What battle took place in England 1066. Battle of Hastings: victory after retreat. Reflection of this event in modern culture

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On this day, October 14, 1066, exactly 947 years ago, a battle took place that decided the fate of England. There is a paragraph in the article below that perfectly characterizes what happened:

“No battle was won with more difficulty than the Battle of Hastings, and no victory entailed more global consequences. It would seem that this was just the final battle in the war for the throne of a small island kingdom. In fact, this battle served as a turning point: it is from here that history begins to count down a whole series of events that will culminate in the creation of the British Empire, which turned out to be even more grandiose than the ancient Roman one.”

Recognizing the superiority of the Normans in organization (the Normans had solid experience of fighting with small detachments of cavalry operating from castles, which as support bases were quickly built on the captured territory in order to further control it), tactics (the use of such types of troops as cavalry and archers in addition to infantry and the perfection of interaction between them) and the weak popularity of Harold II Godwisson in 1066 (most of the earls and thanes refused to support him, and on the battle Harold brought out the housecarls and fyrd, which had thinned out after the Stamford Bridge, collected only in their native county of Wessex) and the backwardness of the Anglo-Saxons in military affairs (neglect of the castle system, cavalry and archers), nevertheless, there was a variant of events (the probability of which, however, is near-zero) , in which the Anglo-Saxons could survive. If William had died in a cavalry attack or if the rumor about his death had spread more strongly than it was in the current reality, then perhaps Harold II would not have gone down in history under the name of the Wretched, and William would not have become the Conqueror.

Norman conquest of England

After the Romans left, Britain was conquered by Anglo-Saxon tribes, who formed several barbarian kingdoms. The struggle to strengthen royalty continued for a long time. The English kings waged war against the separatist aspirations of the feudal nobility and against external enemies - Denmark and Normandy. In 1065, the childless king of England died and bequeathed his crown to William, Duke of Normandy, in gratitude for his help in fighting off the Danes.

While the Duke was preparing to go to England, the English chose Harold, the brother of the late queen, as their king. Harold was crowned according to the customs of the time. When William learned of this, he sent envoys to England to remind Harold of his oath. The fact is that during the life of the old king, Harold was captured by William, and the Duke of Normandy held the prisoners until he secured an oath that Harold would help him become king. Now Harold replied that he did not recognize the promise made against his will, and William began to prepare for war.

As soon as Harold the Unfortunate ascended the English throne, William I of Normandy immediately began to gather an army: to win back what he believed was his rightful inheritance. Since he could not rely on the usual feudal militia for such a large-scale and prolonged military operation outside Normandy, most of his army consisted of units of mercenaries or feudal lords, attracted to William's banner by promises of lands and plunder in England. Wilhelm offered everyone who was ready to fight on his side a large salary and participation in the division of the spoils.

The Duke of Normandy received a blessing from the Pope for this campaign, and Alexander II himself sent the battle flag. The exact size of William's army is unknown. In various military historical sources, estimates range from 7 to 50 thousand * . The lower limit is probably closer to the truth. Oman, for example, believes that William's army consisted of 12 thousand cavalry and 20 thousand infantry.

William's huge armada was ready to set sail for England by mid-summer, but the sailing was delayed for a long time due to unfavorable winds. Eventually, on September 27, the wind changed; from the next day the Norman army began to land near Pevensey. William, of course, knew about the invasion by Tostig and Harald III Hardrada; it is possible that some kind of secret alliance was even concluded between them. He decided not to interfere - it would be better if the armies of the Danes and Anglo-Saxons wore each other down - and took up defensive positions on the southern coast. Having built a powerful log fort on the shore near Pevensey, he sent cavalry detachments to ravage Sussex - to gather supplies and force Harold to act.

Harold covered the distance of 320 km between York and London in 5 days. For several days, from October 6 to October 11, he stayed in London to recruit militia and give the housecars, pretty battered in the Battle of Stamford Bridge, at least a little rest. Then, on the afternoon of October 13, he arrived in the vicinity of Hastings, covering 90 km in 48 hours of march. Choosing a hill 13 km northwest of the city, Harold took a defensive position, as he was confident that William would attack at the first opportunity. As with the Norman army, the exact size of Harold's army has not been established. But, judging by the descriptions of the battle that have reached us and the known width of the front of the Anglo-Saxon army, it seems that Harold had 9 thousand people at his disposal, including 3 thousand housecarls. More impressive figures have also been mentioned, but this is extremely unlikely, given limited area battlefields.

It has been suggested that if Harold had waited a few more days, the Northumbrian and Mercian militia would have joined him, and in addition would have been able to attract more people from the south of England. True, there is reason to doubt that the northern militia was recruited at all or even theoretically could have been recruited. One way or another, the earls of Central and North-Eastern England did not provide military assistance to Harold. As for the southern counties, Harold clearly considered his position both politically and militarily to be quite precarious, so it was in his interests to achieve a resolution as quickly as possible.

Believing (probably correctly) that the enemy outnumbered him in manpower and that, not counting the housecarls, whose ranks had thinned out, his army was equipped and trained much worse than the Norman mercenaries, Harold decided not to attack, but to defend. He ordered his mounted housecarls to dismount, and they, together with his infantry housecarls, formed the center of his defensive line on the top of an elongated hill. The rest of the army, the fyrd, or militia, was flanked on both sides of the housecarls: 300 - 400 meters in front, in a dense formation on foot, perhaps 20 men deep. Harold's army expected a Norman attack early on the morning of 14 October. It is possible that on the evening of October 13, the Anglo-Saxons hastily built in front of their positions either a fence, or a blockage, or a palisade-palisade; There is debate among scientists on this matter.

Soon after dawn, the Norman army launched an offensive in three lines. In front were archers (including a number of crossbowmen - the first documented use of a crossbow in the Middle Ages). The second line consisted of foot spearmen. The third housed the knightly cavalry.

The Norman archers began the battle, opening fire from less than 100 m. But since they had to shoot from the top, the arrows, for the most part, either did not reach, or flew over, or were reflected by the shields of the Anglo-Saxons. Having fired their ammunition, the archers apparently retreated behind the line of spearmen, who ran to the offensive, but were met by a rain of darts and stones (thrown both by hand and from slings) and driven back by the Anglo-Saxons armed with swords, spears and huge two-handed combat weapons. with axes.

Tom Lovell. "Battle of Hastings". The painting shows the attack of William's cavalry. In the foreground with a baton is Bishop Odo

After the infantry offensive stalled, Wilhelm led the cavalry into battle - and with the same result. The left wing of the Norman army was crushed and put to flight; Accordingly, the Anglo-Saxon militia on the right flank immediately rushed down the slope in pursuit. A rumor spread through the ranks of the Norman army that William had been killed, and panic began.

Throwing off his helmet so that everyone could see his face, William galloped along the retreating center of his army, and the cavalry rallied. William led an attack on the Anglo-Saxon right flank, breaking formation and rushing to pursue the Normans. The cavalry quickly gained the upper hand over the pursuers, who were scattered along the slope and had not expected such a turn of events.

Battle of Hastings. The moment is shown when, in order to stop the spread of false rumors about his death, Duke William revealed his face; Bishop Odo also points the soldiers to the duke: 1 - Duke William; 2 - Bishop Odo; - Breton knight; 4 - Norman archer; 5 - infantryman from Maine; 6 - Anglo-Saxon housecarl

William again led his cavalry to the center of the Anglo-Saxon army and was again repulsed. In the hope of luring some more of Harold's army out of their positions, William ordered the Normans to pretend to be fleeing. Despite Harold's strict orders not to leave their positions under any circumstances, a significant part of the militia fell into William's trap; they were surrounded and destroyed at the foot of the hill when William led a second counterattack. But the rest of the Anglo-Saxon army stood firm and repelled one Norman attack after another. For several hours the Normans alternated shelling from bows and crossbows with foot and horse attacks. William ordered the archers to shoot overhead, at large angles, so that arrows from bows and crossbows would fall on the Anglo-Saxon army from above. This resulted in significant losses, but at the beginning of the evening Harold's army still held a strong position on the hill, although, unable to rest from the constant bombardment and attack, the Anglo-Saxons were literally about to collapse from fatigue.

At that moment, a stray arrow hit Harold in the eye and mortally wounded the king. The Normans, who were given strength by this, immediately launched an attack again, and the Anglo-Saxons, having lost their command, broke the formation ** . The militia (fird) began a shameful flight, and soon only the housecarls remained on the hill, closing ranks around the body of their dead king. But now their situation has become completely hopeless; The Normans surrounded them on all sides and eventually crushed them. By nightfall the Normans had captured the hill. Having led the pursuit of the retreating troops, Wilhelm carelessly went deeper into the forest and was nearly killed when the remnants of the housecarls tried to resume the battle. But soon the Normans defeated these too. The Battle of Hastings is over.

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Death of Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. Illustrated chronology of the History of England, part 1

O. Vernet “After the Battle of Hastings: Finding the Body of King Harold”, 1828

No battle was won with greater difficulty than the Battle of Hastings, and no victory had greater consequences. It would seem that this was just the final battle in the war for the throne of a small island kingdom. In fact, this battle served as a turning point: it is from here that history begins the countdown of a whole series of events that will culminate in the creation of the British Empire, even more grandiose than the ancient Roman one.

Immediately after the battle, William captured Dover and marched on London. At first the capital rejected his demand for surrender. Then Wilhelm began to ravage the nearby countryside. His nephew, who was elected king instead of Harold, was the first to talk about surrendering the capital. He himself appeared at the Norman camp and swore an oath of allegiance to William. William's claim to the throne was recognized, and on Christmas Day 1066 he was crowned in Westminster Abbey as William I, King of England.

* - Based, not least on this consideration, most modern sources agree that the numbers of the opposing armies were approximately equal and reached 10 - 12 thousand people
** - A number of military historical studies say that when almost all the Anglo-Saxons descended from the heights, they were suddenly counterattacked by the Norman cavalry, which decided the outcome of the battle

Since the conquest of England by the Normans. It took place about 7 miles (11 km) northwest of Hastings, near the modern battle town, East Sussex, and was a decisive Norman victory.

The background to the battle was the death of the childless king Edward the Confessor in January 1066, which created a succession struggle between several claimants to his throne. Harold was crowned shortly after Edward's death, but before the invasions by William, his own brother Tostig and the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada (Harold III of Norway). Hardrada and Tostig defeated a hastily assembled English army at the Battle of Fulford on 20 September 1066, and were in turn defeated by Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge five days later. The death of Tostig and Hardrada at Stamford Bridge left William only as a serious opponent of Harold. While Harold and his forces were recovering, William landed his invading forces in the south of England at Pevensey on 28 September 1066 and created a beachhead for the conquest of his kingdom. Harold was forced to march south quickly, gathering forces as he went.

The exact numbers present in the battle are unknown; Modern estimates are around 10,000 for William and around 7,000 for Harold. The composition of the forces is clearer; the English army was almost entirely infantry and had some archers, while only about half of the invasion force was infantry, the rest divided equally between cavalry and archers. Harold seemed to be trying to surprise William, but the scouts found his army and reported their arrival to William, who marched from Hastings to the battlefield to confront Harold. The battle lasted from approximately 9 am to evening. Early attempts by the occupiers to break the English front lines had little effect; Thus, the Normans adopted the tactic of pretending to flee in panic and then turn on their pursuers. Harold's death, probably towards the end of the battle, led to the retreat and defeat of much of his army. After further campaigning and some skirmishes, William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066.

There were still riots and resistance to William's rule, but Hastings effectively marked the culmination of William's conquest of England. Casualty figures are difficult to come by, but some historians estimate that 2,000 invaders died along with about twice as many British. William founded a monastery on the site of the battle; the high altar of the abbey church is supposedly placed on the spot where Harold died.

Background

English Army and Harold preparations

Sunrise was at 6:48 a.m., and reports of the day record that it was unusually bright. Weather are not recorded. The route that the British army took to the battlefield is not exactly known. Several roads are possible: one, the old Roman road that ran from Rochester to Hastings has long been prominent due to a large coin hoard being found nearby in 1876. Another possibility is a Roman road between London and Lewes, and then over local battlefield tracks. Some accounts of the battle show that the Normans advanced from Hastings onto the battlefield, but William of Jumièges' contemporary account places the Normans at the site of the battle the night before. Most historians favor the first view, but MK Lawson argues that William's account of Jumièges is correct.

Dispositions of forces and tactics

Combat dispositions

Harold's forces are deployed in a small, tight formation at the top of a steep slope, with their flanks protected by forests and marshy ground in front of them. The line can be extended far enough to be anchored to an adjacent stream. The English formed a wall of shields, with front ranks, keeping the shields close together or even overlapping to provide protection from attacks. Sources differ on the exact location that the English fought at: some sources claim the site is an abbey, but some new sources suggest it was Caldbec Hill.

More is known about Norman's deployment. Duke William appears to have organized his forces in three groups, or "battles", roughly corresponding to their origins. The left units were on the Bretons, along with those from Anjou, Poitou and Maine. This division was led by Alan the Red, a relative of the Bretons. The center was held by the Normans, under the direct command of the Duke and many of his relatives and relatives, grouped around the Duke's party. The final division, on the right, consisted of the French, along with some people from Picardy, Boulogne and Flanders. The right was commanded by William Fitz-Osbern and Count Eustace II of Boulogne. The front lines consist of archers, with a line of spear-wielding infantry behind. There were probably several crossbowmen and slingers with archers. The cavalry was in reserve, and the small group of priests and servants stationed at the base of Telham Hill were not expected to take part in the fighting.

William's disposition of his forces suggests that he planned to open the battle with archers in the front rank, weakening the enemy with arrows, and then infantry, who would engage in close combat. The infantry would create holes in the English lines, which the cavalry could use to break through the English forces and pursue the fleeing soldiers.

Start of the battle

View of the battlefield looking towards Senlac Hill

The battle opened with Norman archers shooting uphill at the English shield wall, to little effect. A hill angle means that the shooters either bounced off their shields or undershot their targets and flew over the top of the hill. The lack of English archers hampered the Norman archers, as there were several English arrows that had to be collected and reused. Following the archers' attack, William sent spearmen forward to attack the English. They were met with a hail of missiles, not arrows, but spears, axes and stones. The infantry was unable to force holes in the shield wall, and the cavalry advanced in support. The cavalry also failed to achieve success, and a general retreat began, attributed to Breton's division on William's left. A rumor began that the Duke had been killed, which added to the confusion. English troops began to pursue the fleeing invaders, but William passed his forces, showing his face and shouting that he was still alive. The Duke then led a counter-attack against the pursuing English troops; some of the English rallied on the hill before being routed.

It is not known whether the English persecution was ordered by Harold or if it was spontaneous. Weiss relates that Harold ordered his men to remain in their formations, but no other account provides this detail. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the deaths of Harold's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine, occurring just before the battle around the knoll. This may mean that the two brothers led the persecution. Carmen de Hastingae Proelio Another story relates to Gyrth's death, that the Duke's brother was leaving Harold in battle, perhaps believing that Gyrth was Harold. William of Poitiers states that the bodies of Gyrth and Leofwine were found near Harold, implying that they died at the end of the battle. It is possible that if the two brothers died at the start of the fighting their bodies were taken to Harold, which would put them near their body after the battle. Military historian Peter Marren believes that if Gyrth and Leofwine died early in the battle, it may have influenced Harold to stand and fight to the end.

pretend flights

Scene from the display of the Baogo Tapestry set by Norman cavalry fighting Anglo-Saxon infantry

The lull probably occurred early in the day, and a break for rest and food was probably needed. William may also have needed time to implement a new strategy, which may have been inspired by the English pursuit and subsequent defeat of the Normans. If the Normans could send their cavalry against the shield wall and then do English language In more classes, breaks in the English line may form. William Poitier says the tactic is used twice. Although arguments have been made that chroniclers' accounts of this tactic were intended to justify the flight of Norman troops from the battle, this is unlikely, since the flight had previously been kept silent. This was a tactic used by other Norman armies during the period. Some historians argue that the history of using feigned flight as a deliberate tactic was invented after the battle; Most historians believe that it was used by the Normans at Hastings.

Although the feigned flights did not break the line, they probably thinned out the Huskerl in the English shield wall. The Huskerl have been replaced by members Fird, and the shield wall took place. Archers were apparently used again before and during the assault by cavalry and infantry led by the Duke. Although 12th century sources state that archers were ordered to shoot at a high angle to shoot at the front of the shield wall, there is no trace of such an action in more modern accounts. It is not known how many assaults were launched against the English lines, but some sources record various actions by both Normans and English that took place during the afternoon's fighting. Carmen states that Duke William had two horses killed under him during the fighting, but William of the States of Poitiers accounts that it was three.

Death of Harold

Stone marking the site of the high altar at Battle Abbey where Harold died

Harold appears to have died at the end of the battle, although accounts from various sources are conflicting. William of Poitiers only mentions his death, without giving any information about how it happened. The tapestry is not helpful, as it shows a figure holding an arrow protruding from his eye next to a falling fighter striking a sword. Behind both drawings is the statement "Here King Harold was killed." It is not clear which figure is meant to be Harold, or if both are meant to be. The earliest written mention of the traditional account of Harold dying from an arrow in the eye dates back to 1080 from the History of the Normans, written by an Italian monk, Amatus of Montecassino. William of Malmesbury stated that Harold died from an arrow in the eye, which entered the brain, and that the knight wounded Harold at the same time. Weis repeats the arrow-to-eye count. Carmen claims that Duke William killed Harold, but this is unlikely, since such a feat would have been recorded elsewhere. William of Jumièges' account is even more unlikely, since it has Harold dying on the morning of the first battle. Chronicle of the Battle of the Abbey claims that no one knew who killed Harold, as happened in the press of the battle. Harold's modern biographer, Ian Walker, states that Harold probably died from an arrow in the eye, although he also says that it is possible that Harold was struck by a Norman knight while mortally wounded in the eye. Another biographer of Harold, Peter Rex, after discussing various accounts, concludes that it is not possible to declare how Harold died.

Harold's death left the English forces as a leader, and they began to collapse. Many of them fled, but the soldiers royal family gathered around Harold's body and fought to the end. The Normans began to pursue the fleeing troops, and also for a rearguard action at a site known as "Malfosse" except that the battle was over. Exactly what happened at Malfosse, or "Evil Moat", and where it happened is unclear. This took place in a small fortification or set of trenches, where some of the English rallied and severely wounded Eustace of Boulogne before being defeated by the Normans.

Reasons for the outcome

Harold's defeat was probably due to several factors. One of them needed to be protected from two almost simultaneous invasions. The fact that Harold abandoned his forces in the south of England on September 8 also contributed to the defeat. Many historians blame Harold for hastening south rather than gather more forces before confronting William at Hastings, although it is not clear that the English forces were insufficient to deal with William's forces. Against these arguments for the exhausted English army, the length of the battle, which lasted all day, shows that the English troops were not tired from the long march. Related to the speed of Harold's advance into Hastings is the possibility that Harold distrusted Earls Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria when their enemy Tostig was defeated, and refused to bring them and his forces south. Modern historians note that one of the reasons for Harold's haste to battle was to contain William's excesses and keep him from destruction free from his beachhead.

Much of the blame for the defeat may lie in the events of the battle. William was a more experienced military leader, and besides, the lack of cavalry in English side allowed Harold fewer tactical options. Some authors criticize Harold for not taking advantage of the opportunities offered by rumors of William's death early in the battle. The English apparently made the mistake of not remaining strictly on the defensive when they pursued the retreating Normans, they exposed their flanks to attack. Whether this was due to the inexperience of the British commanders or the indiscipline of the British soldiers is unclear. In the end, Harold's death seems to have been decisive, as it signaled the breaking of the English forces into disarray. Historian David Nicolle said of the battle that William's army "demonstrated - not without difficulty - the superiority of Norman-French mixed cavalry and infantry tactics over the German-Scandinavian archery traditions of the Anglo-Saxons."

aftermath

Ruins of the monks' hostel at Battle Abbey

The day after the battle, Harold's body was identified, either by his armor or by marks on his body. His personal standard was presented to William and then sent to the papacy. The bodies of the English dead, including some of Harold's brethren and huskerls, were left on the battlefield, although some were removed by relatives later. Norman was buried in a large mass grave, which was not found. The exact numbers of losses are unknown. Of the English known to have fought in the battle, the death toll means that the mortality rate was around 50 percent of those involved, although this may be too high. Of the named Normans who fought at Hastings, one in seven is said to have died, but these were all nobles and there is a possibility that the death rate among common soldiers was higher. Although Orderic Vitali's figures are greatly exaggerated, his ratio of one in four victims may not be accurate. Marren suggests that perhaps 2,000 Normans and 4,000 English were killed at Hastings. Reports said that some of the English dead were still in decline years later. Although scientists thought for a long time that the remains would not be recovered, due to the acidic soil, recent finds have changed this view. One skeleton, which was found in a medieval cemetery, and was originally thought to be associated with the 13th century Battle of Lewes is now believed to be associated with Hastings instead.

One story tells that Gytha, Harold's mother, offered the Victorious Duke the weight of her son's body in gold for his custody, but was refused. William ordered that Harold's body be thrown into the sea, but whether this took place is unclear. Another story tells that Harold was buried on top of a cliff. Waltham Abbey, which was founded by Harold, later claimed that his body was secretly buried there. Other legends claim that Harold did not die at Hastings, but fled and became a hermit in Chester.

William expected to receive representation from the surviving English leaders after his victory, but instead of Edgar Ætheling being proclaimed king at the Witenagemot, with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar, Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ealdred, Archbishop of York, William therefore marched on London, marching along coast of Kent. He defeated the English by force, attacking him at Southwark, but was unable to storm London Bridge, forcing him to reach the capital by a more circuitous route.

Despite the representation of the English aristocrats, resistance continued for several years. There were riots in Exeter in late 1067, an invasion by Harold's sons in mid-1068, and a rebellion in Northumbria in 1068. In 1069, William faced more trouble from Northumbrian rebels, an invading Danish fleet, and riots in the south and west of England. He ruthlessly suppressed various rebellions, culminating in the defeat of the North in late 1069 and early 1070, which destroyed parts of northern England. A further revolt in 1070 also defeated the king at Ely.

Battle Abbey was founded by William on the site of the battle. According to 12th-century sources, William vowed to found an abbey, and the church's altar was placed on the site where Harold died. More likely, the foundation was laid on William by papal legates in 1070. The terrain on the battlefield was changed by subsequent construction work in the abbey, and the slope protected the English now much less steep than it had been at the time of the battle; the ridge top was also built and leveled. After the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the abbey's lands passed to secular landowners, who used it as a residence or country house. In 1976, the estate was put up for sale and purchased by the government with the help of some American donors who wanted to honor the 200th anniversary of American independence. The battlefield and abbey grounds are now owned and managed by English Heritage and are open to the public. The Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidered narrative of the events leading up to Hastings, probably commissioned by Odo Bayeux shortly after the battle, possibly to hang in the bishop's palace at Bayeux. In modern times, the annual re-enactment of the Battle of Hastings has attracted thousands of participants and spectators to the site of the original battle.

Notes

• Barber, Luke, ed. (2010). "Medieval St Nicholas's Hospital, East Sussex: Excavations 1994". Sussex Archaeological Collections . 148 : 79-110.
• Barlow, Frank (1970). Edward the Confessor ISBN.
• Barlow, Frank (1988). Feudal Kingdom of England 1042-1216(fourth edition). New York: Longman. ISBN.
• Bates, David (1982). Normandy Before 1066. London: Longman. ISBN.
• Bates, David (2001). Wilgelm the conqueror. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN.
• Battlefields Trust. . UK Battlefields Resource Center. Retrieved October 5 +2016 .
• Bennett, Matthew (2001). Norman Conquest Campaign. Essential stories. Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN.
• Bennett, Matthew; Bradbury, Jim; DeVries, Kelly; Dickie, Ian; Jestice, Phyllis (2006). Fighting Methods of the Medieval World AD 500-AD 1500: equipment, fighting skills and tactics. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN.
• Carpenter, David (2004). The Struggle for Mastery: Penguin History of Great Britain 1066-1284. New York: Penguin. ISBN.
• Coad, Jonathan (2007). Battle Abbey and Battlefield. English Heritage Guidebooks. London: English Heritage. ISBN.
• Coredon, Christopher (2007). Dictionary of Medieval Rules and Phrases(reprint ed.). Woodbridge, UK: D. S. Brewer. ISBN.
• Crouch, David (2007). Normans: History of the Dynasty. London: Hambledon and London. ISBN.
• Douglas, David S. (1964). William the Conqueror: Norman influence on England. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. OCLC.
• English Heritage. "Exploring Battle Abbey and Battlefield" . Retrieved October 5 +2016 .
• Freeman, Edward A. (1869). The history of the Norman conquest of England: its causes and results . III. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. OCLC.
• Fryde, E. B.; Greenway, DE; Porter, S.; Roy, I. (1996). British Chronology Guide(Third revised ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN.
• Gravett, Christopher (1992). Hastings 1066: The Fall of Saxon England. Campaign. 13 . Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN.
• Halley, Elizabeth M.; Everard, Judith (2001). Capetian France 987-1328(Second Edition). New York: Longman. ISBN.
• Zayats, Yu.N. (1984). Battle Abbey: Eastern Ridge and Excavations 1978-80. London: English Heritage. clause 11. ISBN . Retrieved October 1, 2016- via Archeology Data Service.
• Higham, Nick (2000). Death of Anglo-Saxon England. Stroud, UK: Sutton.

The following chronicles represent the Norman point of view on the conquest of England:

A valuable source of information both about the battle and about the events leading up to the battle is the “Bayeux Tapestry” - a tapestry embroidered on linen measuring 50 cm by 70 m. It depicts scenes of the preparation of the Norman conquest of England and the Battle of Hastings. It was created by 1077, possibly by order of Bishop Odo of Bayeux, half-brother of William the Conqueror. The Bayeux Tapestry expresses the Norman view of the conquest of England. Part of the tapestry, which probably depicted the events after the Battle of Hastings and William's coronation, is now lost.

Detailed story the Norman conquest of England is contained in the so-called "D" manuscript of 1066 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. This source reflected the Anglo-Saxon view of the 1066 conquest.

The story of the battle is also contained in the works of later English historians, who used both original and unsurvived documents and chronicles:

There are many more recent studies about the battle. A description of the battle and the events that preceded it is contained in biographical studies dedicated to William the Conqueror:

There are also studies devoted to the battle itself:

Since 1978, the annual conference “The Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies” has been held, dedicated to English and Norman medieval history and culture. Until 2009, the conference was held at Pike House, a house located directly on the site of the Battle of Hastings. In the published collections of this conference, many articles were published on the battle and preparations for it.

Background

The Norman version of the events that preceded the conquest of England, set out, for example, in the "Acts of Duke William" by William of Poitiers, and tells the story of what happened this way: in 1064, Edward, sensing the approach of death, sent his most powerful vassal, Earl Harold Godwinson, to William to swear allegiance to William as heir to the English throne. However, on the way, Harold was captured by Count Guy I de Ponthieu, from where he was freed by William. After this, Harold voluntarily swore on the holy relics in the presence of witnesses, recognizing William as heir to the English crown and pledged to take all measures to support him. These events are also depicted in the famous Bayeux Tapestry. However, later British historians strongly doubted the reliability of this news, considering the fact that Harold came to William as an unfortunate accident, and also pointing out the extreme dubiousness of both the terms of the contract and the homage Harold allegedly brought. Unfortunately, no other descriptions of this event are known. But this oath later justified Wilhelm's actions.

Upon learning of Harold's election, William refused to recognize him as king and declared his own claims to the English throne. Harold's oath, taken on holy relics during a trip to Normandy, was widely publicized in Europe, and it was also stated that Edward recognized William as his heir.

The new king of England, Harold II, found himself between two fires: on the one hand, William put forward claims to the throne, on the other, the army of King Harald the Harsh of Norway, another contender for the English crown, who was supported by Harold’s own brother Tostig, invaded the country. But Harold managed to cope with one of his rivals - in the Battle of Stamford Bridge on September 25, Harold’s Anglo-Saxon troops completely defeated the Norwegians, and King Harald and Tostig died. After this, Harold returned to York, where he received news of the army of William of Normandy landing on the coast of England.

Enemy strengths and dispositions

William's Army

Troop organization

Norman mounted knight. Reconstruction

In Normandy there was a huge mass of small knights, over whom the dukes before William had no effective power and whose belligerence found outlet in campaigns in Italy, where the Norman county of Aversa and the Duchy of Apulia had already been formed. William was able to gather and attract these knights to his service. In addition, he was well acquainted with all aspects of modern military art and enjoyed a reputation as an excellent knight and military leader, which attracted the manpower of all Northern France to his army.

In plotting the invasion, William gained the support of the barons of his duchy, and his fame ensured an influx of troops into his army. large quantity knights from neighboring northern French principalities. The Normans had solid experience in military operations with small detachments of cavalry from fortress castles, which were quickly erected on the captured territory as support bases for the purpose of its further control. The wars with the kings of France and the counts of Anjou allowed the Normans to improve their tactics against large enemy formations and establish clear interaction between the branches of the military.

The Norman Duke managed to form a large army of more than 7 thousand people, which consisted mainly of feudal knightly troops, recruited on the basis of a military-feudal system that ensured professionalism and good armament of warriors. The core of the army was the highly effective Norman cavalry, which also included archers and light infantry. To transport people across the English Channel, Wilhelm organized the massive construction of ships, and in one go he requisitioned and hired as many ships as possible.

The Norman invasion of Britain was also supported by Pope Alexander II, who sought to extend the Cluny reform to England and remove Archbishop Stigand. The pope's blessing ensured an influx of small knights from European states counting on land holdings in England to William.

The Normans made up no more than a third of William's army, the rest of the soldiers came from various French regions - Maine, Aquitaine, Flanders, Brittany, Picardy, Artois, as well as mercenaries from other European states.

William's military leaders and associates

The main commander was Wilhelm himself. However, the chronicles name the characters very poorly. Based on a study of sources, primarily the Bayeux Tapestry, historians were able to establish a number of names:

• Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, half-brother of William the Conqueror. He took part in the formation of the fleet. Before the battle, as a bishop, he admonished the army.
• Robert, Count of Mortain, half-brother of William the Conqueror, one of the Duke's closest associates.
• Hugh de Grandmesnil, Norman knight, one of the commanders of the Norman cavalry.
• William de Warenne, Norman knight, one of William the Conqueror's advisors
• Gautier (Walter) Giffard, Norman knight, relative and one of the advisors of William the Conqueror
• Eustachius II, Count of Boulogne. Was wounded in battle.
• William, Count of Évreux, second cousin of William the Conqueror.
• Raoul II de Tosny, half-brother of William d'Evreux.
• Hugh de Montfort, Norman knight
• Henry de Ferriers, Norman knight
• William Fitz-Osbern, relative of William the Conqueror, Seneschal of Normandy
• Tustin FitzRowe, standard bearer of William the Conqueror
• Ralph de Mortimer, Norman knight, relative of William the Conqueror
• Emery IV de Thouars, Viscount
• Robert de Beaumont, a Norman knight, commanded a detachment of infantry on the right flank of the Norman forces
• Alain the Red, Breton knight, commanded one of William the Conqueror's armies

Later, most of them received significant land holdings, confiscated from the Anglo-Saxon nobility.

Harold's Army

Troop organization

Anglo-Saxon infantryman. Reconstruction

In the clash with the Normans, Harold could only count on an army from his county of Wessex, since most of the thanes refused to support him. The chronicler John of Worcester claims that Harold managed to gather about 8 thousand people. The English army was approximately equal in size to the Norman army, but was qualitatively different in composition and combat characteristics. In other chronicles there are remarks about the numerical superiority of the British.

In the Anglo-Saxon army, cavalry did not exist as a branch of the army: although the Anglo-Saxons traveled on horses on campaigns, they dismounted to participate in battle. Only the housecarls and thegns were well armed, having two-handed swords, Viking battle axes, spears and chain mail, while the fyrd militia was armed only with clubs, pitchforks, axes and “stones tied to sticks,” that is, with what was at hand. The British had practically no archers, who were an important part of the fighting power of the Norman army. Recent battles with the Norwegians and the rapid cross-country march had also left the English exhausted.

According to the images on the Bayeux Tapestry, the opposing knights practically did not differ in appearance. This is also confirmed by the chronicler’s remark: “ Everyone had distinctive badges by which they recognized their own, so that a Norman could not hit a Norman, a Frank - a Frank» .

Harold's military leaders and companions

Little is known about who fought in King Harold's army. Earls Edwin and Morcar refused to support him. Chroniclers mention several of the king's relatives who took part in the battle:

• Girth, Earl of Kent, brother of King Harold, one of the main commanders of the English army.
• Leofwyn, Earl of Essex, brother of King Harold, one of the main commanders of the English army.
• Harkon, nephew of King Harold
• Elwig, King Harold's uncle, Abbot of Winchester
• Leofric, Abbot of Peterborough
• Godric, Sheriff of Fifeld
• Ælfric, Thane of Huntingdonshire
• Esegar, Sheriff of Middlesex
• Turkiel of Berkshire

On the eve of the battle

Army maneuvers before battle

Army maneuvers before battle

Harold learned about the Norman landing in York, where he was after the victory over the Norwegian troops, on October 3 or 4, after which he immediately set out south with his army and was already in London on October 11. Harold's rapid march prevented additional English troops from the counties from joining the king's army. When his troops left London on October 12, they consisted mainly of those remaining in the battle against the Norwegians and the peasant militia of the outskirts of London.

William's camp was located in the vicinity of Hastings - north of it. Having learned from scouts about the approach of the enemy, Wilhelm at about 6 o'clock on October 14 gave the order to march. The bishops who were in the army first celebrated a mass.

Disposition of troops before the battle

The English army took up a position on a hill 11 km north-west of Hastings, but the terrain did not allow the troops to fully deploy in battle formation. The Normans were located just below the British - near the foot of the hill at an altitude of approximately 70 meters above sea level. The distance between the fronts of the armies was about 200 meters.

According to chroniclers, William divided his army into three parts. The right wing, which was located in the northeast, consisted of the French and Flemings under the command of William Fitz-Osbern, Eustachius of Boulogne and the young Robert de Beaumont. In the center of the army were the Normans, commanded by William himself, and assisted by two half-brothers - Count Robert de Mortain and Bishop Odo of Bayeux. The left wing, located in the southwest, consisted of the Bretons, commanded by Alain the Red, son of Ed I de Penthièvre. In front of each of the three armies, William placed archers (mostly mercenaries), as well as crossbowmen. The second line consisted of infantrymen in chain mail, armed with spears and javelins. The third line consisted of knights. Historians estimate the number of knights at 2 - 2.5 thousand, infantry - at 4 thousand, archers and crossbowmen - about a thousand. William himself positioned himself on the hillside directly behind his troops.

The Anglo-Saxon army traditionally lined up as follows: in front were heavily armed huskerls on foot, armed with large axes and swords. Before battles, they tightly overlapped their shields, forming the so-called “wall of shields.” Their number is estimated at 2 thousand. Behind the closed shields of which there were lightly armed infantry numbering about 6 thousand. The British had practically no archers.

Progress of the battle

Hastings Battlefield. View from the Norman positions

According to the “song of the Battle of Hastings” (The Carmen de Hastingae Proelio), the battle was started by the Norman knight Taillefer, who, with a battle song about Roland, challenged a knight from Harold’s ranks to a duel, killed him and cut off his head as a trophy. Later 12th-century chronicles report that Taillefer attacked the English line and killed several knights before he himself fell heroically.

Norman archer. Reconstruction

Apparently, the Norman attack was unexpected for the Anglo-Saxons. This is evidenced by Florence of Worcester. Later authors report that Harold managed to build a palisade in front of his positions.

The general battle began with the shelling of the English ranks by Norman archers and crossbowmen, but the Anglo-Saxons felt quite safe behind a solid wall of large shields. In addition, the archers' target was higher. The archers began to shoot arrows almost vertically, then “ many Englishmen were wounded in the head and face, lost their eyes, so that everyone began to be afraid to lift them and leave their faces open» .

However, in general, the actions of the archers were ineffective, and the English battle formations suffered little damage. And after the supply of arrows came to an end, the heavy infantry went on the attack. Throwing weapons also turned out to be ineffective. At the same time, the infantrymen had to climb up the slope, which went down to the southwest. Because of this, the Bretons were the first to reach the enemy, the Normans fell behind, which is why the Bretons had an exposed flank. The British tried to take advantage of this by attempting to surround the enemy. Fearing encirclement, the Bretons were forced to retreat under a hail of throwing weapons, and the retreat became a flight. Due to the fact that the flank was exposed, the Normans were forced to retreat, followed by the French and Flemings.

In an effort to restore order among the Normans, William, along with several comrades, including Odo of Bayeux and Eustachius of Boulogne, left their headquarters. According to the chronicler Guy of Amiens, a horse was killed near William. Those who saw the fall of the Duke shouted that William was killed. But the Duke got up and found another horse. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the moment when William, denying the news of his death, took off his helmet, and Eustace of Boulogne points to his face. This episode is also reported by the chronicler Guillaume of Poitiers. In this way, a stampede of infantry was avoided.

The Norman knightly cavalry went on the attack, but under the devastating hail of darts and arrows fired by the British, it was not possible to reach the dense formation of the Huskerls. In addition, according to contemporaries, “Danish axes” (a heavy blade on a handle up to 1.5 m long) cut through a knight and his horse with one blow. The attacking Normans shouted: “ Dex aie! (with God's help), the British responded by shouting: “ Olicrosse! (holy cross) and "Ut, ut!" (out, out). Several attacks were unsuccessful. As a result, the knights were forced to retreat.

The Anglo-Saxons rushed after the retreating Norman cavalry, leaving a position that had previously been impregnable. Historians debate whether the attack was a sign of English indiscipline, or whether it was ordered by King Harold himself, hoping for victory. The unprepared counterattack upset the British’s own ranks and became fatal for them, since the pursuing detachment, having left the hill, found itself surrounded under enemy attack. The chroniclers William of Poitiers and Guy of Amiens, and after them several generations of English historians, considered the retreat to be false. In their opinion, Wilhelm tried to lure out the enemy in this way. However, modern historians consider this version unlikely. In any case, William took advantage of the enemy's mistake, turning his knights around and killing most of his pursuers.

Subsequently, the tactics of “false retreat” were already deliberately used by William: the Norman troops attacking the British positions pretended to retreat, “pulling out” small units from the closed Anglo-Saxon ranks, and then, turning around, defeated them on the plain. By that time, Harold's army had already lost its two main commanders - Harold's brothers Girt and Leofwin. According to the chronology depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, they died in the morning.

Successive attacks by the Normans weakened the British, but their resistance continued. By the end of the day, the center of the Anglo-Saxon army maintained its fighting positions and held the line. William of Malmesbury describes what is happening this way:

« They fought fiercely for most of the day, with neither side yielding. Convinced of this, Wilhelm gave the signal for an imaginary flight from the battlefield. As a result of this trick, the battle ranks of the Angles were upset, trying to exterminate the randomly retreating enemy, and thus their own death was accelerated; for the Normans, turning sharply, attacked the separated enemies, and put them to flight. So, deceived by cunning, they accepted a glorious death, avenging their homeland. But still, they avenged themselves with interest, and, stubbornly resisting, left piles of dead from their pursuers. Having taken possession of the hill, they threw the Normans into the hollow, when they, engulfed in flames [of battle], stubbornly climbed to the heights, and destroyed every single one, easily shooting arrows at those approaching from below and rolling stones on them.»

The fate of the battle was finally decided by the death of King Harold. There are two versions of his death.

The version that modern historians consider the most plausible is given in a source written shortly after the battle - “The Song of the Battle of Hastings” by Guy of Amiens. According to it, at the end of the day the Normans reached Harold's headquarters, which was defended by the Huskerls who had retreated to it. Seeing that a fierce battle was going on there, William, accompanied by Eustachius of Boulogne, Guy de Pontier and one of Gautier's sons, Giffard, rode to the rescue. With a blow from a spear, one of the Norman knights pierced Harold's shield and struck him in the chest, another knight cut off the king's head, a third thrust a spear into his stomach, and a fourth cut his thigh.

According to Baudry de Bourgueil's poem (written more than 30 years after the battle), Harold was killed by an accidental arrow in the eye. This version is also reported by William of Malmesbury: “ ... fell from an arrow that pierced his brain" It is likely that this version stems from a scene depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, where an English warrior on foot with a spear and sword is supposedly trying to pull an arrow from an eye. Nearby a Norman knight is shown using his sword to kill another warrior armed with a large axe. Above them is an inscription in Latin: “ King Harold was killed here" Baudry de Bourgueil was familiar with the Bayeux Tapestry and may have mistakenly interpreted the scene as the death of King Harold by arrow.

The chronicle “Roman de Rou” combines both versions. She reports that King Harold was wounded in the eye by an arrow, but pulled out the arrow and continued to fight until he fell to the blows of the Norman knights.

The news of the king's death spread quickly. Left without leaders, the Anglo-Saxon army fled, although the king's squad continued to fight around the body of their overlord to the last. Wilhelm's victory was complete. Several thousand Anglo-Saxons were left lying on the battlefield. The bodies of his brothers were also found near Harold. According to William of Malmesbury, William later gave the hacked body of King Harold to his mother Gytha for burial.

Significance of the Battle of Hastings

Memorial plaque at the site of Harold's death

The Battle of Hastings is one of the few battles that radically changed the course of history. Although the battle was won by a small margin, the victory opened up England for William. King Harold and his two brothers were killed, and several thousand selected English warriors were left lying on the battlefield. Chroniclers do not report William’s exact losses. There was no leader left in the country capable of organizing resistance to the Normans. The Battle of Hastings was a turning point in English history. After a short resistance, London submitted, and the surviving Anglo-Saxon aristocracy recognized William's rights to the English throne.

Battle Abbey was founded on the site of the Battle of Hastings (English) Russian (English) Battle- “battle”), and the altar of the main church of the monastery was located right on the site of the death of King Harold. Later, the small town of Battle grew around the monastery.

Reflection of the battle in culture

In literature

A number of works are dedicated to the Battle of Hastings:

• Alexey Konstantinovich Tolstoy. . - 1869.
• Heinrich Heine. (German) Schlachtfeld bei Hastings). - 1857

In music

see also

Comments

Notes

1. Boyar Michel de. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 351-355.
2. Gorelov M. M. Danish and Norman conquests of England in the 11th century. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2007. - pp. 32-43. - 176 p. - ISBN 978-5-91419-018-4
3. The Carmen de Hastingae Proelio of Guy Bishop of Amiens / edited and translated by Frank Barlow. - Clarendon Press, 1999. - 160 p. - ISBN 9780198207580
4. Histoire des Normands / par Guillaume de Jumièges. Vie de Guillaume le Conquérant / par Guillaume de Poitiers / Traducteur F. Guizot. - Caen, 1826.(French)
5. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. - P. 131.
6. Boyar Michel de. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 356-357.
7. Zamthor P. Guillaume le Conquerant. - Paris: Tallandier, 1964. - 452 p.(French) The book was republished in French in 2003. There is a Russian-language edition: Zyumtor P. William the Conqueror / Trans. from fr. V. D. Balakina; entry Art. V. V. Erlikhman. - M.: Young Guard, 2010. - 309 p. - (Life of remarkable people: ser. biogr.; Issue 1221 (1421)). - 5000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-235-03305-4
8. Douglas David C. William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England. - London, 1964.(English) An American edition was published in 1967. There is also a Russian-language edition: Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. Viking on the English throne / Trans. from English L. Igorevsky. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2005. - 431 p. - 7,000 copies. - ISBN 5-9524-1736-1
9. M. de Boüard. Guillaume le Conquérant. - Paris: Fayard, 1984. - ISBN 2213013195(French) There is a Russian-language edition: Boyar Michel de. William the Conqueror / Trans. from French E. A. Pronina. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2012. - 368 p. - 3000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-91852-019-2
10. Spatz W. Die Schlacht von Hastings. - Berlin, 1896.(German)
11. Lemmon Ch. H. The Battle of Hastings. - 3rd edit. -St. Leonards on Sea, 1964.(English)
12. Körner Sten. The Battle of Hastings. England and Europe 1035 - 1066. - Lund, 1964.(English)
13. Jäschke K. V. Wilhelm der Eroberer. Sein doppelter Herrschaftsantritt im Jahre 1066. - Sigmaringen, 1977.(German)
14. Morillo S. The Battle of Hastings: Sources and Interpretations. - Boydell Press, 1996. - 230 p. - ISBN 9780851156194(English)
15. The Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies. Archived from the original on August 17, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2012.
16. Barlow F. William I and the Norman Conquest of England. - pp. 109-111.
17. Barlow F. William I and the Norman Conquest of England. - P. 102-106.
18. Barlow F. William I and the Norman Conquest of England. - pp. 114-118.
19. Jewett S. O. Norman Conquest. - P. 234.
20. Devries K. Great battles of the Middle Ages. 1000-1500. - M.: Eksmo, 2007. - pp. 23-26.
21. Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - pp. 126-129.
22. William's Battle Force Archived
23. The Conqueror and His Companions (English). Archived from the original on August 17, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
24. Norman A.V.B. Medieval warrior. - pp. 104-105.
25. Almanac “New Soldier” No. 88. Saxons, Vikings, Normans. - Artemovsk: Soldier, 2002. - P. 9.
26. Norman A.V.B. Medieval warrior. - pp. 106-112, 115.
27. Boyar Michel de. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 240-241.
28. Robert Vas, Roman de Rou, 1160-1170
29. William's Battle Force (English). Battle of Hastings. Archived from the original on August 17, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
30. Barlow F. William I and the Norman Conquest of England. - pp. 124-135.
31. Boyar Michel de. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 242-247.

After the Romans left, Britain was conquered by Anglo-Saxon tribes, who formed several "barbarian" kingdoms. The struggle to strengthen royal power continued for a long time. The English kings fought against the separatist aspirations of the feudal nobility and against external enemies - Denmark and Normandy.

Fragment of the Bayeux tapestry. Battle of Hastings, 1066

In 1065, the childless king of England died and bequeathed his crown to William, Duke of Normandy, in gratitude for his help in fighting off the Danes. While the Duke was preparing to go to England, the English chose Harold, the brother of the late queen, as their king. Harold was crowned according to the customs of the time.

When William learned of this, he sent envoys to England to remind Harold of his oath. The fact is that earlier, during the life of the old king, Harold was captured by William, and the Duke of Normandy held the prisoner until he secured an oath that Harold would help him become king. Now Harold replied that he did not recognize his forced promise, and William began to prepare for war.

The Norman Duke gathered significant forces: 7-10 thousand people. All vassals agreed to participate in the campaign; the clergy promised to give money, merchants helped with goods, and farmers with food. Not only the Norman feudal lords, but also many French knights, who were counting on an easy victory, gathered on the campaign. Wilhelm offered everyone who was ready to fight on his side a large salary and participation in the division of the spoils. The Norman Duke received a blessing from the Pope for this campaign, and the Pope himself sent him a battle banner.

Preparations for the campaign were long and thorough. At the end of August 1066 at the mouth of the river. Diva, between the Seine and Orne, 400 large sailing ships and up to a thousand transport ships were assembled, ready to sail; We were just waiting for a fair wind. However, we had to wait a whole month. The army began to grumble. Then the Duke ordered to bring the shrine with the relics of St. Valery. The church service encouraged the army, and at night a tailed star appeared in the sky.

The appearance of Halley's comet as a harbinger of the famous
Battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066.

The warriors took this sign for a happy omen. “The Lord himself is for us!” they shouted. “Lead us to Harold!” In England, having seen the same comet, they expected bloodshed, fires and the enslavement of the country.

The next day, William's troops boarded the ships. The Norman fleet consisted of a large number of small ships loaded with horses, which significantly hampered the actions of the soldiers in defending the ship. King Harold wanted to take advantage of this and attack the Normans at sea. He did not succeed, since at that time Norwegian Vikings landed in the northern part of England, brought by Harold's brother, who had been expelled from England. Then Harold decided to first defeat these enemies and moved his army against them.

Harold defeated the Vikings on September 25, and on September 28, William freely landed an army on the southern coast of England, in the county of Sussex, near the town of Hastings. The Norman army consisted of archers and a mounted detachment of knights. The knights were equipped with chain mail made from small quadrangular shields and large iron gilded or silvered helmets. They had straight double-edged swords, oval shields, spears made of light dry wood with a steel tip, daggers, bows and stocks of arrows. The horses were protected by thick leathers bound with iron. Along with the army were carpenters, blacksmiths and laborers, who began to unload three wooden castles, or fortresses, cut down in Normandy.

Duke William was the last to leave and had barely set foot on the ground when he stumbled and fell. The warriors saw this and were afraid of a bad sign. “Why are you surprised?” asked the Duke. “I have embraced this land with my hands and I swear by God’s greatness that it will be yours.” The army took heart and went to Hastings. By order of William, both castles were folded, all the food was brought in, and then a camp was set up. Small detachments of Normans began to rob the surrounding population, but the Duke stopped these outrages and even executed several marauders as a warning to others. William looked at England as his property and did not want violence. (Heroes and battles. Public military-historical anthology. M., 1995. P. 76.)

The Norman army settled in the Hastings area and did not take any action. Wilhelm himself with a small detachment went on reconnaissance. Thus, he actually lost the initiative to his opponent.
Harold, having learned about the Norman landings, gathered forces and moved towards Hastings. The Anglo-Saxon army was weaker than the Norman army. The Anglo-Saxons did not have cavalry. In addition, a significant part of the Saxons were armed with stone axes and did not have good defensive weapons.

Harold's warriors were strong in formation, but weak in single combat. Harold was advised to devastate the country and retreat to London, but the king did not listen to this advice. He hoped to take his opponents by surprise. However, William's advanced patrols notified him in time of the approach of the Anglo-Saxons.

On October 14, a 15,000-strong Anglo-Saxon army, according to ancient custom, fortified itself on the hills near Hastings. This place is still called "the massacre". They took up a position at a height beyond which there was a forest. The Anglo-Saxons built an earthen rampart throughout the valley of the hilly ridge, strengthened it with a palisade and surrounded it with wattle fence.

The army, forming a phalanx, bristled with spears and axes. In the rear of the phalanx there remained a height that had steep slopes, and in the center there was a hollow that led out into the forest. The Anglo-Saxons were preparing to give a defensive battle. On the night before, warlike songs were heard, interrupted by cheerful shouts and the clanking of swords.

The Norman army lined up in three lines, which made it possible to increase the force of the attack. William's entire army was divided into three parts: the first contained knights and mercenaries; in the second - allied forces(eg Bretons); in the third - only Normans, led by the Duke himself. Numerous light infantry, armed with bows and large, man-sized crossbows, were positioned in front and on the sides of all three lines.

Behind the light infantry stood heavier infantry, protected by iron helmets, chain mail and shields that covered almost the entire body. Behind the infantry in all three lines was the cavalry, the most reliable army, the stronghold of the army.

Before the battle, the duke rode out on a white horse in full armor and called on his army: “Fight bravely; beat everyone! If we win, you will be rich. If I conquer the state, then it will be for you. I want revenge
to the English for their treachery, treason and wrongs caused to me; I want to take revenge for everything at once and, with God’s help, I hope that they will not escape punishment.”

Then the whole army moved towards the Anglo-Saxon camp. One Norman knight rode forward and sang a war song. The army supported him in chorus, adding: “God help us! God help us!”

King Harold's Regiment at the Battle of Hastings

At the first stage, archers entered the battle. The Norman archers were superior to the Anglo-Saxons both in numbers and in the range of their bows and the art of shooting. Approaching the flight of the arrow, Wilhelm's crossbowmen opened battle, but their arrows hit the palisades without causing any harm to the enemy. The Anglo-Saxons had a better position, and this helped them repel the Norman attack.

After some time, the Duke gathered the scattered archers and ordered them to repeat the attack, this time shooting overhead so that the arrows could damage the Anglo-Saxons by falling from above. The British lost many wounded from this ploy; Harold lost an eye, but did not leave the battlefield and continued to command the army. The Norman infantry, along with the cavalry, rushed to the attack shouting: “Mother of God, help us! Help!” And this attack was repulsed. The force of the infantry's attack was weakened by the fact that it had to attack from the bottom up. Many warriors crowded over a steep ravine. Confusion began among William's troops, and rumors spread that William himself had been killed. Then the Duke, baring his head, galloped towards the fugitives. He shouted: “I’m here! I’m healthy and safe! With God’s help, we will win!”

Once again the knights launched an assault and returned defeated. Then William ordered the knights to attack the enemy, and then feign flight in order to draw the Anglo-Saxons into the open field. By this, the Norman Duke wanted to disrupt the enemy’s battle formation and force him to go down, where the Norman cavalry could operate freely. Wilhelm's maneuver was a success. The Anglo-Saxons chased the retreating Normans and scattered across the field, where they were met by the swords and spears of their turning enemies.

When almost all the Anglo-Saxons descended from the heights, they were suddenly counterattacked by the Norman cavalry. The Anglo-Saxons turned back - but here they were ambushed by William. In the cramped space the Saxons had no room to swing their axes; with great effort they made their way to their camp, but it was already occupied by the Normans. As night fell, all the surviving Anglo-Saxons scattered across the fields and were exterminated one by one the next day.

Duke William kills King Harold at the Battle of Hastings

King Harold was killed in this battle. Britain was at the mercy of the Normans. After the victory, William promised to build a monastery on this site in the name of the Holy Trinity and Saint Martin, the patron saint of the Gallic troops.

The victory at Hastings sealed the fate of England. William surrounded London and threatened to starve its inhabitants. His nephew, who was elected king instead of Harold, was the first to talk about surrendering the capital. He himself appeared at the Norman camp and took the oath of allegiance to William. The most distinguished citizens at the gates of the capital presented Wilhelm with the city keys and swore allegiance. On Christmas Day, William was crowned with the crown of England.

William divided all of England, except for his inheritance, into 700 large and 60 small plots, which he gave to the Norman barons and simple soldiers, obliging them to bear for it military service and make a cash deposit. This distribution of lands marked the beginning of the wealthy and proud English nobility. More for a long time small detachments of Anglo-Saxons attacked the castles of the Normans and tried to take revenge on the foreigners. But the power of the Normans was already established forever.

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