(1494-1559)
Argumentation of the migration version
The second theory is supported by the works of Herodotus, which appeared in the 5th century BC. e. As Herodotus argued, the Etruscans were natives of Lydia, a region in Asia Minor, the Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, who were forced to leave their homeland due to catastrophic crop failure and famine. According to Herodotus, this happened almost simultaneously with the Trojan War. Hellanicus from the island of Lesbos mentioned the legend of the Pelasgians, who arrived in Italy and became known as the Tyrrhenians. At that time, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed and the Hittite Empire fell, that is, the appearance of the Tyrrhenians should be dated to the 13th century BC. e. or a little later. Perhaps the myth of flight to the west is associated with this legend Trojan hero Aeneas and the founding of the Roman state, which was of great importance for the Etruscans. Herodotus' hypothesis is supported by data genetic analysis, which confirm the kinship of the Etruscans with the inhabitants of the lands currently belonging to Turkey.
Until the middle of the 20th century. The “Lydian version” was subject to serious criticism, especially after the decipherment of the Lydian inscriptions - their language had nothing in common with Etruscan. However, there is also a version that the Etruscans should not be identified with the Lydians, but with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the “Proto-Luvians”. With the Etruscans of this early period A. Erman identified the legendary Tursha tribe, which lived in the eastern Mediterranean and carried out predatory raids on Egypt (XIII-VII centuries BC).
Argumentation of the complex version
Based on the material of ancient sources and archaeological data, we can conclude that the most ancient elements of prehistoric Mediterranean unity took part in the ethnogenesis of the Etruscans during the period of the beginning of the movement from East to West in the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e.; also a wave of settlers from the area of the Black and Caspian Seas in the 2nd millennium BC. e. In the process of forming the Etruscan community, traces of Aegean and Aegean-Anatolian emigrants were found. This is confirmed by the results of excavations on the island. Lemnos (Aegean Sea), where inscriptions close to grammatical structure Etruscan language.
Geographical position
It is not yet possible to determine the exact limits of Etruria. The history and culture of the Etruscans began in the Tyrrhenian Sea region and is limited to the basin of the Tiber and Arno rivers. The country's river network also included the rivers Aventia, Vesidia, Tsetsina, Alusa, Umbro, Oza, Albinia, Armenta, Marta, Minio, and Aro. A wide river network created conditions for developed agriculture, in some places complicated by wetlands. Southern Etruria, whose soils were often of volcanic origin, had extensive lakes: Tsiminskoe, Alsietiskoe, Statonenskoe, Volsinskoe, Sabatinskoe, Trasimenskoe. More than half of the country's territory was occupied by mountains and hills. From the paintings and reliefs one can judge the diversity of flora and fauna of the region. The Etruscans cultivated cypress, myrtle, and pomegranate trees, brought to Italy from Carthage (an image of a pomegranate is found on Etruscan objects in the 6th century BC).
Cities and necropolises
Each of the Etruscan cities controlled a certain territory. The exact number of inhabitants of the Etruscan city-states is unknown; according to rough estimates, the population of Cerveteri in its heyday was 25 thousand people.
Cerveteri was the southernmost city of Etruria; it controlled deposits of metal-bearing ore, which ensured the well-being of the city. The settlement was located near the coast on a steep ledge. The necropolis was traditionally located outside the city. A road led to it along which funeral carts were transported. There were tombs on both sides of the road. The bodies rested on benches, in niches or terracotta sarcophagi. The personal belongings of the deceased were placed with them.
From the name of this city (etr. - Caere) the Roman word “ceremony” was subsequently derived - this is how the Romans called some funeral rites.
The neighboring city of Veii had excellent defenses. The city and its acropolis were surrounded by ditches, making Veii almost impregnable. An altar, a temple foundation and water tanks were discovered here. Vulka is the only Etruscan sculptor whose name we know was a native of Wei. The area around the city is notable for the passages carved into the rock, which served to drain water.
The recognized center of Etruria was the city of Tarquinia. The name of the city comes from the son or brother of Tyrrhenus Tarkon, who founded twelve Etruscan policies. The necropolises of Tarquinia were concentrated near the hills of Colle de Civita and Monterozzi. The tombs, carved into the rock, were protected by mounds, the chambers were painted for two hundred years. It was here that magnificent sarcophagi were discovered, decorated with bas-reliefs with images of the deceased on the lid.
When laying the city, the Etruscans observed rituals similar to the Roman ones. An ideal place was chosen, a hole was dug into which the sacrifices were thrown. From this place, the founder of the city, using a plow drawn by a cow and an ox, drew a furrow that determined the position of the city walls. Where possible, the Etruscans used a lattice street layout, oriented to the cardinal points.
Story
The formation, development and collapse of the Etruscan state took place against the backdrop of three periods of Ancient Greece - Orientalizing or Geometric, Classical (Hellenistic), and the rise of Rome. The earlier stages are given in accordance with the autochthonic theory of the origin of the Etruscans.
Proto-Villanovian period
The most important of the historical sources that marked the beginning of the Etruscan civilization is the Etruscan chronology of saecula (centuries). According to him, the first century ancient state, saeculum, began around the 11th or 10th century BC. e. This time belongs to the so-called Proto-Villanovian period (XII-X centuries BC). There is extremely little data on the Proto-Villanovians. The only important evidence of the beginning of a new civilization is a change in the funeral rite, which began to be performed by cremating the body on a funeral pyre, followed by burying the ashes in urns.
Villanova I and Villanova II periods
After the loss of independence, Etruria retained its cultural identity for some time. In the II-I centuries BC. e. local art continued to exist; this period is also called Etruscan-Roman. But gradually the Etruscans adopted the way of life of the Romans. In 89 BC. e. the inhabitants of Etruria received Roman citizenship. By this time, the process of Romanization of Etruscan cities was almost completed, along with Etruscan history itself.
Arts and culture
The first monuments of Etruscan culture date back to the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC e. The development cycle of Etruscan civilization ends in the 2nd century. BC e. Rome was under its influence until the 1st century. BC e.
The Etruscans long preserved the archaic cults of the first Italian settlers and showed a special interest in death and the afterlife. Therefore, Etruscan art was significantly associated with the decoration of tombs, based on the concept that the objects in them should maintain a connection with real life. The most notable surviving monuments are sculpture and sarcophagi.
Etruscan language and literature
A special category were women's toiletries. One of the most famous products of Etruscan craftsmen were bronze hand mirrors. Some are equipped with folding drawers and decorated with high reliefs. One surface was carefully polished, the reverse was decorated with engraving or high relief. Strigils were made from bronze - spatulas for removing oil and dirt, cysts, nail files, and caskets.
The Etruscans all wore short hair, with the exception of the haruspex priests [ ] . The priests did not cut their hair, but removed it from their foreheads with a narrow headband, a gold or silver hoop [ ] . In an earlier period, the Etruscans cut their beards short, but later they began to shave them clean [ ] . Women let their hair down over their shoulders or braided it and covered their head with a cap.
Leisure
The Etruscans loved to participate in fighting competitions and, perhaps, to help other people with housework [ ] . Also, the Etruscans had a theater, but it did not become as widespread as, for example, the Attic theater, and the manuscripts of plays found are not enough for a final analysis.
Economy
Crafts and agriculture
The basis of Etrurian prosperity was agriculture, which made it possible to keep livestock and export surplus wheat to Largest cities Italy. Spelled, oat and barley grains were found in the archaeological material. The high level of Etruscan agriculture made it possible to engage in selection - an Etruscan spelled variety was obtained, and for the first time they began to cultivate cultivated oats. Flax was used to sew tunics and raincoats, and ship sails. This material was used to record various texts (this achievement was later adopted by the Romans). There is evidence from antiquities about the strength of linen thread, from which Etruscan artisans made armor (6th century BC tomb, Tarquinia). The Etruscans quite widely used artificial irrigation, drainage, and regulation of river flows. The ancient canals known to archaeological science were located near the Etruscan cities of Spina, Veii, in the Coda region.
In the depths of the Apennines lay copper, zinc, silver, iron, and on the island of Ilva (Elba) iron ore reserves - everything was developed by the Etruscans. The presence of numerous metal products in the tombs of the 8th century. BC e. in Etruria it is associated with an adequate level of mining and metallurgy. Remains of mining are widely found in ancient Populonia (Campiglia Marritima region). The analysis allows us to establish that the smelting of copper and bronze preceded iron processing. There are finds made of copper inlaid with miniature iron squares - a technique used when working with expensive materials. In the 7th century BC e. iron was still a rare metal for processing. Nevertheless, metalworking in cities and colonial centers has been identified: the production of metal utensils was developed in Capua and Nola, and an assortment of blacksmith items was found in Minturni, Venafre, and Suessa. Metalworking workshops are noted in Marzabotto. For that time, the mining and processing of copper and iron was significant in scale. In this area, the Etruscans succeeded in constructing mines for manual extraction of ore.
By modern standards, Etruscan houses are rather sparsely furnished. As a rule, the Etruscans did not use shelves and cabinets; things and provisions were stored in caskets, baskets or hung on hooks.
Luxury goods and jewelry
For centuries, Etruscan aristocrats wore jewelry and acquired luxury items made of glass, earthenware, amber, ivory, precious stones, gold and silver. Villanovians in the 7th century BC e. wore glass beads, jewelry made of precious metals and faience pendants from the Eastern Mediterranean. The most important local products were brooches, made of bronze, gold, silver and iron. The latter were considered rare.
The exceptional prosperity of Etruria in the 7th century BC. e. caused a rapid development of jewelry and an influx of imported products. Silver bowls were imported from Phenicia, and the images on them were copied by Etruscan craftsmen. From imported from the East Ivory made boxes and cups. Most jewelry was produced in Etruria. Goldsmiths used engraving, filigree and graining. In addition to brooches, pins, buckles, hair ribbons, earrings, rings, necklaces, bracelets, and clothing plates were widespread.
During the Archaic era, decorations became more elaborate. Earrings in the form of tiny bags and disc-shaped earrings have come into fashion. Semi-precious stones and colored glass were used. During this period, beautiful gems appeared. Hollow pendants or bullas often played the role of amulets and were worn by children and adults. Etruscan women of the Hellenistic period preferred Greek-type jewelry. In the 2nd century BC. e. They wore a tiara on their heads, small earrings with pendants in their ears, disc-shaped clasps on their shoulders, and their hands were decorated with bracelets and rings.
The lack of written and material historical evidence, the significant time period separating modernity from the Etruscan era do not yet allow a thorough study of the life of representatives of this civilization, but it is known that both ancient peoples and modern world, the Etruscans had a very noticeable influence.
The emergence and disappearance of the Etruscan civilization
The Etruscans appeared on the Apennine Peninsula in the 9th century BC. and after three centuries they represented a developed civilization that could be proud of the high level of craftsmanship, successful agriculture, and the presence of metallurgical production.
Fragment of the front wall of an Etruscan funeral urnThe Villanova civilization, the first of the Iron Age cultures in Italy, is considered by some scientists to be an early stage of the existence of the Etruscans, while others deny continuity between the two cultures, recognizing the version of the expulsion of the Villanova representatives by the Etruscans.
The origin of the Etruscans is one of the issues that has caused controversy among historians since ancient times. Thus, Herodotus argued that these people came to the Apennines from Asia Minor - this version is still the most popular.
Herodotus Titus Livy assumed that the homeland of the Etruscans was the Alps, and the people appeared thanks to the migration of tribes from the north. According to the third version, the Etruscans did not come from anywhere, but always lived in this territory. The fourth version is about the connection of the Etruscans with Slavic tribes– is currently considered pseudoscientific, despite its popularity.
It is interesting that the Etruscans themselves foresaw the decline and death of their civilization, which they wrote about in their books, which were later lost.
Etruscan sarcophagus The reasons for the disappearance of the people are said to be both assimilation with the Romans and the influence of external factors - in particular, malaria, which could have been brought to Etruria by travelers from the East and spread thanks to mosquitoes that inhabited the swampy lands of Italy in large numbers.
The Etruscans themselves are silent about their history - their language, despite the fairly successful decipherment of the inscriptions on tombstones, nevertheless continues to remain unsolved.
Interaction of the Etruscans with other peoples
Be that as it may, about a thousand years of existence of the Etruscan civilization left interesting traces. Etruria was in an exceptionally favorable position in terms of natural resources region. Here we met in abundance building stone, clay, tin, iron, forests grew, coal deposits were explored. The Etruscans, in addition to the high level of development of agriculture and crafts, also succeeded in piracy - they were known as excellent shipbuilders and kept the ships of other tribes at bay. This people is credited with, among other things, the invention of the anchor with a lead rod, as well as the copper sea ram.
Fragment of a fresco depicting an Etruscan ship However, the interaction of the Etruscans with the ancient peoples of the Mediterranean was not in the nature of confrontations - on the contrary, the inhabitants of Etruria willingly adopted the values of Ancient Greece and the peculiarities of their way of life. It is known that the ancient Greek alphabet was borrowed first by the Etruscans, and from them by the Romans. Despite the fact that scientists cannot yet translate the Etruscan language, it is nevertheless written in Greek letters - as on tablets from the city of Cortona, discovered in 1992.
Tablets from Cortona with an inscription in the Etruscan language It is believed that a number of words used by modern people are of Etruscan origin. These are, in particular, “person”, “arena”, “antenna” (meaning “mast”), “letter” and even “service” (meaning “slave, servant”).
The Etruscans were great lovers of music - to the sound of a flute, most often a double one, they cooked, fought, went hunting, and even punished slaves, as the Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle writes with some indignation.
Fresco of the necropolis of the city of Tarquinia depicting a double flute Togas, decorations, construction of cities and circuses
They probably dressed to the music - it is interesting that the famous Roman toga with a purple border traces its history back to the Etruscans. This large piece of fabric, usually made of wool, evolved from the ornate cloaks of Etruscan chiefs.
The Etruscans are considered the creators of the Roman toga Women wore full skirts and lace-up bodices, and in addition, they were very fond of jewelry - just like men. Etruscan bracelets, rings, and necklaces made of gold have been preserved. Etruscan craftsmen achieved particular skill in creating brooches - gold clasps of extremely fine workmanship that were used to fasten capes.
Etruscan fibula made of gold The Etruscan art of city building, which had a great influence on the architecture of Rome and antiquity in general, deserves special mention. In the 7th century BC. the phenomenon of the Twelve Cities arose - a union of the largest Etruscan cities, among them Veii, Clusium, Perusia, Vatluna and others. The remaining cities of Etruria were subordinate to the closest of those included in the Twelve City.
Etruscan city Volterra The Etruscans began the construction of the city with a symbolic designation of the border - it was supposed to be outlined by an ox and a heifer harnessed to a plow. The city necessarily had three streets, three gates, three temples - dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The rituals of building Etruscan cities - Etrusco ritu - were adopted by the Romans.
Ancient Roman Appian Way - Via Appia There is also an assumption that the famous ancient Roman roads that still exist today, for example, Via Appia, were built not without the participation of the Etruscans.
The Etruscans built the largest hippodrome in Ancient Rome - Circus Maximus, or Great Circus. According to legend, the first chariot racing competitions were held by King Tarquinius Priscus, who was from the Etruscan city of Tarquinia in the 6th century BC.
Circus Maximus - Circus Maximus As for gladiator fights, this ancient tradition originates from the Etruscan culture of sacrifice, when captured warriors were given a chance to survive instead of being sacrificed to the gods.
Gladiator fight. Roman mosaic Mixing different cultures, the mutual influence of the worlds of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and Etruria on each other led to an enrichment of experience different nations and at the same time to the loss of the originality of each of them. The Etruscans in the ancient world are one of the most important components, without them the history of mankind would be different.
Etruscans - the mysterious predecessors of Rome
Mysterious, mysterious, unknown - such epithets are usually awarded to the Etruscans - the people who inhabited the territory of the modern Apennine Peninsula in ancient times. To some extent, this is true, since, despite the fairly large number of material remains of their culture that have survived to this day - cities, tombs, household and religious items, this people largely remains an unsolved mystery. Even the civilizations of Egypt and the Ancient East seem to modern science more understandable and studied than the Etruscans. We can say that the Etruscans continue to be a blank spot on the map of History along with the civilizations of Minoan Crete, the Mayans, the Incas or the builders of Stonehenge in prehistoric England. In many ways, this position of this ancient European people is due to the lack of modern researchers the key to deciphering their writing, as well as a clear idea of where the Etruscans came from. This led to the emergence of a large number of more or less plausible theories, which often contradict each other, and sometimes are completely fantastic, attributing almost alien origin to the Etruscans. The eminent ancient Roman historian Polybius said: “The historian should not amaze his readers with stories of extraordinary events.” Therefore, we will try, following his advice, to understand the intricate issues of Etruscan studies, avoiding speculation as much as possible and using only verified facts. But since, in general, there are not many verified facts, it probably won’t work out completely without speculation...
So, today it is known that the people whom the Romans called Etruscans or “Tusci”, and the Greeks called “Tyrrhenians” or “Tersenians”, called themselves “Rasna” or “Rasena”. It is believed that it appeared in Italy in the 11th century BC. e. This is followed by a break of several centuries, when nothing was heard about the Etruscans. And suddenly, by the end of the 8th century BC. e. it turns out that the Etruscans are a people with developed agriculture and crafts; their cities conduct extensive overseas trade, exporting grain, metal, wine, ceramics, and tanned leather. The Etruscan nobility - the Lucumoni - builds fortified cities, seeks glory and wealth in continuous campaigns, raids and battles. Two peoples fought at this time for supremacy at sea - the Greeks and the Carthaginians. The Etruscans took the side of the Carthaginians in this struggle, their pirates dominated the Mediterranean, so much so that the Greeks were afraid to even go into the Tyrrhenian Sea. In the 7th–6th centuries BC. e. Large city-states arise in Etruria: Veii, Caere, Tarquinia, Clusium, Arretius, Populonia. Etruscan influence spread from the Alps to Campania. In the north they founded Mantua and Felsini (present-day Bologna), and twelve other cities in Campania. The Etruscan city of Adria in the northeast of the Apennine Peninsula gave its name to the Adriatic Sea. By the 6th century BC. e. The Etruscans controlled a territory of 70 thousand square kilometers, their number exceeded two million. Thus, we can say that in the Mediterranean part of the ancient world, the Etruscan civilization occupied a dominant position. Much of what we consider primordially Roman was born not on the hills of Latium, but on the plains of Etruria. Rome itself was created according to the Etruscan rite and built according to the Etruscan model. The ancient temple on the Capitol and a number of other sanctuaries in Rome were built by Etruscan craftsmen. The ancient Roman kings from the Tarquin family were of Etruscan origin; many Latin names have Etruscan roots, and some historians believe that it was through the Etruscans that the Romans borrowed the Greek alphabet. The most ancient state institutions, laws, positions, circus games, theatrical performances, gladiator fights, the art of fortune telling and even many gods - all this came to the Romans from the Etruscans. Symbols of power - fasces (bundles of rods with axes embedded in them), which were carried in front of the king, a senatorial toga trimmed with a purple border, the custom of triumph after victory over the enemy - and this is the inheritance of the Etruscans. The Romans themselves admitted: triumphal and consular decorations were transferred to Rome from Tarquinia. Even the word “Rome” itself is of Etruscan origin, as are other words considered purely Latin - tavern, cistern, ceremony, persona, litera.
How did it happen that the more developed Etruria was defeated by almost barbaric Italian tribes? What is the mystery of such a rapid rise and no less rapid decline of this mysterious civilization? As many modern scholars believe, the reason for the decline of the Etruscans was that they, like the Greeks of the era preceding the great Alexander the Great, were unable to create single state. Only a federation (union) of self-governing cities arose. The heads of the Etruscan cities, who gathered in Volsinia in the sanctuary of the deity Volumna (Voltcumna), alternately chose from their midst the chief Lucumon, who could only conditionally be considered a king, and the priest-high priest. For the Etruscan, the concept of “Motherland” was limited to the city walls, and his patriotism did not extend beyond them. The capture and destruction of one Etruscan city by the growing Roman state did not at all worry the inhabitants of another, and often the fall of a competitor even caused undisguised joy. But as it usually happens: “He who laughs last laughs best,” the joy was short-lived. And now this city became the prey of a young predator. As a rule, Rome laughed.
The power and influence of the Etruscans reached their zenith in 535 BC. e. Then, at the Battle of Alalia in Corsica, the combined Carthaginian-Etruscan fleet inflicted a crushing defeat on the Greeks, and Corsica came into the possession of the Etruscans. But just a few years later, the Etruscans began to suffer defeats from the Greeks and previously conquered Italian tribes. Around this time, Rome was also liberated from Etruscan rule. In the 5th century BC. e. The territory of Etruria is greatly reduced, the connection between the cities, already fragile, is collapsing. As already mentioned, cities do not come to each other's aid. Experienced farmers and builders, skilled metallurgists, cunning inventors of anchors and sea rams, fearless and fierce warriors found themselves powerless before young Rome and its united allies. Having subjugated all of Etruria, the Romans continued to remain under the influence of Etruscan culture, which slowly faded as Roman civilization flourished. By the middle of the 1st century BC. e. The Etruscans lost all significance in the culture of Rome. Only a few amateurs remembered the Etruscan language. One such lover was the Emperor Claudius (10 BC – 54 AD). He wrote an Etruscan history in Greek in twenty volumes and ordered that every year on set days, readers should publicly read it from beginning to end in a building specially built for this purpose. “Tirrenica” - “The History of the Tyrrhenians”, or, as we would say now, “The History of the Etruscans”, Claudius considered his greatest achievement, along with another multi-volume opus “Carphadonica” - “The History of Carthage”. What made Claudius study the history of these two ancient peoples? Was his interest in the Carthaginians and Etruscans accidental or did it reflect a desire to look deeper into that historical period, when Rome stood modestly at the very beginning of its journey and was forced to gain ground in the struggle against the Etruscans and Greeks, and outside Italy - against the Carthaginians? Unfortunately, we can only guess about this, since Claudius’s books have not reached us.
In all likelihood, Claudius' twenty books about the Etruscans were a kind of encyclopedia of knowledge about this people. Judging by the impressive volume of work, the emperor had no reason to complain about the lack of sources. In the 1st century AD e. There is still a lot of evidence that has not survived to this day. Claudius could still see monuments of Etruscan culture, which were subsequently destroyed. He heard the speech of the Etruscans. True, in his time it sounded less and less, but was still heard in Etruscan cities. He could meet with the Etruscans, not only in Etruria, but also directly in the imperial palace. Few non-specialists know that his first wife, Plautia Urgulanilla, belonged to this mysterious people. Claudius met her relatives and thanks to this was relatively closely connected with the Etruscan world. Or rather, with what was left of him. The works of Claudius were already an exceptional phenomenon at that time. The emperor systematized information that had not been summarized in any independent study before. It may also seem strange that they belonged to the pen of a Roman, and not an Etruscan. This is all the more surprising since during the era of the Empire there were many educated Etruscans who often occupied a high position and could, if they wished, themselves write a work similar to the treatise of Claudius, if not better.
An example is Gai Tsilniy Maecenas, an outstanding politician and confidant Emperor Augustus. His name became a household name: using his influence, Maecenas supported gifted poets and artists with money. The famous Roman lyricist Horace was one of them. From his poems it became known that Maecenas had aristocratic ancestors in one of the Etruscan cities. Despite the fact that Maecenas, an Etruscan by birth, was close to art, no information has been preserved that he was interested in the past of his people. The same can be said about another highly educated Etruscan - the satirist and fabulist Aulus of Persia Flaccus, a native of the Etruscan city of Volaterra, who lived in the 1st century AD. e. And he showed much more interest in the problems of Rome than in the history of the Etruscans. His satires were aimed at ridiculing Roman morals. Some interest in the history of his people was shown by a friend of Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero - an outstanding Roman orator and politician of the 1st century BC), the Romanized Etruscan Aulus Caecina, who carefully studied the Etruscan science of interpreting lightning. It was probably from him that Cicero learned information about the Etruscan predictions of the future, which he refers to in his work “On Fortune-Telling.” Marcus Tullius, a very pragmatic man who received an excellent education, treated the studies of his Etruscan friend with the greatest respect. Even at the beginning of Cicero's career, Caecina predicted that, despite the fame achieved by the young orator, the people would one day turn away from him and sentence him to exile. And so it happened. When in 58 BC. e. Cicero was expelled, Caecina again predicted that he would soon return. The prediction came true.
Other historical figures known to us, Etruscans by origin, did not look back and, unfortunately, did not consider themselves among the people who had already left the historical scene of ancient Italy. This is an undeniable sign of the decline of the Etruscans. Due to the lack of interest among the Etruscans themselves in their past, it fell to the lot of the Greeks and Romans to summarize everything that was known about their history. But the history of the Etruscans interested them only insofar as it was connected with the history of their own peoples.
Most Full description Etruscans belongs to Diodorus Siculus, a Roman historian of the 1st century BC. e., who wrote in Greek. However, the information about the Etruscans presented in his work is not the fruit of his own research. He borrowed them from the works of the Greek historian Posidonius, who lived a century earlier. This is what he says about the Etruscans:
“They were distinguished by their courage, captured vast territory and founded many glorious cities. They also stood out for their naval forces and for a long time dominated the sea, so that thanks to them the sea adjacent to Italy received the name Tyrrhenian. To improve ground forces They invented a forge that was very helpful in warfare and was named Tyrrhenian in their honor. They awarded the highest military commanders the title of lictors, giving them the right to sit in ivory chairs and wear a toga with a red stripe. They built very convenient colonnades in their houses to muffle the sounds made by their servants. The Romans adopted most of this, introduced it into their settlements and improved it. They eagerly studied, first of all, writing, the science of nature and the gods; They were more involved in the science of lightning than any other people. Therefore, they are still admired by the rulers of almost the entire world and used as interpreters of omens sent by the gods with the help of lightning. And since they live on the land, which, when cultivated, gives them everything, the harvest of their fruits is sufficient not only for food, but also brings a rich income, allowing them to live with excesses. Twice a day they force them to prepare rich dishes and other things common to a luxurious life. They acquire sheets embroidered with flowers, and many silver bowls, and slaves to serve them; Some slaves are distinguished by beauty, others are dressed in clothes more expensive than befits a slave. And not only their servants, but also the majority of free citizens have spacious homes. They completely squandered their strength, which had long been the envy of others.
It is clear that they have lost the fighting prowess of their fathers if they spend their time in orgies and in entertainment unworthy of men. Their extravagance was facilitated, not least, by the rich land. For they live on a very rich land, on which everything can be cultivated, and they reap a rich harvest of all fruits.
Etruria always has a good harvest, and there are vast fields spread across it. It is divided by steep hills, also suitable for cultivation. There is a sufficient amount of moisture not only in winter, but also in summer.”
In the work of Diodorus there are other references to the Etruscans, but mainly when describing any events (the approach of many other ancient authors is similar). Most often, such events were wars in which the Etruscans constantly clashed with Rome. Given the patriotism of Roman authors, the Etruscans are often shown in black. The only exception may be the description of their religious rituals. Believing in mysterious abilities Etruscans, the Romans were in awe of their knowledge in the field of fortune telling and predictions.
An even more sparse description of the Etruscans was given by the Roman historian Titus Livius, who lived during the reign of Emperor Augustus, in his extensive work “History of Rome from the Founding of the City.” Here's what he reported:
“The Tusci, even before the founding of Rome, owned vast areas on land and sea. The names of the lower and upper seas, washing Italy like an island, indicate the past power of the Tusks, because the Italian peoples called one sea Tuscus, after the name of this people, and the other Atriatic Sea, after the name of Atria, a colony of the Tusks; The Greeks call these very seas one Tyrrhenian and the other Adriatic. And, stretching from one sea to the other, the Tusks populated both regions, founding twelve cities there, formerly on this side of the Apennines to the lower sea, and over time, sending colonies on the other side of the Apennines, in the same number as the metropolises , and occupying with these colonies all the areas beyond the river Padom up to the Alps, with the exception of the land of the returnees, who inhabit the corner of the sea bay.”
At the same time as Livy lived two famous scientists who wrote in Greek - the geographer Strabo and the historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Both of them mention the Etruscans in their writings. Strabo wrote:
“As long as the Etruscans had one ruler, they were very strong. But over time, their organization probably disintegrated, and they split into separate cities, yielding to pressure from the neighboring population. For otherwise they would not have left the rich land and would not have embarked on robbery at sea, some on these waters, others on those waters. After all, they were capable, united, not only of repelling an attack, but also of attacking themselves and undertaking long-distance expeditions.”
Dionysius of Halicarnassus created an extensive work dedicated to the history of Rome. Naturally, the Etruscans could not help but appear in his work. The description of Etruscan customs proposed by Dionysius is interesting in that it directly indicates where the Romans got many of their seemingly primordial traditions from. For example, Dionysius describes the emergence in Rome of a tradition according to which the chief official was entitled to an honorary escort in the form of twelve lictors:
“As some say, they brought Tarquin (meaning Tarquin the Ancient - the Etruscan king who ruled in Rome) twelve axes, one from each Etruscan city. It seems to be an Etruscan custom that each ruler is preceded by a lictor, who, in addition to a bundle of rods, also carries an axe. And every time these twelve cities undertook a joint action, they handed over these twelve axes to one ruler, who was entrusted with the overall command.”
Information about the Etruscans, their history and life, given by Greek and Roman authors, sometimes coincide, sometimes complement each other, and sometimes are in contradiction. These contradictions further thickened the shroud of mystery enveloping the Etruscans. Let us try to solve the mysteries of this mysterious people.
So, riddle number one is “Who are the Etruscans, and where did they come from to Italy?”
Even the ancient authors did not have a clear answer to this question. In the 5th century BC. BC, when the Etruscan civilization was still flourishing, the Greek historian Herodotus, who is called the “father of history,” recorded interesting evidence. In his famous “History,” dedicated mainly to the Greco-Persian Wars, he reported a lot of valuable information about the life of other peoples. Among the tribes drawn into the cycle of events around the Greco-Persian Wars, Herodotus also mentions the inhabitants of Asia Minor - the Lydians. “During the reign of Atis, son of Maneus, there was a great need for bread throughout Lydia. At first the Lydians patiently endured the famine; Then, when the hunger did not stop, they began to invent means against it, and each came up with his own special one. It was then, they say, that games of cubes, dice, ball and others, besides the game of chess, were invented; The Lydians do not take credit for the invention of chess. These inventions served as a remedy for them against hunger: one day they played continuously so as not to think about food, the next day they ate and left the game. They lived in this way for eighteen years. However, the hunger not only did not abate, but intensified; then the king divided the entire people into two parts and cast lots so that one of them would remain in their homeland, and the other would move out; He appointed himself king of the part that remained in place by lot, and appointed his son, named Tyrrhenus, over those who evicted. Those of them who had the lot to move out went to Smyrna ( ancient city on the coast of Asia Minor), they built ships there, put the items they needed on them and set off to find food and a place to live. Having passed through many nations, they finally arrived at the Ombrics (tribes who in ancient times inhabited the region of Italy called Umbria), where they founded cities and live to this day. Instead of Lydians, they began to call themselves by the name of the son of the king who forced them to move out; They took his name for themselves and were called Tyrrhenians.”
This is the very first and most coherent story that has reached us about the origin of the Etruscans, whom the Greeks called Tyrrhenians. Herodotus, like many ancient scientists who followed him, believed that the Etruscans were an alien people and did not belong to the indigenous population of Italy. The version of the eastern origin of the Etruscans seems even more convincing, since over the centuries, Greek and Roman, and after them Byzantine authors, retold Herodotus' story with various variations. During the Roman Empire, according to the ancient Roman historian Tacitus, the ambassadors of two Lydian cities - Sardis and Smyrna - argued about who would have the honor of erecting a temple in honor of Emperor Tiberius. Sardis won because they were able to prove to the Senate of Rome that it was from their city that King Tyrrhenus went in search of a new homeland and that they were closer in blood to the Romans. This story is interesting in that instead of Smyrna, the city of Sardis is named as the place of departure of the Tyrrhenians. The version of the origin of the Etruscans expressed by Herodotus has not lost its relevance today.
Another version of the origin of the Etruscans, which has existed since antiquity, is autochthonous. This means that the Etruscans did not come from anywhere and did not go anywhere, but lived in Italy from ancient times. It was first expressed by the already mentioned outstanding Roman historian of the 1st century BC. e., Greek by origin, Dionysius of Halicarnassus. He argued that the Etruscans had nothing in common with either the Lydians or the Greeks. In his work “Roman Antiquities,” dedicated to the history of Rome from the founding of the city to its first clash with Carthage, Dionysius wrote: “Closer to the truth are those who believe that the Etruscans did not come from anywhere, but that they are a native people in Italy, since this the people are very ancient and are unlike any other either in language or customs.” The testimony of Dionysius is of particular interest because he knew the Etruscans and could hear their speech. Some modern scholars call Dionysius of Halicarnassus the creator of the “Etruscan problem.” But even if the quoted passage from the work of this author had not survived to this day, the Etruscan problem would still have arisen, one way or another. The originality of the Etruscan language, Etruscan art and the entire Etruscan civilization itself raises the question of the sources of its origin.
There was also a third version of the origin of the Etruscans. We first meet her in Titus Livius:
“And the Alpine tribes, undoubtedly, are also of Etruscan origin, especially the Raetians, who, however, were influenced surrounding nature became wild to such an extent that they did not retain anything from the old customs except the language, but they were not even able to preserve the language without distortion.” Livy was referring to the population of ancient Rhenia, an area stretching from Lake Constance to the Danube and including what is now Tyrol (Austria) and part of Switzerland. As for the origin of the Etruscans, this passage is still not fully understood and allows for different interpretations. For example, it can be assumed that some Romans considered the Etruscans to come from somewhere in the north, and Retia served them as a kind of transit base. From there the Etruscans moved to the Apennine Peninsula. This theory was developed in later times.
So, in Ancient world There were at least three points of view on the origin of the Etruscans. They have reached our time practically unchanged. Moreover, during certain periods of the development of Etruscology, one version became the most popular. In addition to these three, the most famous, in Lately Many new, sometimes convincing, and sometimes even fantastic assumptions about the ancestral home of the Etruscans appeared. But we'll talk about them later.
Let's start with the theory of the origin of the Etruscans, proposed by the “father of history” Herodotus. In modern historical science it was dubbed the “Asia Minor theory” or “Herodotus theory”. Many outstanding Etruscan historians adhered to the Asia Minor theory, complementing and expanding it, in which archeology greatly helped them. For example, the Englishman Conway defends Herodotus’ version. He suggested that at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e.
gangs of Lydian pirates began to land on the western coast of Italy, north of the Tiber. Here they displaced the Umbrians, and then settled further along the peninsula. A similar opinion was expressed by the Italian Ducati. He believed that the Tyrrhenians-Etruscans came from Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean Sea. In search of fertile lands, small groups of conquerors landed in the Tuscany region, where they subjugated the local Umbrian tribes, and over time merged with them into one people - the Etruscans. The first city they founded in Italy was Tarquinia (late 8th - early 7th century BC). The settlers gave the local population their own language, alphabet, utensils and weapons, religion, etc.
An interesting version of the Eastern theory is proposed by the Bulgarian scientist V. Georgiev. He claims that the Etruscans are none other than the inhabitants of Troy known from the poems of Homer and Virgil - the Trojans. Based on the legend of the resettlement of the Trojans led by Aeneas to Italy, which is found in both Roman and Greek epics, he supports his theory with linguistic data, proving the similarity of the names “Etruria” and “Troy”. This theory is also supported by the fact that in the Iliad and Odyssey there is no mention of the Etruscans, who played one of the leading political roles in the Aegean world. According to V. Georgiev, they are presented in these works under the name “Trojans”. An inscription discovered in 1885 on the island of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea speaks in favor of Herodotus’ theory of the Asia Minor origin of the Etruscans. Two French archaeologists, Cousin and Durrbach, found a tombstone near the village of Caminia - a stele on which a warrior with a spear and a round shield was depicted in strokes. Next to the drawing on the stele was an inscription made in Greek letters, but not in the Greek language, although the main population of the island were Greeks. When comparing the text with Etruscan writings, it was proven that the language in which it was written has common features with Etruscan, if not entirely so. The Lemnos stele, like the Etruscan inscriptions themselves, still cannot be deciphered, but the conclusion suggests itself that the stele is related to the Etruscans, and, therefore, the Etruscans lived on the island for some time. The island of Lemnos could have been an ideal transit point for people crossing the Aegean Sea and heading from Asia Minor to Italy. If we talk about the theory of the origin of the Etruscans from the pirates of Asia Minor, then a more convenient place for establishing pirate bases cannot be found throughout the Mediterranean. There are a lot of other facts that would seem to support Herodotus' theory. The tombs in Asia Minor are very similar to those of the Etruscans; Asia Minor roots can be traced in the Etruscan language and proper names; the similarity of Etruscan religious rites and fortune-telling with those carried out in the Ancient East (for example, fortune-telling by the liver of a sacrificial animal was practiced in ancient Babylon). Ancient Egyptian texts mention the “Turshu” people (isn’t it very similar to the word “Tuski” - roman name Etruscans), who were part of the hordes of the “peoples of the sea” who plundered Egypt in the 14th–12th centuries BC. e. But the Asia Minor theory still leaves a number of unresolved questions. If the Etruscans were pirates, then how were they able to capture and subjugate such a powerful tribe of the ancient inhabitants of Italy - the Umbrians, about whom almost all ancient authors speak with respect? Moreover, how were the wild and half-starved settlers of Asia Minor able to create such a high culture? And if we assume that it was a whole people, then how could they move to Italy by sea? It is known that all the great migrations of peoples in ancient times took place exclusively by land, because you had to carry all your belongings on yourself, and you couldn’t load much on the ships of that time. And even if we assume that numerous Asia Minor settlers arrived by ship, then why did they choose places north of the Tiber for their settlement, ignoring the much more convenient, fertile and less populated areas of Sicily and Campania, because the Greeks and Phoenicians who occupied these areas appeared there at the same time , if not later than the Etruscans? And if we talk about the elements oriental culture, then they can be fully explained by borrowings that were found everywhere from peoples living next to the developed civilizations of Egypt and the Ancient East: the Greeks, Minoans, Hittites, etc. So it is too early to talk about the exclusively Asia Minor origin of the Etruscans. At the very least, other theories are worth considering.
The theory of the northern origin of the Etruscans, put forward by Titus Livy, found its supporters in the 18th–19th centuries. They emphasized two things. The first is the similarity in the sound of the words “Retia” and “rasena” - that’s what the Etruscans called themselves. The second is the fact that in the Danube Rhaetian region inscriptions were discovered made in Etruscan letters in a language not only similar to the Etruscan language, but, according to some scientists, identical to it. The authority of Livy thus increased even more, and the theory of the northern origin of the Etruscans seemed to be proven. But it “seemed” that way only initially. In fact, the problem was far from completely resolved, and Livy’s point of view did not triumph for long. As a matter of fact, from the very beginning it was refuted by the data of another ancient historian - Pliny the Elder. He writes that the Etruscans were called reta, who in the 4th century BC. e. driven out of the Po River valley by the invasion of the Celts. This explains the origin of Etruscan finds in the Danube region.
The outstanding German historian B. G. Niebuhr (1776–1831), the first major expert on Ancient Rome, did not agree with Pliny’s opinion. He rejected Pliny's opinion as unsubstantiated. Niebuhr argued that the areas from which the Etruscans were supposedly driven out under the pressure of the Celts were not yet inhabited at that time and, therefore, the Etruscans did not come from Italy to Raetia, but rather from Raetia to Italy.
Niebuhr's point of view on the northern origin of the Etruscans was supported by the famous Italian scientists de Sanctis and Pareti. De Sanctis considered the tribes that came to Italy from the north around 1800 BC to be Etruscan. e., who built their houses on stilts. In 1926, Pareti published a work in which he argued that the Etruscans were newcomers from the north, who at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. penetrated Italy and created the Villanovan culture. However, such identification of the Etruscans with the bearers of ancient cultures is not supported by convincing evidence. Therefore, the theory of the northern origin of the Etruscans remains unproven and even somewhat outdated.
The theory of the local origin of the Etruscans is not in a good position either. Its supporters, who include the famous Italian Etruscologists Alfredo Trombetti and Giacomo Devoto, draw their main evidence from the field of linguistics. They emphasize that the Etruscan language does not belong to the Indo-European languages spoken by the settlers who entered Greece and Italy in the 2nd millennium BC. e. The population who lived in Italy before their arrival spoke a different language, which should be considered the ancestor of the Etruscan language. But if the Etruscans really represent an autochthonous (local) population of Italy, then how can we explain the fact that the finds associated with them date back to a relatively late period - more precisely, to the 8th century BC? e.? How can we explain that the language of the ancient Italic population turned out to be so resilient that it became the basis for the Etruscan language, while no other reliable information about the Italic tribes has survived?
Thus, the theory about the local origin of the Etruscans has its shortcomings, and its arguments are not entirely convincing.
An interesting approach to the problem of the origin of the Etruscans was proposed by the most famous and erudite Italian historian-Etruscologist Massimo Pallotino. He insists that the main thing is not whether the Etruscans came to Italy and, if they came, then from where, but how the Etruscan people formed on the territory of Italy and thanks to which they achieved such successes. Pallotino proceeds from the fact that the Etruscans undoubtedly existed in Italy from the 8th century BC. e. and that from this moment it is possible to trace and describe the process of development of the Etruscans and the creation of their culture. The scientist correctly notes that the development of the Etruscans did not occur in “airless space.” This process was influenced not only by the Italian environment of that time - primarily the bearers of the Villanova culture - but also the world, especially Greece and the eastern Mediterranean regions. Thanks to the maritime connections of Etruria with other countries and the resettlement of foreigners in the Etruscan colonies, their civilization developed under the strong influence of Greek and Oriental cultures.
This circumstance creates the impression that Etruscan culture is an integral part of Eastern civilization. The German F. Altheim also agrees with Pallotino’s opinion. He thoroughly studied early history ancient Italy and also considers the Etruscans a purely Italian phenomenon. Based on information obtained from ancient sources, he concluded that urban population It was not purely Etruscan that the Etruscan people in the form in which we imagine them arose through the merger of several peoples.
But there are counterarguments for this theory too. Can the originality of the Etruscan civilization be explained only by the fact that the nation, in the process of its development, accepted one thing from one people, and another from another? Shouldn’t this people have brought a lot of their own in order to create from a mixture of heterogeneous elements a culture that not only delighted contemporaries, but also amazes people of our time? Pallotino attaches great importance influence on the Etruscans of the East, Altheim - Greece. Both points of view are valid. But the main question remains: why exactly were the Etruscans so susceptible to Greek and Eastern influences? Were there not connections between the East and Etruria (or between Greece and Etruria) that were closer than the simple borrowing of cultural elements?
If we are already talking about theories of the origin of the Etruscans, we cannot ignore one more theory. Namely, about the Slavic roots of this ancient people. This theory, although widespread among researchers from exclusively Slavic countries, is nevertheless interesting and original. According to scientists who adhere to the Proto-Slavic theory of the origin of the Etruscans: Slavic pagan rituals, the holidays of Christmas (December 25), New Year (Generous Evening), Kupala and others, preserved on the Dnieper to this day, were invariably performed in Troy, Phrygia, and among the Etruscans of Italy , and many were inherited by Rome.
For more than five thousand years, proverbs, sayings and national features of Etruscan life have been preserved in Rus'. There are a lot of these relics. For example, researcher Snegirev classifies such well-known traditions as “sprinkling salt means a quarrel”; if a person sneezes, you need to say “bless you” - to those preserved from the Etruscans. Even the food: borscht, sausage, fried beans were both Roman and Russian national dishes, borrowed from their common predecessors with Russia - the Etruscans. The main pagan gods of Rus' and the Slavs: Svarog, Perun, Stribog, Month, Lada, Kupala, etc. were also the main gods of the Etruscans. The rites and rituals were the same. The Etruscan holiday of the god of the lunar sky - Janus, which is identical to the holiday of the birth of the Month on the Dnieper (the holiday of the Generous Evening), became under Julius Caesar in 46 BC. e. the beginning of the new year according to the new calendar (January 1). The people in Rome, as in Rus' to this day, have maintained the tradition that any work begun on the feast of the birth of the Month (Generous Evening) will be successfully completed.
This outraged some conservative researchers, for example A. M. Kondratov, who wrote that such a formulation of the question looks “completely humorous, parody.”
However, supporters of the Slavic theory are not appeased. They prove that the main god of Rus' and the Slavs, Perun, was also the god of the Etruscans. The Etruscan god of thunder and lightning was called Stri, and in Rus' he was revered under the name Stribog. Another argument in favor of the Slavic origin of the Etruscans is that the name Slavic peoples(until the 6th century) - the Wends (Venetas) connect the Slavs with Troy: according to World history Pompey Trogus as interpreted by Justin: “... the Wends were expelled from Troy by Atenor.”
Thus, modern Russian Etruscan scientists conclude that the Trojans were Etruscans, and ancient authors report that the Wends were Trojans. The Etruscans, brought by Tyrrhenus from Lydia (according to Herodotus), were close to the Trojans, and the Wends, according to Scandinavian chroniclers and Slavic ethnography, were associated with Phrygia and Troy. The Carpathians were called the Venedian Mountains, and it was in Rus' that the homeland of the goddesses was located: Tana, Lada, Artemis. The Etruscans called themselves Rasen; According to Herodotus, the territory of future Rus' was occupied by the Tirsaget tribe, but Tirsa is the Greek name for the Etruscans. Herodotus wrote about the Getae (Thracians) tribe - Etruscans by origin. All of the above allowed scientists who take the position of the “Slavic theory” to even conclude that some tribes of the descendants of the Etruscans survived until the 19th century: Rasen - Rusyns, Wends - Slovenes - Rets (Eastern Antes), Tirsagetae, etc. Of course, The theory is very interesting, but at the same time very controversial. We will return to this theory once again when we move on to the problem of unraveling the Etruscan language.
Thus, even well-thought-out and seemingly convincing theories of the origin of the Etruscans are not free from aspects that raise doubts. This is especially noticeable in cases where the arguments are not very well founded, and the connection between them is not sufficiently proven.
The heavy gates guarding the Etruscan secret are still closed. Etruscan sculptures, staring numbly into space or plunged into introspection with a dreamy smile, show with their entire appearance that they have nothing to say to researchers. The Etruscan inscriptions still remain silent, as if asserting that they are not intended for anyone except those who created them, and will never speak again.
But even if the inscriptions gave up their secret, would they shed light on the history of the Etruscans?
Perhaps deciphering Etruscan inscriptions would have a great impact historical meaning, since they could probably reveal the relationship of the Etruscans with the rest of the ancient world and would bring new data about their origins. It is possible, however, that these inscriptions would not have given us anything new, but only confirmed one of the existing theories of the origin of the Etruscans. But the Etruscan language tightly holds its secrets, and more than one generation of scientists around the world has been struggling to decipher it. Sometimes it seems that success is close and ancient Etruria is about to reveal its secrets. But, alas, there is no grand opening. And this is especially striking considering that all Etruscan texts are very easy to read, since they are all written in Greek letters. That’s it – we know the letters, we know the phonetics, but we can’t read it! Hence the next big (and probably the most significant) mystery of the Etruscans is their language.
As Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote: “Their language is not similar to any other people.” And indeed it is. Among the languages that were once spoken in Italy, the Etruscan language occupied a special place. It is known that it was widespread not only in Etruria itself, but also in the areas that the Etruscans owned in the north, as well as in the provinces of Latium and Campania. The speech of Etruscan sailors was heard in the port cities of Greece, and in Iberian Spain, on Crete, in Asia Minor and in Carthage. Based on this, it can be assumed that many people knew the Etruscan language. However, their language is the most complex problem, facing etruscologists.
Some scientists believe that back in the 1st century BC. e. the Etruscan language was a living language, that is, one that was widely used in Everyday life. However, already in the previous century it was significantly supplanted by Latin, which spread uncontrollably along with the political power of Rome. And by the 1st century AD. e. There are almost no people left who speak Etruscan. Soon the Etruscan language was generally consigned to oblivion, so complete that several generations of scientists have been making truly titanic efforts to at least partially understand the meaning of Etruscan words. As we noted above, reading Etruscan inscriptions is relatively easy, because the Etruscan alphabet is based on ancient Greek. But although Etruscologists can read Etruscan texts, they are nevertheless in the position of a person who, not knowing, for example, the Hungarian language, holds a Hungarian book in his hands. He knows the letters, so he can read words and entire phrases, but their meaning remains a mystery to him.
The only consolation is that etruscologists, unlike specialists in other dead languages (for example, the Mayan language or ancient Crete), do not have to solve the problem of reading the text. Etruscologists could even trace the development of the Etruscan alphabet, since among the archaeological finds there are several objects with a list of letters - the alphabet. They date from different eras, and some of the letters are slightly different from each other. The Italian scientist A. Minto discovered in one of the Etruscan burials near the city of Marsiliana de Albegna, next to three human skeletons, a large cauldron filled with items made of gold and ivory. The most valuable was an ivory plate measuring 5 by 9 centimeters. There are remains of wax on it, in which letters were squeezed out with a special stick - a stylus. On one edge of the plate were written 26 letters of the Etruscan alphabet of the 8th century BC. e. Scientists have different opinions about the purpose of the tablet. Some believe that it was an ABC book for those who learned to write and read, while others believe that this is a kind of evidence that its owner was a literate person. Literacy in those days was a rare phenomenon, and such a person was highly respected among his fellow tribesmen, who considered it necessary to emphasize the importance of the deceased even after his death by burying a similar tablet with him. Another discovery of the alphabet was made in the Etruscan city of Caere (present-day Cerveteri) in the famous “Tomb of Regolini-Glassi”. Here the alphabet was applied to the lower rim of the vessel, which, apparently, was an inkwell. This alphabet is a hundred years “younger” than that found in Marsilian. Scientists date it to the 7th century BC. e. The characters of both alphabets are very similar.
It remains unclear why all the alphabets were discovered in burials and even on the walls of crypts. The French scientist J. Ergon suggested that these alphabets could serve completely different purposes. He proceeded from the fact that ancient peoples endowed writing with magical powers. It is likely that the Etruscans also placed tablets with alphabets in their graves precisely because they attributed to letters the power that could free a person from the power of time, and that for them writing was inextricably linked with the concept of immortality and eternity.
In addition to primers, a huge number of Etruscan inscriptions found on tombstones, urns, sculptures, tiles, vessels and mirrors have survived to this day. Largest quantity inscriptions found in Etruria itself. In the areas located to the south and north of it, there are already fewer of them. Some finds have also been made outside Italy. Similar finds include a small ivory tablet with an Etruscan inscription found in Carthage.
It is often difficult to determine which century the products and the inscriptions on them belong to. When determining the chronology of an inscription, an experienced etruscologist can tell a lot about the shape of the letters and even the sound of the written word. So, for example, the Greek name Clytimnestra in ancient Etruscan sounds like Klutumustha, and in later Etruscan it sounds like Klutumsta. The earliest Etruscan inscriptions known to us date back to the 8th century BC. e., the latest - by the 1st century BC. e. Then they disappear completely, and their place is taken by inscriptions in Latin. The number of Etruscan inscriptions that have reached us is quite large - more than ten thousand. However, they cannot significantly make life easier for researchers, since ninety percent of them are short gravestone inscriptions containing only the name of the deceased, his age, and only occasionally meager information about the positions he held during his lifetime. For example: Alethnas Arnth (name of the deceased Arnt Aletna), Larisal (father's name - son Larisa), Zilath (position - was a zilator), Tarchnalthi (city - in Tarquinia), Amce (was).
Due to the similarity of the inscriptions and their meager vocabulary, most of them do not provide anything in deciphering Etruscan texts. And although Etruscologists have analyzed many inscriptions, their knowledge is nevertheless limited to a very small number of expressions. The situation did not change after the discovery of the largest handwritten Etruscan monument, which experts called Liber Linteus - “Linen Book”. Linen - because it is written on linen fabric. It is a rare stroke of luck that of the ancient books written on textiles, it is the Etruscan text that has survived, for, judging by the mentions of ancient authors, books of this kind were most widespread in Rome. From them we learn that such books were either of an official or religious nature.
This unique literary monument was found under very mysterious circumstances.
In the mid-19th century, a Croatian tourist traveled through Egypt. Being a passionate collector, he bought a mummy of a woman there and brought it to Vienna, where it became an adornment of his collection of rarities. After the collector's death, his brother, not knowing what to do with the mummy, donated it to the Zagreb museum. They noticed that on the strips of fabric in which the mummy was wrapped, traces of inscriptions were visible, and only then did they finally pay attention to the “packaging” of the mummy. True, at that time no one knew that we're talking about about the Etruscan text, and at first it was believed that the inscription was made in Arabic, then - that it is in Ethiopian, and only the Austrian Egyptologist J. Krall established that these are Etruscan inscriptions. He was the first to publish the text of the “Linen Book” in 1892.
Liber Linteus, or, as it is also called, “the book of the Mummy,” originally took the form of a scroll about 35–40 centimeters wide and several meters long. The text on the scroll was written in columns, of which less than twelve have survived on several strips ranging in length from 30 centimeters to 3 meters.
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From the book History of Rome by Mommsen TheodorChapter IV. THE ORIGINAL GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION OF ROME AND THE ANCIENT REFORMS IN IT. ROME'S HEGEMONY IN LATIUM. Roman family, power of the father. The Roman state, the power of the king. Equality of citizens. Non-citizens. People's Assembly. Senate. Military reform of Servius Tullius.
From the book Book 2. We change dates - everything changes. [New chronology of Greece and the Bible. Mathematics reveals the deception of medieval chronologists] author Fomenko Anatoly Timofeevich7. The famous kidnapping of the Sabine women in “ancient” Rome and the division of wives and daughters in Greece at the beginning of the 14th century AD. e Founding of Rome in Latinia, and then of Italian Rome in the 14th century AD. e 7.1. Rape of the Sabine Women Almost all versions of the Trojan = Tarquinian = Gothic War include
From the book Italy. History of the country author Lintner ValerioEtruscans Isn't this the secret of the long-nosed Etruscans? Long-nosed, sensitively walking, with an elusive smile of the Etruscans, Who made so little noise outside the cypress groves? D. G. Lawrence. Cypresses And yet, of the pre-Roman cultures, it had the greatest influence and left the most significant
author4.2. The legend about the founding of Rome by Romulus absorbed information about Constantine the Great’s transfer of the capital of the empire from old Rome to new Rome. “Ancient classics” say that the quarrel between Romulus and Remus occurred during the founding of the city of Rome in Latinia and Etruria. It is believed that speech
From the book Tsarist Rome between the Oka and Volga rivers. author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich29. The abduction of the Sabine women at the very beginning of Imperial Rome and the abduction of Helen in the Trojan War of the 13th century AD. e The cruel war of Rome with the Sabines In the books “Foundations of History” and “Methods” it has already been shown that the famous abduction of the Sabine women at the very beginning of Royal Rome, under King Romulus,
From the book Tsarist Rome between the Oka and Volga rivers. author Nosovsky Gleb VladimirovichChapter 8 Alexander Nevsky and the Battle of the Ice in the “ancient” history of Rome (Moses’s crossing of the sea and the death of the Pharaoh’s troops. The Istrian War of Rome) 1. A reminder of the various reflections of the Battle of the Ice in Greco-Roman “antiquity” and in the Bible 1) Let us recall that in the Old Testament
From the book What happened before Rurik author Pleshanov-Ostaya A. V.Etruscans Historians have long been concerned about the fate of the Etruscans, who by the middle of the 1st century BC. e. almost completely disappear from the culture of Rome. Really rich heritage did the Etruscans disappear into oblivion? Evidence discovered during excavations in ancient Etruria suggests that
Once upon a time, about 3000 years ago, it flourished in ancient Italy mysterious civilization. These people were rich, elegant and sophisticated. They feasted and drank expensive wines, entertained themselves with games and sports competitions, spent money on magnificent jewelry and art. They were called Etruscans, their world seemed like paradise, but it was doomed. The Etruscan priests predicted that their civilization would last a thousand years, and so it happened. One hundred years before the birth of Christ, this incredible world disappeared. What happened to this great civilization that paved the way for the mighty Roman Empire? Where are the Etruscans now?
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Where are the Etruscans? In the same place where they were - in Italy, mixed with the Latins, who came there like savages and then became the princes of this world. The same as everywhere else. For scientists, the search for the Etruscans is endless, although you just need to read what they themselves wrote. Many have tried to do this since the time of Volansky, but it turned out. that everything is simpler - they wrote in Russian and in Russian runes. So who are they then? A stupid question that only academics ask. Following the “scientific” method - if it is written on the fence “Vasya was here”, it should be read - “Heinrich was here”. Maybe it's time to just hear the language we all speak? It, despite all the efforts of the “civilizers” (ce-lization, that is, licked savages), contains in its roots the fundamental principles, the images from which all secondary languages originate. And the language in Russian is also the people. Interesting material on the topic of Russian roots of many languages here:
http://publikashka.com/blog/igra_slovami/2013-01-02-132
And
http://publikashka.com/blog/igra_slovami_2/2013-02-08-135
Once upon a time, about 3000 years ago, a mysterious civilization flourished in ancient Italy. These people were rich, elegant and sophisticated. They feasted and drank expensive wines, entertained themselves with games and sports, and spent money on magnificent jewelry and objects of art. They were called Etruscans, their world seemed like paradise, but it was doomed. The Etruscan priests predicted that their civilization would last a thousand years, and so it happened. One hundred years before the birth of Christ, this incredible world disappeared. What happened to this great civilization that paved the way for the mighty Roman Empire? Where are the Etruscans now?
Geography. Etruria, Padana region, Campania. In the VI century. move to the South and to the North => capture Rome (the last kings of Rome are the Etruscans), but the Hellenes drive them back to the North (524, 474 under Cumae), incl. in 510 Rome was liberated. By 400 the Gauls had ousted the Etruscans to the north, by 282 the Etruscans had been conquered by Rome and Romanized. Flourishing in the 3/4th century.
Meaning. One of the 2 cultures that greatly influenced the Roman one (until the 4th century BC). It stands out strongly against the background of all the Ligurians, Italics, and Illyrians with its development (there is a state).
Archeology. All Etruscan archeology proceeds without parallel written sources => beautiful, but not very informative. Necropolises of northern and central Italy with rich burials and wall paintings. City of the 5th century near Marzabotto. Regular layout. Port of Spina VI-IV centuries. (aerial photography). Port of Pyrga 5th century (remains of sanctuaries, tablets with sacred text in parallel in Etruscan and Phoenician languages). Etruscan residential buildings near Acqua Rossa. Up to 11,000 inscriptions, they are easy to read, but the meaning is unclear. Architecture. Regular plans (hence later the Hippodamian system). Fortification. Temples similar to Greek ones. Sarcophagi, frescoes, sculpture.
Economy.
Agricultural. The basis of everything, because good soils. Tendency towards waterlogging => drainage works for the first time.
Craft. Highly developed, because There are deposits of tin, copper, and iron. Bucchero ceramics. Sarcophagi and urns. Trade is well developed (Egyptian goods in tombs, ship remains).
Colonization. In the VI century. and mainly to Corsica and Sardinia. There the fight against the Greeks is on the side of Carthage.
Society. There is stratification. Patriarchal slavery. There are impoverished layers. The military-priestly elite. There are free artisans and farmers. Matrilineality along with patrilineality.
Policy. Initially they were ruled by kings and military-priestly nobility, but from the 6th century. - something like magistrates. There is no single state, but there are 3 leagues (Tuscan, Padanian, Campanian) - something like a confederation of cities. Each city has its own army (heavily armed infantry and nobles on horses and chariots).
Culture. It is highly developed and influences the Roman one. It is formed under the influence of autochthonous features, Greek, Carthaginian and Asia Minor factors. Developed mythology and pantheon (Tini, Uni Menrva, Herkle). The influence of the Hittites and Greeks on them is obvious. Haruspices. Feature – realism. turning into naturalism. In painting - the technique of continuous images (comics). The religion is much darker than the Roman one. There is eschatology. Demonology.
The Etruscan question in historiography. Several points of view on the origin and language of the Etruscans.
Etruscan language.
Pre-Indo-European origins of the Etruscan language. The oldest population of Asia and the Mediterranean.
Indo-European origins of the Etruscan language. Related to Hittite and Pelasgian.
Origin of the Etruscans.
Eastern theory. According to Herodotus. Dominates in the 17th century. Modestov adheres to it (XX century). Eastern origin of the Etruscans (according to Herodotus - from Lydia).
Alpine theory. It is based on the identification of two ethnonyms: Rasen (the self-name of the Etruscans) and Rhets (an Alpine tribe). Appears in the 18th century, in the 19th century. it is adhered to by Mommsen and Niebuhr in the 20th century. – racists (Nordic origin of the Etruscans => Romans => Krauts).
Autochthonous theory. Based on the news of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. It is no longer the Germans who are pushing it, but the Italian fascists in the 20th century.
Theory of M. Pallotino. Dominates. The point is that the Etruscans did not come from anywhere ready-made, and were not the original inhabitants of the Apennine Peninsula, but formed there from heterogeneous elements.
