St. Petersburg: Rech, 2003. - 655 pp. The main advantage of the book is its introduction to psychology in a form that makes it possible for the reader to become familiar with the achievements of modern psychology. The main psychological concepts and their relationships. Clear logic of presentation, simple language, illustrative examples and illustrations will help the reader not only gain the necessary knowledge, but also learn how to use it in Everyday life. The author has presented the content in such a way that it meets the interests of a large number of readers: executives, managers, teachers, students. At the end of each chapter there is information on the practical application of the information, principles, and rules presented.
Readers of any profession, age and marital status will get acquainted with the huge reserves of the psyche - memory, emotions, intellect, consciousness, which will allow them to develop their own abilities and capabilities. Preface.
Development of higher mental processes.
formation of mental processes.
Dipping and rolling.
The emergence of randomness.
Using the principle of immersion in learning.
Perception.
basic characteristics of perception.
Perceptual activity and the role of feedback.
Conditions for adequate perception of the world.
Attention.
attention as a limitation of the field of perception.
Characteristics of attention.
Development of voluntary attention.
Attention and observation.
Notes on attention management.
Memory.
types and forms of memory.
Sensory, figurative and symbolic memory.
Instant and short-term memory.
Sleep mechanisms and buffer memory.
Long-term memory.
Phenomenal memory.
Memory management methods.
Thinking.
differences in children's thinking.
Abstraction and practical experience.
Thinking as a process.
Characteristics of the thought process.
Ways to activate thinking.
Emotions.
types of emotions.
Emotions and physiology.
Development of emotions.
Stress and its features.
The effect of stress on nervous diseases.
Optimal emotional stress.
Managing emotions.
Speech and language.
speech and other mental processes.
Child speech development.
Mastering grammar.
Auxiliary means of language.
Lecturer's language.
Consciousness.
consciousness as a stage of development of the psyche.
Formation of the child's consciousness.
Interaction of consciousness and subconscious.
Structure of consciousness.
Psychological protection.
psychological defense system.
Negation.
Suppression.
Rationalization.
Crowding out.
Projection.
Identification.
Alienation.
Substitution.
Dream.
Catharsis.
Sublimation.
Psychological protection in children.
Overcoming subconscious barriers in children.
Organization of psychological barriers.
Overcoming psychological defense.
manifestation of protection in behavioral stereotypes.
The emergence of escape from.
Search for the “target” and its role.
Conflict and pseudo-conflict.
Formation of a new image of “I”.
The emergence of symbols and fetishes.
Barrier height adjustment.
Reducing the extent of injury.
Achieving greater mental flexibility.
Putting off achieving a goal.
Increased self-esteem.
Preventing the perpetuation of helplessness and fears.
Increased activity to change the course of events.
Developing and maintaining your hobbies.
Treat “this” with humor.
Maybe there is no problem, but you feel unwell?
The use of confession.
Biological foundation of personality.
temperament.
The evolution of ideas about temperament.
Temperament in communication.
Temperament and activity.
Inclinations and abilities.
Adolescent and youth psychology.
acceleration and age-related crises.
Specifics of psychology of age intervals (from 10 to 17 years).
Problems of youth.
Inclusion of psychology in pedagogy.
Psychology of old age.
stages of development of a mature personality.
Psyche and intelligence in the “relentless” years.
The art of growing old.
Psychological support for the departing person.
Communication and personality.
self-esteem and level of aspirations.
A few steps to self-confidence.
Professional deformation.
Teacher authority and communication effectiveness.
Double adaptation of the student.
Family communication.
infatuation and love.
Self-esteem and couple relationships.
Causes of family conflicts.
Preventing conflicts between spouses.
For young wives.
For young husbands.
Active methods training.
attitude towards new things and overcoming stereotypes.
Specific situations.
Incident method.
Sensitivity training.
Brain attack.
Synectics.
Business games.
Immersion method.
Elements of active forms in the work of a teacher.
Conclusion.
Literature.
Granovskaya R. M.
Elements of practical psychology.
Read the book Elements of Practical Psychology online
PREFACE
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER MENTAL PROCESSES
Formation of mental processes
Dipping and Rolling
Formation of arbitrariness
Using the principle of immersion in learning
PERCEPTION
Basic characteristics of perception
Perceptual activity and the meaning of feedback
Volume and structure of information and adequate perception
Restructuring of perception during learning
ATTENTION
Attention as a limitation of the field of perception
Characteristics of attention
Development of voluntary attention.
Notes on managing attention
Types of memory.
Forms of memory.
Intermediate memory and sleep mechanisms
Long-term memory
Memory management methods
THINKING
Pre-conceptual and conceptual thinking
Stages of the thought process
Characteristics of the thought process
Ways to activate thinking
Biological and psychological meaning of emotions
Development of emotions
Stress and its features
Managing Emotions
SPEECH AND LANGUAGE
Speech development
Language aids
CONSCIOUSNESS
Consciousness as the highest stage of mental development
Interaction of consciousness and subconscious
Methods of psychological protection
Overcoming psychological defense
MENTAL PROCESSES AND HEMISPHERE ASYMMETRY
Asymmetry of the hemispheres and the specificity of mental processes
Intuition: multiple changes in dominance
Ways to develop intuition
Learning efficiency and the role of the right hemisphere
BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF PERSONALITY
Temperament and productivity
Inclinations and abilities
AGE PERSONALITY FEATURES
Features of the psychology of adolescence
Specifics of psychological activity in adulthood
COMMUNICATION AND PERSONALITY
Self-esteem and level of aspirations
Curator and double student adaptation
Family communication problems
ACTIVE LEARNING METHODS
Specific situations
Incident Method
Sensitivity training
Brain attack
Business games
Immersion method
INTEGRITY OF MENTAL PROCESSES
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Reviewers:
Doctor of Psychology L. D. Logvinenko (Moscow University), Doctor of Psychology I. P Volkov (Leningrad Institute of Physical Culture)
Published according to the resolution of the Editorial and Publishing Council of Leningrad University
Granovskaya R. M.
Elements of practical psychology. - ed. - L.: Leningrad University Publishing House. .- With.
The book, in a form accessible to non-specialists, introduces the most important processes studied by psychology: perception, attention, memory, thinking, speech, emotions, consciousness. It contains practical recommendations to help everyone purposefully form these functions and manage them in the process of learning, work and communication.
The book is intended for university teachers, business managers, engineers, and anyone who, by the nature of their work, must be able to communicate correctly with people.
Leningrad University Publishing House,
PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to acquaint everyone with the elements of psychology, and first of all those who are busy implementing the grandiose task of communist construction. Its solution at the present stage of the country’s development is connected “with the improvement of social relations, the restructuring of thinking, the development new psychology, the affirmation of dynamism as a way of life, a norm of being” [, p. ]. These transformations should begin with a restructuring of “consciousness, rejection of existing stereotypes of thinking and practice, and a clear understanding of new tasks” [, p. ]. Knowledge of the basics of human psychology can be of great help in this. Everyone who, by the nature of their work, needs to work with people, manage them and educate them, must have a scientific understanding of such mental processes inherent in each of us as perception and thinking, attention and memory, emotions and speech, etc. There is an opinion that knowledge of the basics of psychology will only slightly deepen existing ideas formed on the basis of one’s own life experience. But that's not true. Firstly, psychological knowledge is characterized by a discrepancy between its everyday and scientific meanings; secondly, mastery of even the elements scientific knowledge in psychology not only quantitatively increases a person’s capabilities, but also contributes to qualitative changes in the strategy of his behavior. Only a fusion of science and practice ensures a conscious and purposeful solution to the task set by the party.
Knowledge of the basics of psychology is necessary for any citizen. And that's why. Particular emphasis in all current transformations is on increasing the role human factor. Hence, a person’s knowledge of the ways of self-organization to maintain optimal performance at any age, the development of psychological readiness for change, for the perception of new things is the key to the productive organization of one’s behavior. It is psychological literacy that will allow a person to understand the essence of age-related changes both in youth and in old age, to prepare for the correct use of psychological adaptive mechanisms, and to maintain an active life position until old age.
One cannot do without psychological knowledge when solving problems formulated in the USSR Law on Work Collectives. These are the tasks of creating favorable conditions in them. psychological climate. The ability to manage your emotions, understanding the emotional state of other people, a willingness to empathize and a sympathetic attitude towards the concerns and needs of others are conducive to creative contacts and cooperation in an atmosphere of friendliness and mutual understanding.
A feature of psychological science, which significantly distinguishes it from such sciences as, say, physics or chemistry, is that the knowledge obtained by scientific psychology can be used not only to accelerate cultural, scientific and technological progress, not only to interact with external in relation to a person in the world (in this case - with other people), but also for self-improvement. Indeed, by applying the information obtained by experimental and theoretical psychology, a person is able to radically improve his higher mental functions. It will become possible to manage your attention, concentrate and maintain it on the most significant problems for yourself, and master your memory so that, without annoying sudden forgetfulness, it supplies you with all the necessary information in a timely manner. You can develop logical and imaginative thinking and learn to overcome various internal barriers to original creative solutions, organize and discipline your emotions so that the experiences that arise not only do not destroy your health, but, on the contrary, are a powerful stimulus that gives a taste for life. You can learn to fully master our powerful weapon - speech, using its reserves to communicate with other people and yourself, to realize and intelligently process even depressing and traumatic information about yourself in order to take the path of overcoming shortcomings and fully actualize yourself as a person.
Now a little more about the book offered to the reader. The topics touched upon in it provide a brief outline of the main problems of psychology and introduce those facts, observations and theoretical concepts that this moment Psychological science has the ability to solve practical problems of interest to everyone.
The logic of the presentation of the material is as follows. First, the problems of lifetime development of higher mental processes and the general stages of their formation are discussed. Then there are more detailed description each of them - perception and attention, memory and thinking, emotions and speech, as well as consciousness as their synthesis. The section on hemispheric asymmetry addresses the problems of the relationship between mental functions and the substrate of the brain. The measure of asymmetry is considered as one of the sources of diversity in individual manifestations of mental functions in different people. Then follows a transition to a description of the main components of the biological foundation of personality - temperament, inclinations and abilities; They are what determine the innate uniqueness of a person. Next comes a section devoted to the temporal dynamics of higher mental processes, which manifests itself in the age-related characteristics of the individual. The problem of communication is addressed in a section that examines the formation of personality depending on the development of self-esteem, the level of aspirations and the influence of family and professional roles. After it, modern ideas about active learning methods are outlined, which not only allow you to gain knowledge faster, easier, with greater interest and with better memorization, but also contribute to the comprehensive development of the individual. The last chapter, “Integrity of Mental Processes,” plays a very special role in the book. It traces deep connections between individual mental processes. These connections cannot be perceived by the reader until he is familiar with the specifics of each process. Therefore, on the one hand, its task is to synthesize everything stated; on the other hand, being a holistic representation of the author’s concept, this chapter should expand the scope of the use of practical recommendations given in the remaining chapters.
The book, in a form accessible to non-specialists, introduces the most important processes studied by psychology: perception, attention, memory, thinking, speech, emotions, consciousness. It contains practical recommendations to help everyone purposefully form these functions and manage them in the process of learning, work and communication.
The book is intended for university teachers, business managers, engineers, and anyone who, by the nature of their work, must be able to communicate correctly with people.
Elements of practical psychology
Preface
The purpose of this book is to acquaint everyone with the elements of psychology, and first of all those who are busy implementing the grandiose task of communist construction. Its solution at the present stage of the country’s development is connected “with the improvement of social relations, the restructuring of thinking, the development of a new psychology, the establishment of dynamism as a way of life, a norm of being.” These transformations must begin with a restructuring of “consciousness, rejection of existing stereotypes of thinking and practice, and a clear understanding of new tasks.” Knowledge of the basics of human psychology can be of great help in this. Everyone who, by the nature of their work, needs to work with people, manage them and educate them, must have a scientific understanding of such mental processes inherent in each of us as perception and thinking, attention and memory, emotions and speech, etc. There is an opinion that knowledge of the basics of psychology will only slightly deepen existing ideas formed on the basis of one’s own life experience. But that's not true. Firstly, psychological knowledge is characterized by a discrepancy between its everyday and scientific meanings, and secondly, mastering even elements of scientific knowledge in psychology not only quantitatively increases a person’s capabilities, but also contributes to qualitative changes in the strategy of his behavior. Only a fusion of science and practice ensures a conscious and purposeful solution to the task set by the party.
Knowledge of the basics of psychology is necessary for any citizen. And that's why. Particular emphasis in all current transformations is on increasing the role of the human factor. Hence, a person’s knowledge of the ways of self-organization to maintain optimal performance at any age, the development of psychological readiness for change, for the perception of new things is the key to the productive organization of one’s behavior. It is psychological literacy that will allow a person to understand the essence of age-related changes both in youth and in old age, to prepare for the correct use of psychological adaptive mechanisms, and to maintain an active life position until old age.
One cannot do without psychological knowledge when solving problems formulated in the USSR Law on Work Collectives. These are the tasks of creating a favorable psychological climate in them. The ability to manage your emotions, understanding the emotional state of other people, a willingness to empathize and a sympathetic attitude towards the concerns and needs of others are conducive to creative contacts and cooperation in an atmosphere of friendliness and mutual understanding.
A feature of psychological science, which significantly distinguishes it from such sciences as, say, physics or chemistry, is that the knowledge obtained by scientific psychology can be used not only to accelerate cultural, scientific and technological progress, not only to interact with external in relation to a person in the world (in this case - with other people), but also for self-improvement. Indeed, by applying the information obtained by experimental and theoretical psychology, a person is able to radically improve his higher mental functions. It will become possible to manage your attention, concentrate and maintain it on the most significant problems for yourself, and master your memory so that, without annoying sudden forgetfulness, it supplies you with all the necessary information in a timely manner. You can develop logical and imaginative thinking and learn to overcome various internal barriers to original creative solutions, organize and discipline your emotions so that the experiences that arise not only do not destroy your health, but, on the contrary, are a powerful stimulus that gives a taste for life. You can learn to fully master our powerful weapon - speech, using its reserves to communicate with other people and yourself, to realize and intelligently process even depressing and traumatic information about yourself in order to take the path of overcoming shortcomings and fully actualize yourself as a person.
Now a little more about the book offered to the reader. The topics touched upon in it provide a brief outline of the main problems of psychology and introduce those facts, observations and theoretical concepts that psychological science currently has for solving practical problems of interest to everyone.
Development of higher mental processes
Formation of mental processes
This book will examine various human mental processes. It is useful to start by understanding the specifics of higher mental processes, which usually include perception, attention, memory, thinking, emotions and speech. It consists, firstly, in the fact that not a single higher mental process is a consequence of age-related development and maturation alone. An indispensable condition for their formation is education and other forms of social contacts. Another fundamental feature of them is that the transformations of signals taking place in the brain, the organ of mental processes, are perceived by a person as events taking place outside of him. They seem to occur in an external space that does not coincide with the space of the brain. Karl Marx also wrote that “the light effect of a thing on the optic nerve is perceived not as a subjective irritation of the optic nerve itself, but as the objective form of a thing located outside the eyes.” In other words, the specificity of mental processes lies in the fact that they are determined in the final conscious parameters by the properties of external objects.
Despite the fact that the physical existence of external objects is in no way connected with the brain, the characteristics of mental processes appear to us as the properties and relationships of external objects that make up their content. Thus, thought is revealed in the signs of those objects, the relationships between which it reflects, and emotion - in terms denoting relationships to those events, objects or persons that cause it. Thus, the mental process and its result are related to different objects: the first - to the brain, the second - to external objects and phenomena. For a physiological process, for example, there is no such division: both the process itself and its result are related by us to the same object - the organ that implements it.
An important feature of mental functions is that their physiological component, i.e., those changes in the work of the central nervous system that provide the corresponding mental process, are not perceived by humans at all. The neurophysiological components of mental processes turn out to be practically inaccessible to self-observation.
A paradox arises: we do not feel the events developing in ourselves, in our brain, but we feel the properties of things outside of us. This contradiction between the actually existing characteristics of mental processes and their perceived characteristics gave rise to various ways his permission. To greatly simplify, we can say that in pre-Marxist philosophy it came down to two extreme positions: a simplified-materialist one, which denies the existence of an image and recognizes the real inner world as consisting of material micro-duplicates of external objects (Empedocles, Democritus), and a subjective-idealistic one, which denies the existence of material objects of the external world, which affirms the world of images as the only reality (Berkeley, Hume [on 68]).
According to dialectical materialism, when a person interacts with the environment, it generates processes in the structure of his brain that reflect the properties of this external environment. Thus, both the causes of occurrence and the peculiarities of the development of mental processes turn out to lie outside the body. Hence it is clear why the characteristics of mental processes cannot in principle be deduced only from the patterns of functioning of the brain that implements these processes. To understand their characteristics, it is necessary to include into consideration the entire variety of social connections external to a given individual, which so far represents an insurmountable difficulty. It is this difficulty that can explain the idea of the independence of the course of mental and physiological processes - psychophysiological parallelism. The peculiarity of the psyche, associated with the fact that the physiological component of mental processes in perception is practically completely unrepresented, was probably a consequence of the evolution of the adaptive properties of the psyche. If we felt the physiological side of our mental processes, this would only distort the picture of the external world and interfere with its correct perception and understanding. Thus, in mental processes, physical changes that take place in the limited space of the organs of perception and thinking appear before us as occurring outside of us in unlimited external space and time. The noted special qualities of mental processes underlie the identification of the subject of psychology.
Dipping and Rolling
External material actions performed by a child represent the source material for the development of higher mental functions. During infancy, these cognitive actions are accessible to observation: the baby takes an object, sucks it, and visually examines it. At the age of two years, a child is forced to motorically implement every action in order to solve the problem facing him. During this period, his actions are still fully developed; they contain many visible components. At age development these actions are modified: the components are qualitatively transformed and their number gradually decreases. This change is called coagulation. At a certain stage of such development during learning, along with contraction, immersion also becomes possible - the disappearance of external, motor components of cognitive action and their transformation into mental operations. The child experiences a gradual shift in emphasis: first he learns about the world through actions, then through images, and then he develops a symbolic representation of the world through language and thinking. In this way, external actions are gradually rolled up and submerged.
Initial immersion is fragmentary: the child repeats in his mind only some of the actions that he is preparing to perform. Subsequently, cognitive actions become more and more schematic and abstract and turn into mental operations. But even in their completed form, mental operations are still actions, but already collapsed, automatic and coordinated with each other in complete systems. In other words, openly delayed actions are eventually transformed into lightning-fast, highly organized systems of internal operations.
P. Ya. Galperin identified the following characteristics of mental action: the degree of mastery, the completeness of actually performed operations, the degree of abbreviation and the degree of mastery. The degree of mastery, in turn, is determined by the level of objective action, the level of loud speech without relying on real objects, and the level of action in the mind. These are mandatory phases of transforming external action into internal action. The completeness of the operations actually performed is associated with the division of the action into such elementary operations, small actions that are feasible for the child.
Let us illustrate the processes of immersion and folding with examples. As is known, the initial stages of children’s assimilation of abstract material are associated with speaking the task out loud, first loudly, then in a whisper, and finally, speaking to oneself. Gradually, as knowledge is absorbed and mental operations are automated, the need to speak out loud disappears. External pronunciation is replaced by reduced, abbreviated internal speech, which is the basis of emerging mental actions. Inner speech occurs with maximum contraction of speech motor components. When a child learns to count using sticks, he rearranges them while calling out numbers. Further, hand movements are replaced by gaze movements, but the counting is still done out loud. And only later does the counting begin silently, “in the mind.” If you forbid a child who can only count on his fingers to move his hands, he will not be able to perform a computational operation.
For voluntary movements, a similar development path was demonstrated by A. V. Zaporozhets and his colleagues. They showed that the development of each motor skill is associated with a transition from an expanded sequence of actions, based on external means, to collapsed and abbreviated movement patterns, based not on fractional control of each muscle separately, but on generalized motor commands. The resulting dynamic patterns allow complex movements to be carried out so smoothly and economically that they are called “kinetic melodies.”
Formation of arbitrariness
Along with the plunging and collapsing we have become familiar with, common feature higher mental functions is voluntariness. The cultural-historical concept of L. S. Vygotsky connects the development of arbitrariness of mental functions with social factors. According to L. S. Vygotsky, higher mental functions are formed initially as external forms of joint, collective activity of people, and only gradually, as a result of immersion, do they become mental processes of the individual. At the same time, the development of the human psyche is determined not by physiological maturation, but by his social, labor, and instrumental activities. Vygotsky believed that the use of signs as psychological tools allows a person to rebuild his mental activity in the same way as the use of artificial tools fundamentally expands the boundaries of his work activity. Examples of psychological tools include language, numbering, notation, and algebraic symbolism. While these and other tools are directed outward and are means of external activity, the sign is primarily a means psychological impact on one’s behavior, a means of internal activity aimed at mastering a person’s self. This restructuring is carried out in several stages. Initially, the sign as a psychological tool is used for proper interaction with another person. Further, it becomes for a person an external means of voluntary control of his mental processes. And only then does the sign “grow in” as a tool inward, and there is no longer any need to use it externally. Thus, the difference in higher mental functions appears here as the use of artificially created stimuli that do not have a direct connection with the current situation. These stimuli, voluntarily introduced by a person, serve for self-regulation.
What serves as the psychological tools used by a person to control his behavior? There are many known tools with the help of which one or another alternative is selected. They are introduced as a means for random selection from possible options. One of these means is drawing lots. A. N. Leontyev admits that at a certain stage historical development, at the beginning of conscious self-control of the actions performed, the lot formed the germ of a significant tendency: the person himself determined his reaction with the help of an artificial stimulus, arbitrarily intervened in the situation, and showed himself actively.
The history of the development of counting also illustrates well the introduction of auxiliary incentives into the situation. The direct perception of quantity is the basis of arithmetic. The bridge over which a person moved from the direct perception of quantity to counting was counting on his fingers. Primitive man, who did not know the names of numerical designations, used his fingers and toes when counting. When they were not enough, he resorted to sticks, shells and other small items. In all these cases, he introduced artificial stimuli, and subsequently they were replaced by signs - numerical designations.
The role of mediation by signs in the formation of voluntary recall is especially expressive. As A. N. Leontyev wrote, a person constructs the process of remembering from the outside with the help of a knot tied for memory. Thus, he forces an external object to remind himself of something, that is, he reminds himself of this something through an external object, as if taking the process of memorization outside and turning it into external activity. This idea helps to reveal the mechanism of arbitrariness of higher mental functions. While in involuntary memorization a connection between events is established due to the coincidence of two stimuli simultaneously affecting the body, in voluntary memorization the person himself creates a temporary connection using an artificial combination of stimuli. If in the first case a direct immediate connection is established between the current stimulus and the response, then in the second the connection is carried out through an artificially introduced object or operation, which leads to the same result, but in a different way. Natural process Closing the conditional connection with the help of a psychological tool - a sign - is given a different direction. Thus, the place of action of a psychological tool is between the object and the mental reaction directed at it, which makes it possible to change the direction of the process with its help. The indirect nature of mental operations, possible thanks to the introduction of psychological tools, and the mastery of one’s own behavior achieved with their help - these are the the most important points, which determine the uniqueness of the historical evolution of behavior in contrast to its biological evolution.
Voluntariness is a defining characteristic of higher mental functions, but this does not mean that each of them is always realized under conscious control. Having arisen as voluntary, they can later be realized both as voluntary and as involuntary. Indirectly determines not only the arbitrariness of the control of mental processes, but also their qualitative restructuring. When actions with external objects are transformed into processes on the mental plane, they undergo a specific transformation - they are generalized, collapsed, verbalized - and in this new quality they become capable of further development, which is fundamentally unattainable with the help of external activity, thereby changing and improving the mental process.
Using the principle of immersion in learning
Collapse and immersion are essential stages in the development of all higher mental functions. It follows that, on the one hand, it is impossible to form a mental function bypassing the motor stage, and on the other, the remaining developed motor components inhibit further improvement of this function. This contradiction is key for the practical use of the stated provisions.
IN last years A productive method of teaching a person accelerated (dynamic) reading was developed. This technique is based on the targeted use of knowledge about the dynamics of participation and change of motor components in the reading process. Research has shown that reading acceleration is usually hampered by, firstly, extensive pronunciation of the text, secondly, an insufficient volume of the simultaneously perceived part of the text (fixation field) and, thirdly, a large number of return eye movements to incomprehensible places.
The first feature is an example of the contradictory role of articulation in the formation of reading skills at different stages of development. As we have already noted, at the beginning of learning to read, expanded articulation is necessary, but in order to subsequently speed up reading, it must be promptly and correctly collapsed. One of the ways to collapse and immerse is to replace auditory images with visual ones. If reading is accompanied by extensive articulation, it is based on auditory images. With articulation, the reading speed usually does not exceed 150 words per minute, since the auditory channel is connected, information processing in which is much slower than in the visual one. The dynamic reading technique suggests using the method of beating a rhythm to reduce articulation (pronunciation). When reading to yourself, you should tap out a certain rhythm synchronously with the reading. As soon as articulation occurs, the rhythm breaks down. This failure serves as feedback, which allows you to significantly reduce articulation.
To increase the field of fixation, it is necessary to radically expand the central field of vision and develop peripheral vision. Typically, one word or one phrase is perceived during one fixation. By training peripheral vision, it is advisable to learn to simultaneously perceive whole paragraph. According to the dynamic reading method, such training is carried out using special tables, or the principle of vertical reading is used. In the latter case, reading is carried out with constant fixation, a red line drawn vertically in the middle of the sheet, and not by moving the eyes along the lines, as is done with normal reading. To activate peripheral vision when reading with a red line, the time spent reading a page is strictly limited. At the beginning of training, the percentage of understood material is very small, but during the training process, due to the productive use of peripheral vision, the understanding of the text being read improves.
In order to reduce the number of backtracking to incomprehensible words, phrases and paragraphs, you need to know the purpose of reading and learn to highlight keywords that are significant for this purpose in each paragraph.
Perception
Basic characteristics of perception
In the previous section we looked at some general stages in the development of higher mental processes. Now let's move on to discussing the features of each of them. Let's start with perception. Perception is the reflection of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses. It is this that is most closely related to the transformation of information coming directly from the external environment. At the same time, images are formed, with which attention, memory, thinking, and emotions subsequently operate. Depending on the analyzers, the following types of perception are distinguished: vision, touch, hearing, kinesthesia, smell, taste. Thanks to the connections formed between different analyzers, the image reflects such properties of objects or phenomena for which there are no special analyzers, for example, the size of the object, weight, shape, regularity, which indicates the complex organization of this mental process.
The construction of an image of a perceived object is closely related to the method of examining it. When an object is repeatedly perceived during the learning process, internalization occurs on one (external) side—a modification of the structure of actions with the object. It can be observed that methods for examining an object are simplified and accelerated by reducing the number and fusing motor components into complexes. On the other (internal) side, an image of the object with which a person interacts is formed. Information about its properties (shape, size, etc.) obtained through motor examination in active interaction with an object is transformed into successive series of characteristics, from which integral representations of objects - images - are subsequently reconstructed.
Initially, human activity is directed and corrected by the influence of only external objects, but gradually it begins to be regulated by images. We can say that the image is the subjective form of an object; it is a product of the inner world of a given person. Already in the process of forming an image, it is influenced by the attitudes, interests, needs and motives of the individual, determining its uniqueness and peculiarities of emotional coloring. Since the image simultaneously represents such different properties of an object as its size, color, shape, texture, rhythm, we can say that this is a holistic and generalized representation of the object, the result of the synthesis of many individual sensations, which is already capable of regulating appropriate behavior.
The main characteristics of perception include constancy, objectivity, integrity and generality.
Constancy
Perceptual activity and the meaning of feedback
The basis for the formation of perception as a higher mental function and perception as an ongoing process is active movement. In the section devoted to the development of mental functions, we have already discussed the role of motor training in the formation of pitch hearing. However, not only the development of hearing, but also any type of perception is impossible without active movement. Held and Hayne's elegant experiments on kittens confirm the role of active movement in the development of perception. The essence of the experiment is this. Newborn kittens were kept in the dark and exposed to light only in a special pen (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 The influence of active movement on the formation of perception
Held and Hein apparatus for studying the dependence of visual recognition in kittens on active
and passive
training (From the book Problems of bionics M, 1965)
Volume and structure of information and adequate perception
In addition to activity and the use of feedback, the following conditions are also mandatory for correct perception: maintaining a certain minimum of information entering the brain from external and internal environment, and maintaining the usual structure of this information.
The importance of the first condition is demonstrated in studies of isolating subjects from stimuli coming from the environment and from their own body (sensory and perceptual deprivation). The essence of sensory deprivation is that subjects are isolated from external influences using special techniques. For example, to reduce skin sensitivity, subjects are placed in a warm bath, to reduce visual information, they are given light-proof glasses, and to eliminate auditory sensitivity, they are placed in a soundproof room.
A normal, physically healthy person, immersed in a bath where no acoustic and light stimuli reach him and tactile and olfactory sensations, as well as sensations of temperature are almost excluded, experiences great difficulty in controlling his thoughts and ideas, he loses orientation in the structure of his own body, he begins to have hallucinations and nightmares. When examining the subjects immediately after such isolation, they observed disturbances in perception, especially visual: the perception of color, shape, size and distance changed. In some conditions, the color seemed brighter and more saturated, while in others, color discrimination was lost. Thus, the famous speleologist Siffre did not distinguish between green and blue colors for another whole month after a two-month lack of information due to a solitary stay in the cave.
After being in isolation, there is also a change in the perception of depth and constancy of size; everything around may seem flat to the subject, surrounding objects seem to be in the same plane, as if drawn, and the walls of the room either “approach” or “move away” from him. Sometimes there was a loss of perceptual constancy, with flat surfaces being perceived as curved. Participants in Antarctic expeditions working in an extremely visually homogeneous environment showed a tendency to overestimate the size of objects and underestimate the distance to them, as well as changes in the perception of movement speed.
Sensory deprivation led to changes in perception and time: short - to an overestimation, and long - to an underestimation of time intervals. Changes in visual and auditory vigilance were observed. The general direction of changes after isolation for all types of perception is an increase in sensitivity.
Restructuring of perception during learning
So far we have discussed the conditions necessary for the full development of perception. Indeed, active interaction with the object, the presence of feedback, and a number of other conditions contribute to the construction of adequate images that make it possible to recognize the originals quickly, accurately, and reliably. However, the images do not immediately reach such perfection. A number of intermediate stages have been identified along this path. Understanding the mechanisms of these successive stages allows us to present the perceived material in an optimal way and thereby accelerate and correct the process of perception formation.
Visual observation is a purposefully organized perception, subordinated to the task facing a person. Usually the main tasks of observation are formulated as detection, recognition (recognition), identification. When detected, the observer records only the presence of an object (whether it exists or not), when identified, he assigns it to a class of objects (according to the general characteristics of the class), and when identified, he compares the object with a specific standard stored in memory, and based on this information, determines the significance object in a given situation and makes an appropriate decision.
To detect an object with maximum speed, a person must use such properties of images as constancy, generality, objectivity. For example, only sufficiently formed constancy allows for an accurate determination of the spatial position and orientation of an object, regardless of its distance to the observer, viewing angle, color and shape. Object identification can be realized quite quickly and reliably if a person relies on an effective system of signs.
Based on experimental and theoretical analysis of the mechanisms of perception and recognition of visual images, we put forward a hypothesis about the hierarchical structure of the processes of perception and recognition. This structure of the development of perception allows us to understand the transition from a detailed and sequential examination of an object, depending only on its configuration, to the active generation of hypotheses about its possible shape based on information about the class of close figures accumulated in long-term memory, and testing only the critical points of these hypotheses.
Each visual task contains limitations on the speed and accuracy of the solution. They direct the search to various fields of long-term memory, determining the appeal to more or less generalized features. When a person must solve a problem quite accurately, and the solution time is not strictly limited, he, in our opinion, resorts to describing the object using recursively calculated features of different levels of generality. If the problem is solved under time pressure and is not critical to the accuracy of the solution, then descriptions of a different type are used - holistic representations of objects. The formation of such ideas is associated with different types of spatial transformations of the entire figure in the mental field. It is assumed that the signs of the first type are formed by mechanisms of the left hemisphere of the brain, and the second - by mechanisms of the right hemisphere.
Attention
Attention as a limitation of the field of perception
Relevant, personally significant signals are highlighted with attention. The choice is made from the set of all signals available for perception at a given moment. Unlike perception, which is associated with the processing and synthesis of information coming from inputs of different modalities, attention limits only that part of it that will actually be processed.
It is known that a person cannot think about different things and perform various jobs at the same time. This limitation leads to the need to split information coming from outside into parts that do not exceed the capabilities of the processing system. The central mechanisms of information processing in humans can deal with only one object at a given time. If signals about a second object appear during a reaction to the previous one, then processing of new information is not carried out until these mechanisms are released. Therefore, if a certain signal appears a short time after the previous one, then the person’s reaction time to the second signal is longer than the reaction time to it in the absence of the first. Thus, V.D. Glezer discovered that if there are several objects in a person’s field of vision, then identification of the second object begins almost only after the first one has already been identified.
The channels of the central processing mechanisms can be occupied not only with the perception of external signals, but also with the control of response actions. This may also be a deterrent to reacting to a new signal. Trying to simultaneously follow one message and respond to another reduces both the accuracy of perception and the accuracy of the response.
The mentioned limitations on the possibility of simultaneous perception of several independent signals, information about which comes from the external and internal environment, are associated with the main characteristic of attention - its fixed volume. An important and defining feature of attention span is that it is practically impossible to regulate during learning and training. For example, they tried to train pilots to fly the plane very low (at an altitude of 50-100 m above the ground) and at the same time look for small-sized landmarks on the ground. A study of pilots' actions under these conditions showed the impossibility of dividing attention between these two independent actions, since each of them required maximum attention. The pilot's difficulties lay in the practical impossibility of switching attention and organizing the collection of information in such a way as to ensure the completion of both tasks. It was not possible to overcome this difficulty through training.
The limited volume of perceived and processed material forces us to continuously break up incoming information into parts and determine the sequence (priority) of analyzing the environment. What determines the selectivity of attention and its direction? There are two groups of factors. The first includes factors that characterize the structure of external stimuli reaching a person, i.e. the structure external field. These include the physical parameters of the signal, for example intensity, its frequency and other characteristics of the organization of signals in an external field. The second group includes factors that characterize the activity of the person himself, i.e., the structure of the internal field. Indeed, everyone would agree that if a signal appears in the perceptual field that is either of greater intensity than others (for example, the sound of a gunshot or a flash of light) or of greater novelty (for example, a tiger unexpectedly entering the room), then this stimulus will automatically attract attention.
Characteristics of attention
A limited amount of attention determines its main characteristics: stability, concentration, distribution, switchability and objectivity.
Sustainability is the duration of attention being attracted to the same object or to the same task. It can be determined by peripheral and central factors. Stability, determined by peripheral factors, does not exceed 2–3 seconds, after which attention begins to fluctuate. But stability increases significantly if a person actively interacts with an object, examines it and studies it, and not just looks at it. The stability of central attention can be a much longer interval - up to several minutes. It is clear that fluctuations in peripheral attention are not excluded, but it returns all the time to the same object. At the same time, the duration of attracting central attention, according to S. L. Rubinstein, depends on the ability to constantly reveal new content in an object. We can say that the more interesting an object is for us, the more stable our attention will be. Sustainability of attention is closely related to its concentration.
Concentration is determined by the unity of two important factors - an increase in signal intensity with a limited field of perception. A. A. Ukhtomsky believed that selectivity and concentration of attention are associated with the peculiarities of the functioning of the dominant focus, in particular, concentration is a consequence of excitation in the dominant focus with simultaneous inhibition of other areas of the cerebral cortex.
Distribution is understood as a person’s subjectively experienced ability to hold a certain number of heterogeneous objects in the center of attention at the same time. It is this quality that makes it possible to perform several actions at once, keeping them in the field of attention. Many have heard about the phenomenal abilities of Julius Caesar, who, according to legend, could do seven unrelated things at the same time. It is also known that Napoleon could simultaneously dictate seven important diplomatic documents to his secretaries. However, there is every reason to assume that only one type of conscious mental activity occurs at the same time, and the subjective feeling of the simultaneous performance of several is due to rapid sequential switching from one to another. Wundt’s work also showed that a person cannot concentrate attention on two simultaneously presented stimuli; the distribution of attention is actually carried out by its rapid transfer. Sometimes it seems that a person is carrying out two types of activities at the same time. In fact, in such cases, one of them is so automated that it does not require attention. But if this is not the case, then combination is impossible. For example, it is useless to ask an untrained person walking on a gymnastic beam to solve the simplest arithmetic problem - he will not be able to complete it, while an experienced gymnast can easily cope with the distribution of attention necessary for the corresponding mental operations. Thus, the distribution of attention is essentially reverse side its switchability.
Switchability is determined by the speed of transition from one type of activity to another. At the same time, the transfer of attention from one to another is always accompanied by some nervous tension, which is realized by volitional effort. Sometimes a person, deeply concentrated on an internal task that is especially important to him, subconsciously tries to avoid these efforts and does not switch from this task to external stimuli. The important role of this characteristic is easy to demonstrate when analyzing such a well-known and widespread phenomenon as dissipation, which boils down mainly to poor switchability.
Development of voluntary attention
The mentioned characteristics of attention (stability, concentration, etc.) are to some extent characteristic not only of humans, but also of animals. But a special property of attention - arbitrariness - is truly human. Animals have only involuntary attention.
Initially, a child’s attention is realized through hereditary mechanisms. Until 10 months, he is only capable of involuntary attention, his eyes stop at shiny, bright objects and familiar faces. Attention in a child is manifested externally in temporary holding of breath and restriction of movements, in inhibition, which serves to prepare for action. After 10 months, voluntary attention develops, which coexists with involuntary attention for the rest of life. When the mother names an object and points to it with a gesture to the child, thereby highlighting it from the environment, a restructuring of the child’s attention occurs. It ceases to obey only natural indicative reactions, which are controlled either by novelty or the strength of the stimulus, and begins to obey speech or gesture.
Observation shows that at the very beginning of the formation of any skill, a large number of useless movements are made. A child who is learning to write moves his entire hand, eyes, head, part of the body and tongue. Training consists of strengthening only a certain part of the movements, coordinating them into groups and eliminating unnecessary movements. Voluntary attention is directed to inhibiting unnecessary movements.
The development of stability of voluntary attention in children is studied by determining the maximum time that children of different ages can spend concentrating on one game. Let's give the data. So, if the maximum duration of one game for a six-month-old child is only 14 minutes, then by the age of six it increases to one and a half hours. Concentration of attention develops similarly. If at three years old a child is distracted on average 4 times in 10 minutes of play, then at six years old - only once.
It is important to note that the various properties of attention do not reach their peak at the same time. Thus, according to B. G. Ananyev, the optimal amount of attention is 33 years old, the smallest amount is observed in the period from 18 to 21 years. The best selectivity of attention is also achieved by the age of 33. The maximum switching ability of attention occurs at 29 years of age. Sustainability of attention reaches its optimum at 34 years of age.
Notes on managing attention
Skills in managing audience attention are essential for communicators, leaders, and educators. As already mentioned, factors that attract attention are divided into external and internal. External ones include, first of all, intensity and physical characteristics signals, and to internal ones - their novelty, relevance for a given person, compliance with his needs and emotional mood. In addition, attention is retained and held longer on actions that are not sufficiently automated and therefore require ongoing control and are not completed (interrupted suddenly) due to the need to retain the goal of the action for its subsequent completion.
Monotony, pattern, and stereotyping of performed operations (even mental ones) reduce the stability of attention. In this case, to maintain it, you have to put in more and more effort, which, in turn, gives rise to fatigue. The monotony of information and its small influx, which creates a state of monotony in a person, is accompanied by a feeling of boredom and slowly passing time, causing inhibition and drowsiness. However, in a number of professions, high liability for an error or delay in reaction when it is necessary to quickly and accurately respond to individual (especially emergency) signals requires that the specialist is constantly in a state of readiness for action. Professions such as rejector, controller, assembler, operator, dispatcher require long-term attention, sustained throughout the working day. Thus, while on duty at the control panel, the dispatcher often has to, through volitional efforts, maintain high level voluntary attention. Long-term efforts to maintain vigilance can lead to emotional tension, contributing to the development of fatigue, which in the event of an acute situation can manifest itself in a sharp narrowing of the zone of attention, disruption of its switchability and distribution. This is clearly seen from the following observations: under normal conditions, the operator, evenly distributing attention, devotes up to 70% of the time to auxiliary devices, and in an emergency, he concentrates on a small number of main ones, devoting only 7% of the time to auxiliary devices. In addition to a decrease in the distribution of attention, its change is expressed in the transition from quantitative to qualitative reading of instrument readings.
The effects of monotony are especially noticeable among truck drivers on long hauls, observers of various screens, and pilots on long flights. Decreased performance and premature fatigue with monotony are aggravated if the workroom is filled with the hum of instruments, the noise of operating installations, or, conversely, if it is quiet and deserted. Schoolchildren studying in a classroom with smooth white walls without drawings or decorations, with frosted glass in the windows, get tired faster and learn the subject worse than in normal classes. Fatigue from monotony can be reduced and the required level of attention maintained by a number of techniques: switching - replacing auditory information with visual information, changing the pace of work for a short time, but, most importantly, to maintain vigilance it is very important to maintain active interaction between a person and automation. In any situation, the meaningfulness of the task, the possibility of a creative approach to solving it, as well as a responsible attitude to the result support sustained attention.
One of the well-known methods of organizing attention is based on the factor of novelty. An effective story, a presentation of some paradoxical case or controversial statement, immediately confronts the listener with a problem, intrigues and forces them to concentrate their attention.
Let's illustrate ways to attract attention. The remarkable Russian lawyer A.F. Koni was an excellent speaker. He gave the following example from his practice: “We must talk about Caligula, the Roman emperor. If the lecturer starts with the fact that Caligula was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, that he was born in such and such a year, inherited such and such character traits, that he lived and was raised in such and such a place, then... attention is unlikely to be captured. Why? Because in this information there is nothing unusual and, perhaps, interesting in order to gain attention. You will still have to give this material, but you should not give it right away, but only when the attention of those present has already been attracted, when it turns from scattered to concentrated. You need to stand on prepared soil, and not on the first random one you come across. This is the law. The first words should be completely simple... You can start like this: As a child, I loved reading fairy tales. And of all the fairy tales, one had a particularly strong influence on me: the tale of the cannibal, the child eater. I, little, felt very sorry for those children whom the giant cut like piglets with a huge knife and threw into a smoking cauldron. When I grew up and found out... further transitional words to Caligula. You may ask, what does the cannibal have to do with it? And despite the fact that the cannibal in the fairy tale and Caligula in life are brothers in cruelty."
Memory
Memory is the process of imprinting, preserving, and reproducing traces of past experience. It makes it possible to maintain constant tendencies towards appropriate behavior for long periods of time and, to some extent, predict behavior for the future.
Types of memory
There are two types of memory: genetic (hereditary) and lifetime. Hereditary memory stores information that determines the anatomical and physiological structure organism in the process of development and innate forms of species behavior (instincts). It depends less on the living conditions of the body compared to the lifetime accumulated long-term memory. Information in hereditary memory is stored in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules, consisting of long chains coiled into spirals. Moreover, each cell of the body contains all hereditary information. As a carrier of hereditary information, DNA has a number of special properties. It is resistant to damaging factors and is capable of correcting some of its damage, which stabilizes its information composition. These and a number of other properties ensure the reliability of hereditary information.
Lifetime memory is a repository of information acquired from birth to death. It depends significantly more on external conditions. There are several types and forms of lifetime memory. One type of memory - imprinting (imprinting) is intermediate between genetic and lifetime memory.
Imprinting is a form of memory observed only during early development, immediately after birth. Imprinting consists of instantly establishing a very stable specific connection between a person or animal and a specific object in the external environment. This connection can manifest itself in following any moving object first seen by the animal in the first hours of life, in approaching it, touching it, etc. Such reactions persist for a long time, which is considered an example of learning and long-term memorization from a single presentation. Imprinting differs significantly from ordinary memorization in that long-term non-reinforcement does not weaken the response, it is limited to a short, clearly defined period in the life cycle and is irreversible. In normal learning, what is shown last has (other things being equal conditions of significance and probability) the greatest influence on behavior, whereas in imprinting, the object shown first has higher value. The main thing here is not the novelty of the stimulus, but its primacy.
The given brief information about the properties of imprinting speaks in favor of the existence of a special mechanism for early holistic perception and durable imprinting. A striking example is the episode told by the ethologist Lorenz. He took a brood of ducklings for a walk, which were imprinted on his striped trousers and did not agree to go to the pond if the experimenter was wearing different clothes. In order for the ducklings to follow him and not lose him in the thick grass, Lorenz had to squat and quack continuously. “When I suddenly looked up,” he writes, “I saw a row of deathly pale faces above the garden fence: a group of tourists stood behind the fence and stared with fear in my direction. And no wonder! They could see a fat man with a beard, who was dragging, crouched in the shape of a figure eight, along the meadow, every now and then looking around and quacking, and the ducklings, which could somehow explain such behavior, the ducklings were hidden from the eyes of the astonished crowd by the tall spring grass. .
A critical time interval has been discovered when imprinting is maximally manifested. This period is different for slowly and rapidly developing animals. In the former, imprinting manifests itself at later stages of development: in chicks, imprinting is first detected by the 12th hour after hatching, in monkeys - on the 20-40th day of life. In humans, imprinting is observed until 6 months of age. Underdevelopment muscular system by the time of birth in mammals does not allow us to study imprinting in them by the following reaction in the first hours after birth, as, for example, in birds. Therefore, a different experimental design was used for mammals. In the cage of each newborn baby monkey, isolated from the mother, they placed dummies consisting of a cylinder made of wire (“wire mother”) and the same cylinder covered with soft fabric or fur (“cloth mother”). Half of the cubs were fed from the first dummy, half from the second. Regardless of which dummy the baby received food from, the monkeys spent time near the fabric one. The opportunity to snuggle up to the fabric mother reduced their anxiety (Fig. 5). Obviously, this kind of tactile comfort provided by the “mother” was vital for the cubs.
Forms of memory
The forms of lifetime memory are instantaneous, short-term, intermediate and long-term. The basis for such a classification is the different place of these forms in the time sequence of information transformation from its arrival at sensitive inputs to the formation of an intact trace that lasts a lifetime. First, let's take a brief look at the relationships between different forms of memory, and then take a closer look at each of them.
The process of processing information in memory can be represented as follows. Objects affecting a person first of all change the state of sensitive inputs that have inertia, which determines the preservation of an elementary trace for several moments. This form of storage is called instantaneous memory. One of its features is modal specificity, which manifests itself primarily in the fact that any signal addressed to the same sensitive input (of the same modality) interacts with that stored in instant memory and can irreversibly destroy it. Due to the separate storage of traces in instant memory of different modalities, some forms received special names: iconic (visual), ecological (auditory).
Another specific feature of instant memory is that the trace fades away after a few seconds, and if the information is not transferred to another form of storage, it is lost irreversibly. Information stored in instant memory cannot be controlled voluntarily, that is, it cannot be retained in memory, reproduced, or made more distinct. It is not processed and does not correlate with information simultaneously arriving at other sensitive inputs, so the image in instant memory does not have constancy. The storage time of a trace in iconic memory is only 10–60 seconds, and even less for other modalities.
Some information from instant memory ends up in short-term memory. The peculiarity of this form of memory compared to instantaneous memory is that it is not modally specific. The volume of short-term memory is small and is calculated in some variable generalized structural units (7±2 units), and the storage time is several minutes. In short-term storage, information is already significantly processed compared to an immediate trace. It is a sequence of code fragments coming from instant memory. Each fragment located in short-term memory is gradually displaced by newly arriving information, but this displacement can be prevented and information can be retained through repetition. Thus, voluntary control is already possible for short-term memory through repetition, as well as symbolization. Information stored in short-term memory can be damaged to a lesser extent than in instant memory due to the longer duration of storage and due to the translation of primary information into symbolic form.
Since the volume of short-term memory is limited, information from it, after recoding, is output to intermediate (buffer) memory, in which it is stored until it becomes possible to transfer it to long-term storage. The storage time in intermediate memory is calculated in hours. An important feature of intermediate memory is the following: if it is not cleared within several days, the body is forcibly disconnected from receiving information from the external environment. There is reason to believe that information from intermediate memory is transferred to long-term memory not directly, but through short-term memory. First, a piece of information is transferred from intermediate memory to short-term memory, where it is secondarily evaluated and generalized, and only then is addressed to the corresponding part of long-term memory. The procedure is repeated with a new fragment extracted from intermediate memory, etc. The processes of clearing intermediate memory occur mainly in a dream and, probably, this largely determines its specificity and purpose.
Intermediate memory and sleep mechanisms
As we already mentioned, after processing in short-term memory, information eventually ends up in long-term storage, where the time and storage capacity are practically unlimited. However, the information passes through some intermediate authority. The fact is that the volume of short-term memory is so small that for normal human interaction with the environment, this storage must be freed every few minutes for newly received information. In addition to the continuous flow of signals from the external environment, short-term memory is also loaded with signals from long-term memory to test the hypotheses put forward during recognition.
Modern concepts suggest that information first moves from short-term memory to intermediate memory. Intermediate memory has a significantly larger storage capacity and duration - information can be in it for several hours. At the same time, the temporary accumulation of information in intermediate memory does not replace long-term storage - after all, after a few hours, the information should be transferred to long-term memory so that the intermediate one does not overflow. Considering the previous stages of storing information in instant and short-term memory, we have already focused on the fact that it is constantly being transformed, however, the main stages of categorization are still ahead.
It seems that the body uses the time of night sleep to clear intermediate memory and categorize the information accumulated over the past day in this memory. Having created the most safe and calm conditions for itself, the body switches off from receiving external information (does not control the external environment) and, plunging into sleep, moves on to solving the mentioned urgent tasks. At the end of sleep, intermediate memory is again ready to receive new information. Does this idea contradict the accumulated facts about the functional role of sleep?
It has long been known that sleep is absolutely necessary to maintain life; if a person is deprived of sleep, death will occur within a few days. For a person, life without sleep can last much less than without water and food - no more than 12 days. Sleep deprivation causes distinct changes in behavior. A person who sleeps less than three hours a night has decreased levels of alertness, impaired processing, and impaired short-term memory. Attention changes significantly: the person at times seems to switch off. For example, during long-term experimental wakefulness, a periodic disappearance of the alpha rhythm in the electroencephalogram of the subjects was observed, which is always an indicator of a decrease in the level of attention and vigilance. Simultaneously with its disappearance, hallucinations were observed that were so bright and distinct that they could change the behavior of the subjects, for example, some subjects tripped over non-existent objects. With a lack of sleep, thinking is impaired and speech becomes mumbled, blurred, with repetitions and errors. Changes also occur in the emotional sphere: expansiveness and occasional fits of rage are observed.
The need for sleep is beyond doubt. What are the functions of sleep, why do we spend one third of every day sleeping? A number of hypotheses have been proposed, each of which focuses on one aspect of the complex phenomenon of sleep.
Long-term memory
Information accumulated during the day in intermediate memory enters long-term memory after being converted in short-term memory. Long-term memory, unlike other types of memory, is practically unlimited in volume and storage time. Despite these valuable qualities of long-term storage, a person often does not get access to the knowledge stored there when the need arises. The availability of information is determined to a large extent by the organization of storage. Memory is not a stationary storage of information. It includes control processes that influence perception. Continuity of perception is ensured by anticipation patterns that are formed and stored in memory. Each cycle of perception includes a hypothesis, anticipation with the help of memory of some specific information, examination of the real picture, identification of significant components in it, and, finally, adjustment of the original scheme.
A distinction must be made here between two types of long-term storage. A person has random access to the first repository, where information is continuously transformed (summarized, grouped, classified) in accordance with the goals and tasks being solved. As a person learns and accumulates life experience, he masters various ways of organizing perceived material and thereby makes it easier for himself to remember information and speeds up voluntary access to it when solving problems. There is no random access to the second storage, and the information is stored in it unconverted - in its original form.
First, let's look at ways to organize storage that promote voluntary recall, and then briefly dwell on the properties of the second type of storage.
The study of factors influencing reaction speed can provide indirect data on the structure of connections in long-term memory. Let us turn to the analysis of experiments on reaction time.
When studying reaction speed, the subject knows both the objects to which he must react (the class of alternatives) and the action associated with each object. The task is to respond to the presented object as quickly as possible. This, in turn, depends on how quickly a person remembers what needs to be done, that is, makes a choice from a class of alternatives stored in long-term memory. For a person, it is not the information itself that is significant, but the effectiveness of actions and actions implemented on its basis. The faster a person finds the necessary information in his memory, the faster he will be able to react to a life situation, so the speed of the reaction can serve as an indicator of the organization of the material in memory. Let us list the factors on which the reaction speed depends.
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PREFACE 2
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER MENTAL PROCESSES 6
Formation of mental processes 6
Dip and Roll 10
Formation of randomness 14
Using the principle of immersion in learning 16
PERCEPTION 17
Basic characteristics of perception 18
Perceptual activity and the value of feedback 22
Volume and structure of information and adequate perception 27
Restructuring of perception during learning 30
ATTENTION 36
Attention as a limitation of the field of perception 36
Characteristics of attention 41
Development of voluntary attention. 44
Notes on managing attention 46
Types of memory. 53
Forms of memory. 62
Intermediate memory and sleep mechanisms 71
Long-term memory 80
Memory management methods 93
THINKING 100
Pre-Conceptual and Conceptual Thinking 101
Stages of the thought process 110
Characteristics of the thought process 115
Ways to activate thinking 126
EMOTIONS 137
Biological and psychological significance of emotions 137
Development of emotions 146
Stress and its features 149
Managing Emotions 158
SPEECH AND LANGUAGE 166
Speech development 167
Language aids 179
CONSCIOUSNESS 186
Consciousness as the highest stage of mental development 186
Interaction of consciousness and subconscious 193
Methods of psychological protection 198
Overcoming psychological defense 206
MENTAL PROCESSES AND ASYMMETRY OF THE HEMISPHERES 215
Asymmetry of the hemispheres and the specificity of mental processes 216
Intuition: multiple changes of dominance 227
Ways to develop intuition 233
The effectiveness of learning and the role of the right hemisphere 242
BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF PERSONALITY 247
Temperament and productivity 254
Inclinations and abilities 259
AGE PERSONALITY FEATURES 265
Features of the psychology of adolescence 266
Specifics of psychological activity in adulthood 276
COMMUNICATION AND PERSONALITY 285
Self-esteem and level of aspirations 287
Curator and double adaptation of student 305
Communication problems in the family 310
ACTIVE LEARNING METHODS 327
Specific situations 339
Incident Method 342
Sensitivity training 345
Brainstorm 349
Business games 354
Immersion method 358
INTEGRITY OF MENTAL PROCESSES 371
CONCLUSION 396
REFERENCES USED 398
Reviewers:
Doctor of Psychological Sciences L. D. Logvinenko(Moscow University), Doctor of Psychology I. P Volkov(Leningrad Institute of Physical Culture)
Published according to the resolution of the Editorial and Publishing Council of Leningrad University
Granovskaya R. M.
G 77 Elements of practical psychology.- 2nd ed. - L.: Leningrad University Publishing House. 1988.-560 p.
The book, in a form accessible to non-specialists, introduces the most important processes studied by psychology: perception, attention, memory, thinking, speech, emotions, consciousness. It contains practical recommendations to help everyone purposefully form these functions and manage them in the process of learning, work and communication.
The book is intended for university teachers, business managers, engineers, and anyone who, by the nature of their work, must be able to communicate correctly with people.
Leningrad University Publishing House, 1988
PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to acquaint everyone with the elements of psychology, and first of all those who are busy implementing the grandiose task of communist construction. Its solution at the present stage of the country’s development is connected “with the improvement of social relations, the restructuring of thinking, the development of a new psychology, the establishment of dynamism as a way of life, a norm of being.” These transformations must begin with a restructuring of “consciousness, rejection of existing stereotypes of thinking and practice, and a clear understanding of new tasks.” Knowledge of the basics of human psychology can be of great help in this. Everyone who, by the nature of their work, needs to work with people, manage them and educate them, must have a scientific understanding of such mental processes inherent in each of us as perception and thinking, attention and memory, emotions and speech, etc. There is an opinion that knowledge of the basics of psychology will only slightly deepen existing ideas formed on the basis of one’s own life experience. But that's not true. Firstly, psychological knowledge is characterized by a discrepancy between its everyday and scientific meanings, and secondly, mastering even elements of scientific knowledge in psychology not only quantitatively increases a person’s capabilities, but also contributes to qualitative changes in the strategy of his behavior. Only a fusion of science and practice ensures a conscious and purposeful solution to the task set by the party.Knowledge of the basics of psychology is necessary for any citizen. And that's why. Particular emphasis in all current transformations is on increasing the role of the human factor. Hence, a person’s knowledge of the ways of self-organization to maintain optimal performance at any age, the development of psychological readiness for change, for the perception of new things is the key to the productive organization of one’s behavior. It is psychological literacy that will allow a person to understand the essence of age-related changes both in youth and in old age, to prepare for the correct use of psychological adaptive mechanisms, and to maintain an active life position until old age.
One cannot do without psychological knowledge when solving problems formulated in the USSR Law on Work Collectives. These are the tasks of creating a favorable psychological climate in them. The ability to manage your emotions, understanding the emotional state of other people, a willingness to empathize and a sympathetic attitude towards the concerns and needs of others are conducive to creative contacts and cooperation in an atmosphere of friendliness and mutual understanding.
A feature of psychological science, which significantly distinguishes it from such sciences as, say, physics or chemistry, is that the knowledge obtained by scientific psychology can be used not only to accelerate cultural, scientific and technological progress, not only to interact with external in relation to a person in the world (in this case - with other people), but also for self-improvement. Indeed, by applying the information obtained by experimental and theoretical psychology, a person is able to radically improve his higher mental functions. It will become possible to manage your attention, concentrate and maintain it on the most significant problems for yourself, and master your memory so that, without annoying sudden forgetfulness, it supplies you with all the necessary information in a timely manner. You can develop logical and imaginative thinking and learn to overcome various internal barriers to original creative solutions, organize and discipline your emotions so that the experiences that arise not only do not destroy your health, but, on the contrary, are a powerful stimulus that gives a taste for life. You can learn to fully master our powerful weapon - speech, using its reserves to communicate with other people and yourself, to realize and intelligently process even depressing and traumatic information about yourself in order to take the path of overcoming shortcomings and fully actualize yourself as a person.
Now a little more about the book offered to the reader. The topics touched upon in it provide a brief outline of the main problems of psychology and introduce those facts, observations and theoretical concepts that psychological science currently has for solving practical problems of interest to everyone.
The logic of the presentation of the material is as follows. First, the problems of lifetime development of higher mental processes and the general stages of their formation are discussed. Then a more detailed description of each of them is given - perception and attention, memory and thinking, emotions and speech, as well as consciousness as their synthesis. The section on hemispheric asymmetry addresses the problems of the relationship between mental functions and the substrate of the brain. The measure of asymmetry is considered as one of the sources of diversity in individual manifestations of mental functions in different people. Then follows a transition to a description of the main components of the biological foundation of personality - temperament, inclinations and abilities; They are what determine the innate uniqueness of a person. Next comes a section devoted to the temporal dynamics of higher mental processes, which manifests itself in the age-related characteristics of the individual. The problem of communication is addressed in a section that examines the formation of personality depending on the development of self-esteem, the level of aspirations and the influence of family and professional roles. After it, modern ideas about active learning methods are outlined, which not only allow you to gain knowledge faster, easier, with greater interest and with better memorization, but also contribute to the comprehensive development of the individual. The last chapter, “Integrity of Mental Processes,” plays a very special role in the book. It traces deep connections between individual mental processes. These connections cannot be perceived by the reader until he is familiar with the specifics of each process. Therefore, on the one hand, its task is to synthesize everything stated; on the other hand, being a holistic representation of the author’s concept, this chapter should expand the scope of the use of practical recommendations given in the remaining chapters.
Each section provides a review of hypotheses about the mechanisms of action of the mental function in question. In psychology, as in other sciences, when forming ideas about the world around us, various hypotheses, as a rule, do not exclude, but rather complement each other. Their presentation helps in-depth understanding of the essence of mental processes, without which the reasonable application of psychological knowledge in practice becomes difficult. In addition, the hypotheses characterize modern level psychological science, the logic of its development, their discussion strengthens its authority and internal coherence of presentation.
Each chapter ends with recommendations designed to help the reader use the knowledge gained in their daily life. However, it must be borne in mind that they cannot be considered as a set of ready-made recipes. Rather, they can serve as guidelines for solving specific issues that arise in real-life situations.
The author has made an attempt to organize the text so that it meets the interests of various categories of readers. In this case, the order of reading the chapters can be changed in accordance with personal requests. The main thing is that everyone finds material that is meaningful to them. For example, a teacher can expand his knowledge on how to make the language of lectures more accessible, hold the attention of listeners, present educational material to facilitate its memorization, activate figurative ideas and mental activity of a person, how to use new teaching methods that allow not only to present knowledge, but also to develop the skills of a creative approach to problems in students.
It will be useful for many readers to learn how to correct the manifestations of their emotions in order to facilitate communication with other people in various life situations and prevent the undesirable consequences of nervous overload. Information about the psychological characteristics of children in each age period, and about the optimal ways for adults to interact with children and elderly parents will be important for parents. Mature readers will be able to learn how to proactively change their internal attitudes to maintain creativity and life satisfaction for many years. Spouses will find useful information in the book about ways to prevent family conflicts. And finally, every reader, regardless of occupation, age and marital status, after reading the book, will be convinced of the enormous reserves of his psyche - memory, emotions, intellect, consciousness, which will help him productively develop his abilities and inclinations for the benefit of society.
In the context of accelerating socio-economic development of the country, a special task is “decisively overcoming inertia, stagnation and conservatism - everything that holds back social progress.” “Now there is a lot, but essentially everything,” noted on XXVII Congress CPSU, - will depend on how effectively we are able... to update outdated social forms, style and methods of work, to bring them into line with changed conditions.” In light of the above, the second edition of the book has been supplemented with new materials that reveal ways to overcome stereotypes and form a purposeful, active, creative attitude to professional, social and personal problems. This also explains the other additions compared to the first edition. Thus, in the chapter “Thinking” a section “Characteristics of the thinking process” has been introduced, which deepens the understanding of the dependence of thinking on the goal, attitude and characteristics of memory. The chapter “Consciousness” ends with a new paragraph “Overcoming psychological defense”, which reveals some ways to normalize well-being and behavior in order to maintain an active position in life. In the chapter “Mental Processes and Asymmetry of the Hemispheres,” material on ways to develop intuition has been updated, aimed at activating creativity personality. The section “Problems of communication in the family” has now been supplemented with some practical recommendations for young spouses.
Finally, the introduction of the section “Attitude to the new and overcoming stereotypes” in the chapter “Active teaching methods” was caused by the “Main directions for the restructuring of higher and secondary specialized education in the country.” Let us recall that they provide for fully meeting the needs of the educational process in electronic computer technology. This section examines the reasons why teachers have psychological barriers to using computers (computer phobia and “computer fanaticism”), and outlines ways to overcome them.
The material used in the book is based on classical studies of the founders of modern Soviet psychological science B. G. Ananyev, L. S. Vygotsky, P. I. Zinchenko, A. N. Leontiev, B. F. Lomov, A. R. Luria, S. L. Rubinstein and covers issues raised in Soviet and foreign psychological literature.
The author considers it his pleasant duty to express sincere gratitude to the students of the faculties for advanced training of teachers at the Leningrad State University. state university named after A. A. Zhdanov and the Leningrad Polytechnic Institute named after M. I. Kalinin, students of the faculty of advanced training of certified engineers at the Leningrad Polytechnic Institute named after M. I. Kalinin, students of Leningrad University who listened to the author’s course of lectures and gave him a warm welcome and made valuable comments according to its content.
With the greatest gratitude, the author remembers his teachers A. N. Leontyev and A. R. Luria, under whose influence the idea of this book arose. The author is especially grateful to Yu. I. Volkov, whose constant interest in the book, significant support and friendly participation made it possible to complete the work on the manuscript, as well as to Yu. S. Krizhanskaya, who actively contributed to the publication of this book. The author’s closest collaborator, I. Ya. Bereznaya, provided extremely great assistance in preparing the manuscript. Thanks to her participation, the book has significantly improved in clarity and consistency of presentation of the material. And to be fair, it must be said that it is largely the result of teamwork.
