the emperor's niece, the wife of the deceased governor, was captured by the rebels. When it seemed there was no longer any deliverance, the savior appeared in the person of the young Armenian officer Artaban, who defeated Gontaris and freed the princess. On the way home, an affair arose between the officer and Preyekta, and she promised him her hand. Upon his return to Constantinople, Artabanus was graciously received by the emperor and showered with awards, appointed governor of Libya and commander of the federates - magister militum in praesenti comes foederatorum. In the midst of preparations for the wedding, all Artaban’s hopes collapsed: his first wife, whom he had long forgotten about and who had not thought of returning to her husband while he was unknown, appeared in the capital. She appeared to the empress and prompted her to break off the engagement of Artaban and Prejeka and demand the reunification of the spouses. In addition, Theodora insisted on the princess's quick marriage to John, the son of Pompey and the grandson of Hypanius. Artabanus was deeply hurt by the current situation and even regretted serving the Romans.

Conspiracy of the Argyroprates

Main article: Conspiracy of the Argyroprates

Position of the provinces

IN Notitia dignatotum civil power is separated from military power, each of them constitutes a separate department. This reform dates back to the time of Constantine the Great. Civilly, the entire empire was divided into four regions (prefectures), headed by praetorian prefects. Prefectures were subdivided into dioceses, governed by deputy prefects ( vicarii praefectorum). Dioceses, in turn, were divided into provinces.

Having sat on the throne of Constantine, Justinian found the empire in a very truncated form; the collapse of the empire, which began after the death of Theodosius, was only gaining momentum. The western part of the empire was divided by barbarian kingdoms; in Europe, Byzantium held only the Balkans and then without Dalmatia. In Asia, it belonged to all of Asia Minor, the Armenian Highlands, Syria to the Euphrates, Northern Arabia, and Palestine. In Africa, only Egypt and Cyrenaica were able to be held. In general, the empire was divided into 64 provinces united in two prefectures - the East (51 provinces1) and Illyricum (13 provinces). The situation in the provinces was extremely difficult. Egypt and Syria showed a tendency to secede. Alexandria was a stronghold of the Monophysites. Palestine was rocked by disputes between supporters and opponents of Origenism. Armenia was constantly threatened with war by the Sassanids, the Balkans were worried by the Ostrogoths and the growing Slavic peoples. Justinian had a huge job ahead of him, even if he was only concerned with maintaining the borders.

Constantinople

Armenia

Main article: Armenia as part of Byzantium

Armenia, divided between Byzantium and Persia and being the arena of struggle between the two powers, was of great strategic importance for the empire.

From the point of view of military administration, Armenia was in a special position, evident from the fact that during the period under review in the diocese of Pontus with its eleven provinces there was only one dux, dux Armeniae, whose power extended over three provinces, Armenia I and II and Polemonian Pontus. Under the dux of Armenia there were: 2 regiments of horse archers, 3 legions, 11 cavalry detachments of 600 people each, 10 infantry cohorts of 600 people each. Of these, the cavalry, two legions and 4 cohorts were stationed directly in Armenia. At the beginning of the reign of Justinian, a movement against the imperial authorities intensified in Inner Armenia, which resulted in an open rebellion, the main reason for which, according to Procopius of Caesarea, was onerous taxes - the ruler of Armenia Acacius made illegal exactions and imposed an unprecedented tax of up to four centinarii on the country. To rectify the situation, an imperial decree was adopted on the reorganization of military administration in Armenia and the appointment of Sita as the military leader of the region, giving it four legions. Having arrived, Sita promised to petition the emperor for the abolition of the new taxation, but as a result of the actions of the displaced local satraps, he was forced to enter into battle with the rebels and died. After the death of Sita, the emperor sent Vuza against the Armenians, who, acting energetically, forced them to seek protection from the Persian king Khosrow the Great.

During the entire reign of Justinian, intensive military construction was carried out in Armenia. Of the four books of the treatise “On Buildings,” one is entirely dedicated to Armenia.

In development of the reform, several decrees were issued aimed at reducing the role of the traditional local aristocracy. Edict " On the order of inheritance among Armenians» abolished the tradition according to which only men could inherit. Novella 21 " That Armenians should follow Roman laws in everything"repeats the provisions of the edict, clarifying that the legal norms of Armenia should not differ from the imperial ones.

African provinces

Balkans

Italy

Relations with Jews and Samaritans

Questions devoted to the status and legal features of the position of Jews in the empire are addressed by a significant number of laws issued in previous reigns. One of the most significant pre-Justinian collections of laws, the Code of Theodosius, created during the reigns of the emperors Theodosius II and Valentinian III, contained 42 laws specifically dedicated to Jews. The legislation, although it limited the ability to propagate Judaism, granted rights to Jewish communities in cities.

From the first years of his reign, Justinian, guided by the principle of “One state, one religion, one law,” limited the rights of representatives of other faiths. Novella 131 established that church law is equal in status to state law. The Novella of 537 established that Jews should be subject to full municipal taxes, but could not hold official positions. Synagogues were destroyed; in the remaining synagogues it was forbidden to read the books of the Old Testament according to the ancient Hebrew text, which had to be replaced by a Greek or Latin translation. This caused a split among the Jewish priesthood; conservative priests imposed cherem on the reformers. Judaism, according to Justinian's code, was not considered a heresy and was classified as a Latin religion. religio licitis However, Samaritans were included in the same category as pagans and heretics. The Code prohibited heretics and Jews from testifying against Orthodox Christians.

All these oppressions caused an uprising in Palestine of the Jews and Samaritans close to them in faith at the beginning of the reign of Justinian under the leadership of Julian ben Sabar. With the help of the Ghassanid Arabs, the uprising was brutally suppressed in 531. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 thousand Samaritans were killed and enslaved, whose people almost disappeared as a result. According to John Malala, the remaining 50,000 people fled to Iran for help from Shah Kavad.

At the end of his reign, Justinian again turned to the Jewish question, and published novella 146 in 553. The creation of the novella was caused by the ongoing conflict between Jewish traditionalists and reformers over the language of worship. Justinian, guided by the opinion of the Church Fathers that the Jews had distorted the text of the Old Testament, banned the Talmud, as well as its commentaries (Gemara and Midrash). Only Greek texts were allowed to be used, and penalties for dissidents were increased.

Religious politics

Religious views

Perceiving himself as the heir of the Roman Caesars, Justinian considered it his duty to recreate the Roman Empire, while wanting the state to have one law and one faith. Based on the principle of absolute power, he believed that in a well-established state everything should be subject to imperial attention. Understanding the importance of the church for government, he made every effort to ensure that it carried out his will. The question of the primacy of Justinian's state or religious interests is debatable. It is at least known that the emperor was the author of numerous letters on religious topics addressed to popes and patriarchs, as well as treatises and church hymns.

In accordance with his desire, Justinian considered it his right not only to decide issues related to the leadership of the church and its property, but also to establish a certain dogma among his subjects. Whatever religious direction the emperor adhered to, his subjects had to adhere to the same direction. Justinian regulated the life of the clergy, filled the highest hierarchical positions at his discretion, and acted as a mediator and judge in the clergy. He patronized the church in the person of its ministers, contributed to the construction of churches, monasteries, and the increase in their privileges; finally, the emperor established religious unity among all subjects of the empire, gave the latter the norm of orthodox teaching, participated in dogmatic disputes and gave the final decision on controversial dogmatic issues.

Such a policy of secular predominance in religious and church affairs, right down to the hiding places of a person’s religious beliefs, especially clearly demonstrated by Justinian, received in history the name of Caesaropapism, and this emperor is considered one of the most typical representatives of this trend.

Modern researchers identify the following fundamental principles of Justinian's religious views:

Relations with Rome

Relations with the Monophysites

Religiously, the reign of Justinian was a confrontation diphysites or Orthodox, if we recognize them as the dominant denomination, and Monophysites. Although the emperor was committed to Orthodoxy, he was above these differences, wanting to find a compromise and establish religious unity. On the other hand, his wife sympathized with the Monophysites.

During the period under review, Monophysitism, influential in the eastern provinces - in Syria and Egypt, was not united. At least two large groups stood out - the acephalians who did not compromise and those who accepted Zeno's Henotikon.

Monophysitism was declared a heresy at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Byzantine emperors preceding Justinian and the 6th century Flavius ​​Zeno and Anastasius I had a positive attitude towards Monophysitism, which only strained religious relations between Constantinople and the Roman bishops. Justin I reversed this trend and reaffirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, which openly condemned Monophysitism. Justinian, who continued the religious policies of his uncle Justin, tried to impose absolute religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept compromises that satisfied all parties. Towards the end of his life, Justinian became harsher towards the Monophysites, especially in the case of manifestations of aphtharodocetism, but he died before he could introduce legislation that would increase the importance of his dogmas.

The defeat of Origenism

The spears of Alexandria have been broken around the teachings of Origen since the 3rd century. On the one hand, his works met with favorable attention from such great Fathers as John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nyssa, on the other hand, such major theologians as Peter of Alexandria, Epiphanius of Cyprus, Blessed Jerome attacked the Origenists, accusing them of paganism. Confusion in the debate surrounding the teachings of Origen was brought about by the fact that they began to attribute to him the ideas of some of his followers who gravitated towards Gnosticism - the main accusations brought against the Origenists were that they allegedly preached the transmigration of souls and apokatastasis. Nevertheless, the number of Origen's supporters grew, including such great theologians as the martyr Pamphilus (who wrote an Apology for Origen) and Eusebius of Caesarea, who had Origen's archives at his disposal.

The defeat of Origenism dragged on for 10 years. The future Pope Pelagius, who visited Palestine in the late 530s, passing through Constantinople, told Justinian that he did not find heresy in Origen, but order must be restored in the Great Lavra. After the death of Saint Sava the Sanctified, Saints Cyriacus, John the Hesychast and Barsanuphius came forward as defenders of the purity of monasticism. The Novolavra Origenists very quickly found influential supporters. In 541, under the leadership of Nonnus and Bishop Leontius, they attacked the Great Lavra and beat its inhabitants. Some of them fled to the Antiochian Patriarch Ephraim, who at the Council of 542 for the first time condemned the Origenists.

With the support of bishops Leontius, Domitian of Ancyra and Theodore of Caesarea, Nonnus demanded that Patriarch Peter of Jerusalem delete the name of Patriarch Ephraim of Antioch from the diptychs. This demand caused great unrest in the Orthodox world. Fearing the influential patrons of the Origenists and realizing the impossibility of fulfilling their demands, Patriarch Peter of Jerusalem secretly called on the archimandrites of the Great Lavra and the monastery of St. Theodosius Gelasius and Sophronius and ordered them to compose an essay against the Origenists, to which would be attached a petition to preserve the name of the Patriarch of Antioch Ephraim in the diptychs. The patriarch sent this work to Emperor Justinian himself, attaching to it his personal message, in which he described in detail all the evil teachings and iniquities of the Origenists. The Patriarch of Constantinople Mina, and especially the representative of the Pope Pelagius, warmly supported the appeal of the inhabitants of the Lavra of St. Sava. On this occasion, in 543 a council was held in Constantinople, at which Domitian of Ancyra, Theodore Askidas and the heresy of Origenism in general were condemned. .

Fifth Ecumenical Council

Justinian's conciliatory policy towards the Monophysites caused discontent in Rome and Pope Agapit I arrived in Constantinople in 535, who, together with the Orthodox Akimite party, expressed sharp rejection of the policy of Patriarch Anthimus, and Justinian was forced to yield. Anthimus was removed, and the convinced Orthodox presbyter Mina was appointed in his place.

Having made a concession on the issue of the patriarch, Justinian did not abandon further attempts at reconciliation with the Monophysites. To do this, the emperor raised the well-known question about the “three chapters,” that is, about three church writers of the 5th century, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus and Willow of Edessa, regarding whom the Monophysites reproached the Council of Chalcedon for the fact that the above-mentioned writers, despite their Nestorian way of thinking , were not convicted there. Justinian admitted that in this case the Monophysites were right and that the Orthodox should make a concession to them.

This desire of the emperor caused the indignation of the Western hierarchs, since they saw in this an encroachment on the authority of the Council of Chalcedon, which could be followed by a similar revision of the decisions of the Council of Nicaea. The question also arose whether it was possible to anathematize the dead, since all three writers died in the previous century. Finally, some Westerners were of the opinion that the emperor, by his decree, was committing violence against the conscience of church members. The latter doubt almost did not exist in the Eastern Church, where the intervention of imperial power in resolving dogmatic disputes was a long-term practice. As a result, Justinian’s decree did not receive church-wide significance.

In order to influence a positive resolution of the issue, Justinian summoned the then Pope Vigilius to Constantinople, where he lived for more than seven years. The initial position of the pope, who upon his arrival openly rebelled against the decree of Justinian and excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople Mina, changed and in 548 he issued a condemnation of the three heads, the so-called ludicatum, and thus added his voice to the voice of the four eastern patriarchs. However, the Western Church did not approve of Vigilius' concessions. Under the influence of the Western Church, the pope began to waver in his decision and took it back ludicatum. In such circumstances, Justinian decided to resort to convening an Ecumenical Council, which met in Constantinople in 553.

The results of the council turned out to be, in general, consistent with the will of the emperor.

Relations with pagans

Justinian took steps to completely eradicate the remnants of paganism. In 529 he closed the famous philosophical school in Athens. This had a predominantly symbolic meaning, since by the time of the event this school had lost its leading position among the educational institutions of the empire after the University of Constantinople was founded in the 5th century under Theodosius II. After the closure of the school under Justinian, Athenian professors were expelled, some of them moved to Persia, where they met an admirer of Plato in the person of Khosrow I; the school's property was confiscated. John of Ephesus wrote: “In the same year in which St. Benedict destroyed the last pagan national sanctuary in Italy, namely the temple of Apollo in the sacred grove on Monte Cassino, and the stronghold of ancient paganism in Greece was also destroyed." From then on, Athens finally lost its former significance as a cultural center and turned into a remote provincial city. Justinian did not achieve the complete eradication of paganism; it continued to hide in some inaccessible areas. Procopius of Caesarea writes that the persecution of pagans was carried out not so much out of a desire to establish Christianity, but rather out of a thirst to get their hands on the gold of pagan temples

Reforms

Political Views

Justinian inherited the throne without controversy, having managed to skillfully eliminate all prominent rivals in advance and gain the favor of influential groups in society; the church (even the popes) liked him for his strict Orthodoxy; he lured the senatorial aristocracy with the promise of support for all its privileges and captivated him with the respectful affection of his address; With the luxury of festivities and the generosity of distributions, he won the affection of the capital's lower classes. The opinions of his contemporaries about Justinian were very different. Even in the assessment of Procopius, who serves as the main source for the history of the emperor, there are contradictions: in some works ("Wars" and "Buildings") he praises the excellent successes of Justinian's broad and bold conquering enterprises and admires his artistic genius, and in others ("Secret history") sharply denigrates his memory, calling the emperor an “evil fool” (μωροκακοήθης). All this greatly complicates the reliable restoration of the spiritual image of the king. Undoubtedly, mental and moral contrasts were inharmoniously intertwined in Justinian’s personality. He conceived extensive plans for increasing and strengthening the state, but did not have sufficient creative forces to build them completely and completely; he pretended to be a reformer, but could only well assimilate ideas that were not developed by him. He was simple, accessible and restrained in his habits - and at the same time, due to the conceit that grew from success, he surrounded himself with the most pompous etiquette and unprecedented luxury. His straightforwardness and a certain good-heartedness were gradually distorted by the treachery and deceit of the ruler, forced to constantly defend the successfully seized power from all kinds of dangers and attempts. The benevolence towards people, which he often showed, was spoiled by frequent revenge on his enemies. Generosity towards the distressed classes was combined in him with greed and promiscuity in the means of obtaining money to ensure representation consistent with his concepts of his own dignity. The desire for justice, which he constantly spoke about, was suppressed by the exorbitant thirst for domination and the arrogance that grew on such soil. He laid claims to unlimited authority, but in dangerous moments his will was often weak and indecisive; he fell under the influence not only of the strong character of his wife Theodora, but sometimes even of insignificant people, even revealing cowardice. All these virtues and vices gradually united around a prominent, pronounced tendency towards despotism. Under her influence, his piety turned into religious intolerance and was embodied in cruel persecution for deviating from his recognized faith. All this led to results of very mixed merit, and with them alone it is difficult to explain why Justinian was included in the category of “great”, and his reign acquired such great significance. The fact is that, in addition to the indicated properties, Justinian had remarkable tenacity in carrying out the accepted principles and a positively phenomenal ability to work. He wanted every smallest order concerning the political and administrative, religious and mental life of the empire to come from him personally and every controversial issue in the same areas he returned to him. The best interpretation of the historical figure of the tsar is the fact that this native of the dark mass of the provincial peasantry was able to firmly and firmly assimilate two grandiose ideas bequeathed to him by the tradition of the great world past: the Roman (idea of ​​a world monarchy) and the Christian (idea of ​​the kingdom of God). The combination of both into one theory and the implementation of the latter through the secular state constitutes the originality of the concept, which became the essence of the political doctrine of the Byzantine Empire; Justinian's case is the first attempt to formulate the system and its implementation in life. A world state created by the will of an autocratic sovereign - such was the dream that the king cherished from the very beginning of his reign. He intended to use arms to return the lost old Roman territories, then to give a general law that would ensure the well-being of the inhabitants, and finally to establish a faith that would unite all peoples in the worship of the one true God. These are the three foundations on which Justinian hoped to build his power. He unshakably believed in him: “there is nothing higher and holier than the imperial majesty”; “the creators of the law themselves said that the will of the monarch has the force of law”; “Who can interpret the secrets and riddles of the law if not the one who alone can create it?”; “He alone is capable of spending days and nights in work and wakefulness in order to think about the good of the people.” Even among the high-born emperors there was no person who, to a greater extent than Justinian, had a sense of imperial dignity and admiration for Roman tradition. All his decrees and letters are filled with memories of Great Rome, from whose history he drew inspiration

Justinian was the first to clearly contrast the will of the people with “the mercy of God” as the source of supreme power. From his time, a theory arose about the emperor as “equal to the apostles” (ίσαπόστολος), receiving grace directly from God and standing above the state and above the church. God helps him defeat his enemies and make fair laws. Justinian's wars are already gaining character crusades(Wherever the emperor is master, the right faith will shine). He places every act “under the protection of St. Trinity". Justinian is, as it were, the forerunner or ancestor of a long chain of “God’s anointed” in history. This construction of power (Roman-Christian) inspired broad initiative in Justinian’s activities, made his will an attractive center and point of application of many other energies, thanks to which his reign achieved truly significant results. He himself said: “Never before the time of our reign did God grant the Romans such victories... Thank heaven, inhabitants of the whole world: in your days a great deed was accomplished, which God recognized as unworthy of the entire ancient world.” Justinian left many evils uncured, many new disasters were caused by his policies, but nevertheless, his greatness was glorified almost during his time by a popular legend that arose in various areas. All countries that subsequently took advantage of his legislation magnified his glory.

Government reforms

Simultaneously with military successes, Justinian began strengthening the state apparatus and improving taxation. These reforms were so unpopular that they led to the Nika rebellion, which nearly cost him his throne.

Administrative reforms were carried out:

• Combination of civil and military positions.
• the prohibition of remuneration for positions and the increase in salaries for officials indicate his desire to limit arbitrariness and corruption.
• The official was forbidden to buy land where he served.

Because he often worked at night, he was nicknamed the “sleepless sovereign” (Greek. βασιλεύς άκοιμητος ).

Legal reforms

One of Justinian's first projects was a large-scale legal reform, initiated by him a little more than six months after ascending the throne.

Using the talent of his minister Tribonian, Justinian ordered a complete revision of Roman law, with the goal of making it as unsurpassed in formal legal terms as it had been three centuries earlier. The three main components of Roman law - the Digest, the Justinian Code and the Institutes - were completed in the city.

Economic reforms

Memory

In old literature it is often called [ by whom?] Justinian the Great. Considered a saint by the Orthodox Church, he is also revered by some [ Who?] by Protestant churches.

Results of the board

Emperor Justin II tried to characterize the outcome of his uncle’s reign

“We found the treasury ravaged by debt and reduced to extreme poverty, and the army so disorganized that the state was left to continuous invasions and raids of barbarians.”

According to Diehl, the second part of the emperor’s reign was marked by a serious weakening of his attention to state affairs. The turning points in the tsar’s life were the plague that Justinian suffered in 542 and the death of Fedora in 548. However, there is also a positive view of the results of the Emperor’s reign.

Image in literature

Eulogies

Literary works written during Justinian’s lifetime have survived to this day, in which either his reign as a whole or his individual achievements were glorified. Usually these include: “Admonishing chapters to the Emperor Justinian” by Deacon Agapit, “On Buildings” by Procopius of Caesarea, “Ekphrasis of St. Sophia” by Paul the Silentiary, “On Earthquakes and Fires” by Roman Sladkopevets and the anonymous “Dialogue on Political Science.”

In "The Divine Comedy"

Other

• Nikolay Gumilyov. "Poisoned Tunic". Play.
• Harold Lamb. "Theodora and the Emperor". Novel.
• Nun Cassia (T. A. Senina). "Justinian and Theodora". Story.
• Mikhail Kazovsky “The Stomp of the Bronze Horse”, historical novel (2008)
• Kay, Guy Gavriel, dilogy “Sarantian Mosaic” - Emperor Valerius II.
• V. D. Ivanov. "Primordial Rus'". Novel. Film adaptation of this novel

And such a marriage caused a protest from Empress Euphemia. In addition, Theodora showed a clear tendency towards Monophysitism. However, Justinian did not back down. After the death of Euphemia in or around the year, Emperor Justin did not oppose his adopted son. He issued a decree on marriage, which allowed, in particular, a repentant actress who had given up her previous occupation to enter into legal marriage even with high-born persons. Thus the wedding took place.

From the beginning of the reign of Justinian, Thrace began to be subjected to increasingly destructive raids by the “Huns” - Bulgars and “Scythians” - Slavs. In the year, the commander Mund successfully repelled the onslaught of the Bulgars in Thrace.

From the time of Justin, Justinian inherited a policy of persecution of Monophysite monasteries and clergy in northern Syria. However, there was no widespread persecution of Monophysitism in the empire - the number of its adherents was too large. Egypt, the stronghold of the Monophysites, was constantly in danger of disrupting the supply of grain to the capital, which is why Justinian even ordered the construction of a special fortress in Egypt to guard the grain collected in the state granary. Already in the early 530s, Empress Theodora used her influence on her husband to begin negotiations and attempts to reconcile the position of the Monophysites and the Orthodox. In the year, a delegation of Monophysites arrived in Constantinople and was sheltered by the royal couple in the palace of Hormizda. Since then, here, under the patronage of Theodora and with the tacit consent of Justinian, there was a refuge for the Monophysites.

The Nika Rebellion

However, this agreement was in fact a victory for the Monophysites and Saint Pope Agapit, sent by the Ostrogothic king Theodahad to Constantinople as a political ambassador, convinced Justinian to turn away from the false peace with Monophysitism and take the side of the Chalcedonian decisions. The Orthodox Saint Mina was elevated to the place of the displaced Anthimus. Justinian drew up a confession of faith, which Saint Agapit recognized as completely Orthodox. Around the same time, the emperor compiled the Orthodox prayer book “The Only Begotten Son and Word of God,” which was included in the rite of the Divine Liturgy. On May 2 of the year, a Council opened in Constantinople in the presence of the emperor for the final trial of the case of Anthima. During the Council, a number of Monophysite leaders were condemned, among them Anthimus and Sevier.

However, at the same time, Theodora persuaded the emperor to agree to appoint as heir to the deceased Pope Agapit, who had shown a willingness to compromise, Deacon Vigilius. His elevation to the papal throne by imperial will took place on March 29 of the year, despite the fact that Silverius had already been elected to the primate see in Rome that year. Considering Rome to be his city and himself to be the highest authority, Justinian easily recognized the primacy of the popes over the Patriarchs of Constantinople, and also easily appointed popes at his own discretion.

The Troubles of 540 and Their Consequences

In internal administration, Justinian adhered to the same line, but paid much less attention to attempts at legislative reforms - after the death of the lawyer Tribonian in the year, the emperor issued only 18 documents. In the year, Justinian abolished the consulate in Constantinople, declaring himself consul for life, and at the same time stopping expensive consular games. The king did not give up on his construction undertakings - so, in the year the huge “New Church” was completed in the name of the Blessed Virgin Mary on the ruins of the Jerusalem Temple.

Theological debates of the 540s and 550s

From the early 540s, Justinian began to delve deeper into questions of theology. The desire to overcome Monophysitism and end discord in the Church did not leave him. Meanwhile, Empress Theodora continued to patronize the Monophysites and in the year, at the request of the Ghassanid Arab sheikh al-Harith, contributed to the establishment of the Monophysite hierarchy through the installation of a traveling Monophysite bishop, James Baradei. Justinian initially tried to catch him, but this failed, and the emperor subsequently had to come to terms with Baradei’s activities on the outskirts of the empire. Although Empress Theodora died in the year having reconciled with the Orthodox Church, there is a version according to which she bequeathed to the emperor not to persecute prominent Monophysites, who all this time were hiding in the Constantinople palace of Hormizda. One way or another, the Orthodox emperor did not intensify the persecution of the Monophysites, but tried to gather believers in a single Church by condemning other false teachings.

Around the beginning of the 540s, the emperor raised the possibility of formally condemning Origen. Having accused him of 10 heresies in a letter to Saint Menas, in the year the emperor convened a Council in the capital, which condemned Origen and his teaching.

At the same time, the imperial theological adviser Theodore Askidas proposed to condemn some of the writings of Blessed Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Willow of Edessa and Theodore of Mopsuet, which expressed Nestorian errors. Although the authors themselves, long deceased, were respected in the Church, a conciliar condemnation of their erroneous views would have deprived the Monophysites of the opportunity to slander the Orthodox by accusing them of Nestorianism. In the year Justinian promulgated an edict against the so-called. “Three Chapters” - non-Orthodox works of the three above-mentioned teachers. However, instead of reconciling the Monophysites with the Church, this caused a protest in the West, where the condemnation of the “Three Chapters” was seen as an attack on Orthodoxy. The Patriarch of Constantinople, Saint Mina, signed the imperial decree, but Pope Vigilius did not agree for a long time and even went to the extent of breaking off communion with the Church of Constantinople.

The empire fought for a long time against the rebel troops in Africa, who hoped to redistribute the newly conquered lands among themselves. Only in the year was it possible to successfully suppress the rebellion, after which North Africa became firmly part of the empire.

At the end of the 540s, Italy seemed lost, but the requests of Pope Vigilius and other noble Roman refugees in Constantinople convinced Justinian not to give up and he again decided to send an expedition there in the year. The numerous troops gathered for the campaign first moved to Thrace, from where, thanks to this, the rampaging Slavs left. Then, in the year, a large force of Romans finally arrived in Italy under the command of Narses and defeated the Ostrogoths. Soon the peninsula was cleared of pockets of resistance, and during the year some lands north of the Po River were also occupied. After many years of exhausting struggle, Italy was drained of blood, with administrative center in Ravenna, was nevertheless returned to the empire. In the year, Justinian issued the “Pragmatic Sanction”, which canceled all the innovations of Totila - the land was returned to its former owners, as well as the slaves and colons freed by the king. The emperor, not trusting the competence of the imperial administrators, entrusted the management of the social, financial and educational systems in Italy to the bishops, since the Church remained the only moral and economic force in the destroyed country. In Italy, as in Africa, Arianism was persecuted.

The importation of silkworm eggs for about a year from China, which until then had strictly kept the secret of silk production, was a significant success. According to legend, the emperor himself persuaded the Persian Nestorian monks to deliver him the precious cargo. From that time on, Constantinople began to produce its own silk, on which a state monopoly was established, bringing large revenues to the treasury.

Heritage

Prayers

Troparion, tone 3

Desiring the beauty of the glory of God, / in earthly [life] You pleased him / and, having cultivated the talent entrusted to you well, you made him stronger, / for him and fought righteously. / Because of the reward of your deeds, / like a righteous man, you accepted From Christ God // Pray to Him to be saved by those who sing to you, Justinians.

Kontakion, tone 8

The chosen one of piety is abundantly / and the champion of the truth is not shameful, / people praise you more honestly and dutifully, God-wise, / but as having boldness towards Christ God, / you who praise humility ask, and we call you: Rejoice, Justinians of everlasting memory.

Sources, literature

• Procopius of Caesarea, Justinian's Wars.
• Procopius of Caesarea, About buildings.
• Procopius of Caesarea, Secret history.
• see the translation of part of the works of Procopius at http://www.hrono.ru/libris/lib_p/prkp1pers00.html; http://www.hrono.ru/libris/lib_p/prkp1goty00.html http://www.vostlit.info/haupt-Dateien/index-Dateien/A.phtml?id=2041, No. 49, 1979, 5- 20.
• Athanassiadi, Polymnia, “Persecution and Response in Late Paganism,” JHS, № 113, 1993, 1-29.
• Barker, John E., Justinian and the Later Roman Empire, Madison, Wisc., 1966.
• Browning, Robert Justinian and Theodora, 2nd ed., London, 1987.
• Bundy, D. D., “Jacob Baradaeus: The State of Research,” Museon, № 91, 1978, 45-86.
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• Cameron, Alan, "Heresies and Factions," Byzantion, № 44, 1974, 92-120.
• Cameron, Alan Circus Factions. Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, Oxford, 1976.
• Cameron, Averil, Agathias, Oxford, 1970.
• Cameron, Averil, Procopius and the Sixth Century, Berkeley, 1985.
• Cameron, Averil, The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, London and New York, 1993.
• Capizzi, Giustiniano I tra politica e reliogione, Messina, 1994.
• Chuvin, Pierre, Archer, B. A., trans., A Chronicle of the Last Pagans, Cambridge, 1990.
• Diehl, Charles, Justinien et la civilization byzantine au VIe siècle, I-II, Paris, 1901.
• Diehl, Charles, Theodora, impératrice of Byzance, Paris, 1904.
• Downey, Glanville, "Justinian as Builder," Art Bulletin, № 32, 1950, 262-66.
• Downey, Glanville, Constantinople in the Age of Justinian, Norman, Okla., 1960.
• Evans, J. A. S., "Procopius and the Emperor Justinian," Historical Papers, The Canadian Historical Association, 1968, 126-39.
• Evans, J. A. S., "The "Niká Rebellion and the Empress Theodora," Byzantion, № 54, 1984, 380-82.
• Evans, J. A. S., "The dates of Procopius" works: a Recapitulation of the Evidence," GRBS, № 37, 1996, 301-13.
• Evans, J. A. S. Procopius, New York, 1972.
• Evans, J. A. S. The Age of Justinian. The Circumstances of Imperial Power, London and New York, 1996.
• Fotiou, A., "Recruitment Shortages in the VIth Century," Byzantion, № 58, 1988, 65-77.
• Fowden, Garth, Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Princeton, 1993.
• Frend, W. H. C., The Rise of the Monophysite Movement: Chapters on the History of the Church in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries, Cambridge, 1972.
• Gerostergios, Asterios, Justinian the Great: The Emperor and Saint, Belmont, 1982.
• rus. translation: Gerostergios, A., Justinian the Great - Emperor and Saint[transl. from English prot. M. Kozlov], M.: Sretensky Monastery Publishing House, 2010.
• Gordon, C. D., "Procopius and Justinian's Financial Policies," Phoenix, № 13, 1959, 23-30.
• Grabar, André The Golden Age of Justinian, from the Death of Theodosius to the Rise of Islam, New York, 1967.
• Greatrex, Geoffrey, "The Nika Riot: A Reappraisal," JHS, 117, 1997, 60-86.
• Greatrex, Geoffrey, Rome and Persia at War, 502-532, Leeds, 1998.
• Harrison, R. M. A Temple for Byzantium, London, 1989.
• Harvey, Susan Ashbrook, "Remembering Pain: Syriac Historiography and the Separation of the Churches," Byzantion, № 58, 1988, 295-308.
• Harvey, Susan Ashbrook, Asceticism and Society in Crisis: John of Ephesus and "The Lives of the Eastern Saints", Berkeley, 1990.
• Herrin, Judith, The Formation of Christendom, Oxford, 1987.
• Herrin, Judith, "Byzance: le palais et la ville," Byzantion, № 61, 1991, 213-230.
• Holmes, William G., The Age of Justinian and Theodora: A History of the Sixth Century AD, 2nd ed., London, 1912.
• Honoré, Tony, Tribonian, London, 1978.
• Myendorff, J., “Justinian, the Empire, and the Church,” DOP, № 22, 1968, 43-60.
• Moorhead, John Justinian, London and New York, 1994.
• Shahid, I., Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, Washington, D.C., 1995.
• Thurman, W. S., “How Justinian I Sought to Handle the Problem of Religious Dissidents,” GOTR, № 13, 1968, 15-40.
• Ure, P. N., Justinian and his Reign, Harmondsworth, 1951.
• Vasiliev, A. A., History of the Byzantine Empire, Madison, 1928, repr. 1964:
• see Russian translation vol. 1, ch. 3 “Justinian the Great and his immediate successors (518-610)” at http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_yu/yustinian1.php
• Watson, Alan, trans. The Digest of Justinian, with Latin text edited by T. Mommsen with the aid of Paul Krueger, I-IV, Philadelphia, 1985.
• Weschke, Kenneth P., On the Person of Christ: The Christology of the Emperor Justinian, Crestwood, 1991.

Used materials

• Historical portal page Chronos:
• http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_yu/yustinian1.php - used art. TSB; encyclopedias The world around us; from the book Dashkov, S. B., Emperors of Byzantium, M., 1997; historical calendar-almanac Holy Rus'.
• Evans, James Allan, "Justinian (527-565 A.D.)," An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors:
• St. Dimitry Rostovsky, Lives of the Saints:
• http://www.ispovednik.ru/zhitij/nov/nov_14_Yustinian&Feodora...an1 http://www.synaxarion.gr/gr/sid/567/sxsaintinfo.aspx 535 The world around us, that the feast of the Presentation of the Lord was allegedly established after the plague and earthquake miraculously stopped after the solemn Sretensky service on February 2 of the year, not confirmed contemporary events sources and is probably a later Western remake. See Ruban, Yu. I., The Presentation of the Lord (An experience of historical and liturgical research), St. Petersburg, Noah Publishing House, 1994, 25-44, http://www.sedmitza.ru/text/408956.html

  Holy Land

  The word is missing from the original. Probably missed by mistake.