Plan
Introduction
1 Prehistoric period
2 In the shadow of ancient civilizations
3 Aram
4 Under the Scepter eastern kings
5 Antique period
6 Medieval history
7 Ottoman period
8 Greater Syria Project
9 French Mandate
10 Modern Syria
Bibliography
Introduction
This article is devoted to the history of Syria.
1. Prehistoric period
About 10 thousand years BC. e. Syria became one of the centers of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A, where cattle breeding and agriculture appeared for the first time in the world. The subsequent Pre-Pottery Neolithic B is characterized by the rectangular houses of the Mureybet culture. During the pre-ceramic Neolithic era, local residents used vessels made of stone, gypsum and burnt lime. Finds of obsidian originating in Anatolia indicate ancient trade relations.
During the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Ages important role The cities of Hamukar and Emar played.
Damascus is located in the center of the Ghouta oasis, stretching from north to south for 25 km, and from west to east - 16 km. The first mention of it is known around 2500 BC. e. although archaeological excavations show that the urban population lived here already in the 4th millennium BC. e. In addition to farming, local residents have been engaged in trade since ancient times. This was facilitated by the city's extremely advantageous location - on the edge of the Eastern Desert, near two navigable rivers, at the point where roads diverged to the west, south, and east. In this regard, Damascus played an important role throughout the centuries-old history of Syria.
2. In the shadow of ancient civilizations
In the 3rd millennium BC. On the territory of Syria there was a Semitic city-state of Ebla, which was part of the circle of Sumerian-Akkadian civilization. He inherited the traditions of the Neolithic revolution, writing in cuneiform. The Amorites were harassing from the south, and the Hurrians were advancing from the north. Subsequently, the Amorite state of Yamhad was formed on the territory of Syria, which was put to an end by the invasion of the Hittites. In the 17th century, in the zone of interaction between the Indo-Europeans (Hittites) who invaded from the Balkans and the Mesopotamian civilizations, local Hurrian tribes formed the state of Mitanni. In the 15th century BC. Syria is invaded by the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose I.
One of the brightest eras of its early history was the X-VIII centuries BC. e., when, after the conquests of kings Reason I and Tab-Rimmon, the city of Damascus became the center of the powerful Aramaic kingdom, which soon made it the hegemon of all of Syria. This dominant position continued under their descendants. At the beginning of the 9th century. BC e. Tab-Rimmon's son, Ben-Hadad I, fought with the kingdom of Israel, and seized part of northern Galilee from the Israelites. But a few decades later, the hegemony of Damascus began to be threatened by the rapidly growing Assyrians. They first collected tribute from the rulers of Syria in 859 BC. e. In order to more successfully resist the enemy, the local rulers decided to combine their forces. The son of Ben-Hadad I, Ben-Hadad II, managed to create a powerful anti-Assyrian alliance, which included the kings of Hamat, Israel, Arvad, Aman and some others. In 854 BC. e. A fierce battle took place under the walls of the city of Karkara, on the banks of the Orontes River. It was very bloody, but ended in vain. Some time later, the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III again invaded Syria, besieged Damascus, but was unable to take it.
However, the coalition of Syrian and Palestinian rulers, dangerous for the Assyrians, did not last long. Soon between the Israeli king Ahab and Ben-Hadad II (bib. Venadad) the war began. At the Battle of Rimot-Gilead in 850 BC. e. The Israelites were defeated and Ahab was killed (2 Kings 22:35). Then in 843 BC. e. Ben-Hadad II himself also died - one of his close associates, a certain Ghazael, taking advantage of the fact that the king was ill, strangled him with a blanket and seized power himself. In 834 BC. e. The 120,000-strong Assyrian army approached Damascus for the second time. King Shalmaneser III of Assyria discovered that the Syrians had taken up positions on Mount Senir, one of the mountain peaks of Lebanon, and were entrenched there. The Assyrians managed to defeat the Syrian army, and Hazael himself was forced to flee to Damascus. The Assyrians surrounded the city and cut down the groves in its vicinity. Shalmaneser III was able to capture large booty, but he failed to take the city this time too.
Hazael, king of Syria(2 Kings 15:22), was able to retain the throne after the departure of the Assyrians, and some time later began a war with the Israelites. The Syrians were lucky and actually managed to turn the Israeli king Jehoahaz into a vassal. But in 802 BC. e. The Assyrians again attacked Syria. Adadmerari III, who led the campaign, finally managed to defeat the Syrians and capture their capital Damascus. The Assyrians then captured huge booty and completely plundered the city. Azail had to recognize himself as a vassal of Assyria. But he was again able to retain the throne and ruled until 796 BC. e. The son of Hazael, Ben-Hadad III, fought several times with the Israeli king Jehoash, but everything seemed to be unsuccessful - the Israelis took back all the previously lost cities from the Syrians. Jehoash's son, Jeroboam II continued to push Damascus, and even capture vast Syrian territories, which may have included the entire Bekaa Valley.
4. Under the scepter of the eastern kings
The next Assyrian king, Tiglath-pileser III, decided to expand the borders of his state, and with this goal began to conduct conquests in a western direction (that is, towards Syria). In 739 BC. e. Assyrian troops managed to take Arpad. In 738 BC e. they also captured 19 more Syrian cities. Under these conditions, the Syrian rulers forgot about their strife and rallied around the new Damascus king Reason II. The Syrians' ally was the king of Israel, Pekah, as well as the kings of Gaza and Edom. But the forces of the Syrians were clearly inferior to Assyria. In 734 BC e. Tiglath-pileser III conquered Israel, and in 733 BC. e. The Assyrians took Damascus. The city was severely destroyed. The power of the Syrians was undermined. King Reason II was captured and executed by the Assyrians, his kingdom became an Assyrian province. After this, most of the Aramaic population was forcibly resettled in the interior of Assyria.
The Assyrians were replaced by the Chaldeans and then the Persians.
5. Ancient period
After the Battle of Issus, Alexander the Great, instead of pursuing Darius, moved to Syria. Parmenion captured the entire convoy of the Persian army in Damascus, and Alexander himself occupied Phenicia. Thus, in 332 S. became part of the Macedonian kingdom. After the death of Alexander Vel. S. first belonged to Antigonus, who lost his kingdom and life at the Battle of Issus (301). Syria fell to Seleucus Nicator, under whom it reached its highest development; The borders of the Syrian state reached the Oxus (now Amu Darya) and the Indus. Seleucus and his son Antiochus founded a number of Hellenistic cities (Seleucia on the Tigris, Seleucia on the Orontes, Antioch, etc.). These newly founded cities became the main instrument of mixing nationalities, religion, language and culture, since their inhabitants consisted of Macedonians, Greeks and natives. Seleucus's successors were not able to maintain dominance over the vast territory; in their hands from the beginning of the 2nd century. BC there was only one S. left. In 83, Tigran, the king of Armenia, conquered S., expelled the last Seleucids and annexed the remnants of the Syrian kingdom to his state.
In 64, after Pompey's victory over Mithridates and Tigranes, S. became a Roman province, and Judea was annexed to it. The Roman proconsuls tried their best to control Syria. Antioch soon became the most important city in the province of Asia and the third city of the entire Roman Empire; Since Antioch was located inland, the city of Seleucia Pieria served as a harbor for it. Both in Antioch and in the rest of S., the educated strata of society still spoke Greek and retained Greek morals and customs. S. constantly suffered from Parthian invasions. With the weakening of the Roman Empire, the Palmyra kingdom appeared on the territory of Syria. Under the Eastern Roman emperors, S. fell more and more and finally became the prey of the Saracens.
6. Medieval history
In 635, S. was devastated and then conquered by the Arabs, who converted a significant part of the Aramaic population to Islam. In 660-750, when Damascus served as the residence of the caliphs, Syria's welfare began to rise again, but with the decline of the Damascus Caliphate, the country became poorer. The Crusades made Northern the theater of continuous military conflicts for 2 centuries. The Principality of Antioch was formed here. In 1187, the Egyptian Sultan Saladin conquered S. from the Crusaders.
In 1260, the declining Ayyubid state was attacked by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan, who captured Aleppo and Damascus, but was stopped by Mamluk forces led by Sultan Qutuz at the Battle of Ain Jalut in northern Palestine.
7. Ottoman period
Syria was under Egyptian rule until its conquest in 1517 by Ottoman Sultan Selim I. Under the Ottomans, Syria was divided into 4 provinces led by governors who were directly subordinate to the Istanbul administration. In the 18th century, French influence increased in Syria. Napoleon's soldiers landed on the coast. In 1833, the Egyptian khedive Megemet-Ali conquered S., but in 1840, due to the intervention of European powers, he was forced to return S. back to Turkey. In the late 1850s and early 1860s. Bloody feuds broke out between the Druze and the Maronites, which required the sending of a French corps and ended with the founding of a semi-autonomous Maronite region in Lebanon. The development of industrial society in Europe contributed to the decline of local crafts and the penetration of European capital.
8. Greater Syria Project
From Europe, through the Young Turk movement, ideas of nationalism penetrate into Syria, which acquire a pan-Arab overtones. During World War I, Arabs mainly from the Hejaz participated with the British in liberating Syria from the Ottomans. When the Arab army led by Faisal ibn Hussein entered Damascus in October 1918, it was greeted as a liberator. The city was declared the seat of an independent government for all of Syria, which was perceived as a revival of the Damascus Caliphate. Faisal I went to a conference in Paris in 1919, trying in vain to achieve recognition of the rights of the Hashemite dynasty to rule the Arab East. Returning to Syria, he declared himself king of Syria, convened twice pan-Arab congresses in Damascus, and drafted a constitution in 1920. He did not take into account that Great Britain, behind his back, agreed to give Syria to France in exchange for abandoning the oil-rich Mosul region.
Syria is one of the countries with ancient civilization, a link between three continents. The history of Syria goes back more than five thousand years. Thanks to archaeological evidence, we can say that human settlements existed here already several thousand years BC. The first traces of humans on earth, living about a million years ago, were discovered in the territory of present-day Syria, in the region of Latakia and the Orontes River. Later, in the fertile Euphrates Valley, man switched from a nomadic lifestyle to agriculture. The result of this was education in the X-VIII millennium BC. Natufian culture, which spread to the banks of the Nile. Living proof of this are the ruins of the city of Ugarit. In those days, there were settlements of the Canaanite tribes, or Amorites, who were engaged in semi-nomadic cattle breeding.
In the VI-III millennia BC. The emergence of the first states, similar in type and location to the Sumerian civilization, begins. The most famous of them is the ancient city of Mari, which was covered with sand and was later found by archaeologists.
At the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The first slave states emerged here. Subsequently, they became objects of the aggressive aspirations of large states of antiquity, which quickly arose and sometimes disappeared just as quickly.
Long before the rise of the Roman Empire, the entire coastal territory of Syria was inhabited by “Phoenicians” - West Semitic tribes. They knew how to cultivate grain crops, flax, olives, grapes, they built a complex system of underground pipelines through which water was supplied to remote areas of the country, and large dams were built on the rivers. I testify to the high level of development of the Phoenicians archaeological finds along the Orontes (Al Asa) and Barada rivers. The development of irrigation agriculture led to the fact that in the Hellenic era the country became the richest granary of the Mediterranean.
Profitable geographical location between Asia, Europe and Africa at all times contributed to the development of Syria's international relations, its trade and the prosperity of its cities. Naturally, such land has always been the target of conquest by warring tribes and neighbors. Egypt, the Hittite kingdom, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, and later Macedonia, Rome, Byzantium and European states during the era of the Crusades fought fierce wars for the control of Syria. The conquerors exported slaves, grain, livestock, gold, timber, etc. from the country. And of course, they all left their mark on the population, languages, culture, and faith of ancient Syria. A huge list of tribes and peoples who lived in Syria at different times.
Ancient Syria.
In the XXIV century. BC. In northern Mesopotamia, King Sargon created a strong Akkadian state, whose army more than once carried out military campaigns in Syria. Akkad did not last long and fell under the blows of the Amorites (Amorites) who came from Arabia.
In the 17th century BC. Many small states were formed with a mixed population of northern tribes - Hurrian and local Semitic - Amorites. The largest city-states were Yamhad with its center in Aleppo, Amurru and Qatna in Central Syria and the strongest slave-holding power - the kingdom of Damascus. Several centuries later, it became part of Assyria, the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, the ancient Persian kingdom of the Achaemenids, the power of Alexander the Great, and the Hellenistic state of the Seleucids.
At the beginning of the 16th century. BC. In the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates, the Hurrians created the state of Mitanni. It also laid claim to Syria and Palestine in the fight against the Hittite state and Egypt. But Mitanni did not last long. Just three decades later, the Egyptians under the leadership of Pharaoh Thutmose I conquered its territory. From that time on, great battle for Syria between the Egyptian pharaohs and the Hittites. And only in 1312 BC. After the bloody battle of Kadesh, an official border was established between the two kingdoms, which ran in the area of modern Homs.
In the XII-XI centuries. BC. Syria, Phenicia and Mesopotamia were flooded by tribes of northern nomadic Arameans. Later, in the 1st millennium BC. their language (Aramaic) is distributed throughout much of Southwest Asia. In the same era, the first Arab tribes penetrated this territory.
In the 8th century BC. The kingdom of Damascus is conquered by the Assyrians, and later by the Babylonian army of Nebuchadnezzar II, and then by the Persians. Syria simply changed its owner, but the main battles for this entire territory took place in Mesopotamia (350-500 km in the Euphrates Valley in the territory of modern Iraq).
In the VI century. BC. the entire territory of Syria is part of the ancient Persian kingdom of the Achaemenids, and after its defeat in 333 BC. the Greek-Macedoan army into the empire of Alexander the Great. At this time in the territory Great Empire Greek language and culture spread. After the collapse of the Macedonian Empire, Syria became a province of the Greek Seleucid state.
From 64 BC the conquest of Syria continues. The Romans come here after the Palmyra kingdom, which occupied most of the territory of Syria from Egypt to Asia Minor, fell to them. The ruins of Palmyra have survived to this day and never cease to amaze tourists with their splendor.
The Roman Empire.
The commander Gnaeus Pompey annexes a significant part of Syria to the Roman possessions, thus expanding his southern province of Arabia. He makes Bosra the capital of the province. In this era, literate “Syrian” emperors appeared on the Roman throne: Caracala (211-217), Philip I the Arab (244-249) from Shahba, who is depicted on the Syrian 100-lira banknote.
In the 3rd century. AD The kingdom of Palmyra, led by the warlike queen Zinobia, rebels against the Romans, and gradually conquering neighboring lands and cities, extends its power to the entire territory of Syria and part of Egypt. Having not been defeated by a woman, the Romans sent entire galleons to war with Zinobia, and in 272 they captured Palmyra, plundered it and completely destroyed it. The queen is brought in golden shackles to Rome. Zinobia lived in Rome as a famous and revered captive, and died there.
From IV to VII centuries. Syria becomes a province Byzantine Empire, but at this time Byzantium was weakened by internal contradictions, aggravation of class struggle against the background of religious persecution, ineffective labor of slaves, etc. And at this time in the 7th century. Arabs freely penetrate into Byzantium. During the Arab conquest, Islam spread rapidly in Syria.
Arab caliphates.
Covering not only Syria, but also a number of countries in Western Asia, North Africa and even Europe, the Arab conquest led to the emergence of the Arab Caliphate - the largest world power of the early Middle Ages. In 635, Damascus became the capital of the feudal Umayyad caliphate, which stretched from Spain to India. The main population of Syria accepts Arabic and converts to Islam. The rapid spread of Islam is explained not only by the previous bloody persecution of Christians, but by economic benefits. For example, from non-Muslims, the Caliph levied the Kharaj tax, which amounted to half the harvest. Then, as a Muslim, he only paid tithes for the same. Also, non-Muslims were initially subject to a heavy capitation tax (from each soul) - jizya. But this benefit did not last long. Once Islam took hold in most territories, the Arabs began to think about acquiring wealth. After Caliph Abbas, Muhammad's uncle, came to power in 750, Muslim converts were no longer exempt from the poll tax.
In the VIII-XI centuries. Baghdad becomes the capital of the Arab Caliphate, because of this, although Syria still plays some role in the Caliphate, it loses some privileges.
After the collapse of the Arab Caliphate into several independent states, Syria remained under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty (969-1171) and the Ayyubid dynasty that replaced it (1171-1260). Founder last dynasty Salah ad-Din, an irreconcilable rival of the crusaders, was famous.
In 1260-1303. During the Mongol raids, the country was under Mamluk rule. The Mamluks are the generals who overthrew the Ayyubids and seized power in Egypt. Thanks to their military training, discipline and clear organization, only the Mamluks managed to hold back the Mongol army. But at the beginning of 1400. Syria was still subjected to a short (less than a year) but devastating raid by Tamerlane's army.
Crusades.
In 1098, a wave of ardent religious fervor among Europeans for the possession of the Holy Sepulcher reached the borders of the state of Bilyad Ash-Sham (territory of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine).
During the First Crusade, the most destructive of all, the crusaders captured Antioch, then all of Syria, and in 1099. Jerusalem. Moving south to Palestine, along the entire coast, the crusaders erected many defensive structures - citadel fortresses, many of which have survived in excellent condition to this day (for example, Krak des Chevaliers).
In the Second Crusade, the crusaders tried to conquer Damascus, but fled under the attack of Nur ad-Din's cavalry.
In October 1187, Salah ad-Din recaptures Jerusalem. But indignant Europe gathers new forces and sends its army to the Third Crusade. This most famous campaign involves the King of England, Richard I “Lionheart,” and the Emperor of Germany, Frederick I “Redbeard” (Barbarossa). But the mood among the crusaders was not as optimistic as a hundred years ago. Many of them went on this campaign only to earn a living for their family in a weak Europe devastated by internecine wars and plague. When, like the Arab people, love and respect for their warrior-liberator Salah Ad-Din grew stronger, and many were ready to fight with honor under his leadership. And indeed, Salah Ad-Din justified such universal trust and reinforced his reputation as an Honest, Fair, Brave, Talented Warrior and leader, a skillful Diplomat. And his army easily conquered castle after castle. On September 1, 1191, a treaty shameful for the Crusaders was signed between Salah Ad-Din and Richard I, according to which the Christians were left with a small strip of coastline from Tire to Jaffa. The influence of the crusaders weakened every year, in Europe they no longer believed in the Great Goal, and the campaigns were not supported financially, the flow of recruits dried up, and the last armies of the crusaders, driven by the Arabs, left Syria in 1303, sailing to Cyprus.
Ottoman Empire.
In 1516, after the Battle of Marj Dabiq, Syria became a province of the Ottoman Empire. For four hundred years from 1516-1918. Turkish rule left a heavy mark on the life of Syria, its culture, led to the decline of its economy, and the impoverishment of the population. Damascus and Aleppo were ruled by Turkish pashas. This position was simply bought in Constantinople, which led to frequent changes of rulers. Pasha held this position until someone more expensive bought it. For such short term he used his power to the maximum for the purpose of quick and merciless profit. In Damascus alone, 133 governors changed over 180 years. Turkish Sultan could not control all of his territories, so the power of the pasha was practically unlimited. It was at this time that the crisis of the feudal economy intensified, and the people, crushed by unbearable taxes and growing foreign capital, rose up in armed struggle. A political movement against Turkish oppression arose among the intelligentsia and the young national bourgeoisie of Syria. Arab patriots advocated the creation of an independent Arab state.
During the First World War, the Arab population supported the Entente army on the Central Asian front. In September 1918, an anti-Turkish uprising broke out in southern Syria and the Turks were expelled from Syria.
Syrian troops entered Damascus under the command of Emir Faisal ibn Al-Hussein, who was proclaimed King of Syria in 1920. The Entente only verbally supported Syria in its state self-determination. In fact, the European powers agreed to divide the Turkish heritage. But because of the October revolution in Russia, they did not dare to openly divide among themselves all the Arab countries in the Middle East and North Africa. But they came up with the idea of extending the mandates of the League of Nations to them. Also in 1920, the king of Syria was forced to leave his country. Tunisia, Algeria, Syria and Lebanon were placed under French mandate.
During French rule, due to the open market, as a result of which, unable to withstand competition with cheap mass imports, tens of thousands of local producers and artisans went bankrupt, the country, which had been completely self-sufficient in food for thousands of years, was forced to increase imports every year due to decline in agricultural production. In this regard, a wave of armed uprisings swept across Syria. After the Syrian national uprising in 1925-1927. France changed its apparently colonial methods of government.
In 1924, the Syrian Communist Party was created. In 1930, the country's first Constitution was promulgated, which declared Syria a republic but remained under French mandate. The French allowed several local representatives of the bourgeoisie to govern. As a result of the mass uprising in 1936, an agreement was signed between the French government and the Syrian bourgeoisie, which provided for the abolition of the mandate and the declaration of Syrian independence. But in 1919, the French parliament abolished this treaty, and with the outbreak of World War II, the Syrian constitution, and thus Syria became a French mandate. Since September 2, 1939, it has been a military zone. After the surrender of France Hitler's Germany the territory of Syria came under the control of the German-Italian armistice commission. During this period, an anti-fascist movement emerged in Syria and Lebanon, which offered strong resistance. It was this that made it easier for the troops of England and France to expel fascist agents from Syria and Lebanon. For this, Syria was promised independence. In 1944, France announced the end of its mandate and Syria was declared independent.
Syrian independence
On April 17, 1946, the last foreign troops were withdrawn from the country. This date is celebrated in Syria as the Evacuation Day holiday.
In July 1944, at the request of the Syrian government, diplomatic relations were established with the USSR. Syria became a member of the UN, and in March 1945, Syria was one of the initiators of the creation of the League of Arab States. In the early stages of independence, Syria moved to a bloc of the propertied classes, and the influence of foreign capital was felt. The instability of political power, the growing activity of the democratic strata of the population, under pressure from strong imperialist powers, the Communist Party was banned in Syria in 1946. During the Shishekli regime (1951-1954), all constitutional freedoms were eliminated and new laws were issued on the dissolution of political parties. Popular discontent grew more and more; the programs put forward reflected the demands of the population, which were also supported in the army, especially after the Palestinian tragedy in 1948-1949. On February 25, 1954, the National Opposition Front and army circles carried out a military coup. As a result of the coup, the constitution was restored, a number of freedoms were restored and the first parliamentary elections were held. At the end of 1956, the National Front was formed within the communist party - the Arab Socialist Party (BA'ath). After which the state bought the tobacco monopoly, railways, power plants and utilities, renegotiated agreements with oil companies in its favor.
In February 1958, an agreement was signed between Syria and Egypt, which provided for their unification into the United Arab Republic (UAR), which lasted from February 1958 to September 1961. In the fall of 1961, bourgeois-landowner circles inspired a coup d'etat and Syria terminated the agreement with Egypt and began to bear the name of the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR). There was a state of emergency in the country - the denationalization of banks and industrial enterprises, the halt of agrarian reform, and peasants began to be expelled from the acquired lands.
In 1962, workers and students demonstrated in the country against the denationalization policy.
On March 8, 1963, power in Syria began to be exercised by the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV), founded in 1947. In February 1966, its left wing came to power, thanks to which a number of progressive social reforms were carried out aimed at undermining the positions of the bourgeois -landowner circles and foreign capital, the position of the working masses was significantly improved.
In 1967, as a result of a military conflict between Syria and Israel, called the Six-Day War, the Golan Heights were occupied by Israel. Seven years later, in 1973, Syria launched the Yom Kippur War to liberate the occupied territories, but was unsuccessful. According to the UN decision, the territory of the Golan Heights is a buffer between the two countries.
In May 1973, the provisional constitution of Syria was replaced by the current permanent one.
During the Iran-Iraq war of 1980-1988. Syria supported Iran.
The central place in the state mechanism of Syria is occupied by the president of the republic, who is actually vested with decisive powers. His candidacy is nominated by the People's Council (parliament) at the proposal of the regional leadership of the ruling party. From 1971 to June 10, 2000, Hafez al-Assad was president. Currently, the president of the Syrian Arab Republic is the son of Hafez al-Assad, Bashar al-Assad.
The Mediterranean coast is the most populated and developed part of the country, with a large area of arable land occupied by plantations of various agricultural crops. The climate on the coast is subtropical Mediterranean, with mild, humid winters and dry, moderately hot summers. Evergreen subtropical tree and shrub vegetation dominates here. Luxurious pebble and sandy beaches stretch along the entire coast.
The historical, cultural, and economic center of the country is the capital of the country, Damascus (1.7 million people) - one of the oldest cities in the world. In the old part of the city, surrounded by an ancient fortress wall, there are many beautiful ancient buildings and historical monuments: the famous Umayyad Mosque, Al-Azem Palace, etc. Massive old buildings with large portals coexist with buildings from the times of French classicism and modern architecture.
Nature
The territory of Syria, which extends from the Mediterranean Sea eastward through the northern part of the Syrian Desert, is divided into five natural regions: the Maritime Lowland, the Western Mountain Range, the Rift Zone, the Eastern Mountain Range, and the Eastern Syrian Plateau. The country is crossed by two large rivers - El Asi (Orontes) and Euphrates. Cultivated lands are confined mainly to the western regions - the coastal lowlands, the Ansaria Mountains and the valley of the El-Asi River, as well as to the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributaries.
The coastal lowland stretches in a narrow strip along the coast. In places it is interrupted by rocky capes approaching the seashore, which are spurs of the Ansaria Mountains. At its widest point, in the vicinity of Latakia, its length from east to west is 15–30 km.
Between the coastal lowland and the valley of the El-Asi River, confined to the rift zone, is the Ansaria (En-Nusairiya) mountain range composed of limestones, running parallel to the sea coast from the border with Turkey in the north and almost to the border with Lebanon in the south. This ridge is approx. wide. 65 km has an average altitude of 1200 m. Its highest point is Mount Nebi Younes (1561 m). On the western, highly dissected slopes of the mountains, exposed to humid air flows from the Mediterranean Sea, there is a lot of precipitation. Small rivers that flow into the Mediterranean Sea originate in these mountains. The rivers have carved out deep valleys with steep sides. Many rivers dry up in summer. In the east, the Ansaria Mountains drop off abruptly, forming a ledge approx. 900 m. The eastern slope faces hot, dry air masses and receives significantly less precipitation.
At the southern end of the Ansaria ridge there is the Tripoli-Khom intermountain passage. A road runs along it connecting the Lebanese port of Tripoli with the city of Homs; the El-Kebir river flows in a western direction, which over many years has deposited a fertile layer of alluvium on the bottom of its valley.
To the east of the Ansaria Ridge and north of the Tripoli-Khomsky Passage stretches the Rift Zone, 64 km long and 14.5 km wide, which is a continuation of the East African Rift System. The valley of the middle reaches of the El-Asi River is confined to this zone. The flat bottom of this graben, called El Ghab, used to be swampy in places, but has now been drained. Due to the high soil fertility, irrigated agriculture is developed here.
Directly adjacent to Al-Gab from the east are the Ez-Zawiya mountains, which are a hilly surface with average heights of 460–600 m, maximum elevations reaching 900 m.
To the south of the Ansaria ridge extend the Anti-Lebanon and El-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges, along which the border between Syria and Lebanon runs. These mountains are composed of porous limestones, which absorb the small amount of atmospheric moisture that the area receives. However, at the foot of the mountain there are many springs that are used to irrigate the lands in the vicinity of the capital. Within the El-Sheikh ridge, on the border with Lebanon, there is the highest mountain of the same name in Syria (2814 m). The Anti-Lebanon and Al-Sheikh mountains are separated by the Barada River, which is used to supply water to the Damascus oasis.
The large eastern part of the country is occupied by the vast Eastern Plateau. Its southern part is raised 300 m higher than the northern one. The surface of the plateau gradually decreases to the east from about 750 m east of the Anti-Lebanon ridge to less than 300 m in the Euphrates floodplain. South part The plateau is composed of ancient lava fields. The most impressive landforms are the dome-shaped Ed Druz Mountains, rising up to 1800 m. Most of the surrounding plateau is covered with lava coarse material formed from erupted rocks, which makes the economic use of this area difficult. Only in the Hauran region (southwest of Damascus), where the lava deposits are heavily weathered, did thick, fertile soils form. To the east of the Zawiya Mountains, the terrain becomes undulating. Its surface gradually decreases from approximately 460 m in the west to 300 m near the border with Iraq. In the northeast of the country there are medium-high (more than 500 m above sea level) Abd el-Azis mountains (maximum height 920 m), which have a latitudinal strike. The entire territory of the plateau from northwest to northeast is crossed by the Euphrates River, cutting to a depth of 30–60 m. To the northeast of the Syrian capital, a chain of rather low ridges stretches across the entire area, almost reaching the Euphrates near the city of Deir-ez -Zor. Their height decreases eastward from 2000 m (Maaloula range north of Damascus) to 800 m (Bishri Mountains, northwest of Deir ez-Zor). All these mountains are characterized by a lack of precipitation and sparse vegetation, which allows them to be used only as winter pastures.
The eastern part of Syria in a south-eastern direction is crossed by the deep transit river Euphrates with large left tributaries Belikh and Khabur. All these rivers originate in the mountains of Turkey. The length of the middle reaches of the Euphrates in Syria is 675 km. Its flow is regulated by a dam. As a result of the construction of the dam, the large El Assad reservoir was formed with a volume of approx. 12 billion cubic meters m. The largest river in the west of the country is El Asi (Orontes), which originates in the mountains of Lebanon, flows through the depression of the Syrian graben and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Its length within Syria is 325 km. In addition, there are many small rivers of the Mediterranean basin, which are fullest during the winter rainy season and become shallow in the summer. In the extreme northeast along the border with Iraq for approx. The Tigris River flows 50 km. In addition, there are large lakes in the west of the country.
In areas with insufficient moisture, wells, springs, and accumulations are used for irrigated agriculture groundwater and rivers, through which a significant share of electricity is generated in the country. Approximately 12% of cultivated land is irrigated, and approx. 20% of them are thanks to wells. On other irrigated lands, irrigation depends on water regime The Euphrates and its tributaries - Belikh and Khabur. But the water resources of the Euphrates are also widely used in the energy and agriculture sectors of Turkey and Iraq, which lay claim to the waters of this river. This circumstance, along with the technical and financial problems of Syria itself and droughts, did not allow the area of irrigated land and electricity production to be brought to the level envisaged by the construction of the Euphrates Dam, completed in 1978. Large irrigation systems are also located on the El Asi and Yarmouk rivers (the waters of the latter shared with Jordan).
The natural vegetation of Syria has undergone significant changes under strong anthropogenic influence. In the distant past, the Ansaria range in the west and the mountains in the north of the country were covered with forests. Later they were replaced by secondary forests of low-growing coniferous and deciduous species in better-watered, sparsely populated areas and Mediterranean-type shrubs in those coastal areas where agriculture was not developed. In Western Syria, the least disturbed habitats on mountain slopes are dominated by evergreen oaks, laurel, myrtle, oleander, magnolia, and ficus. There are groves of cypress, Aleppo pine, Lebanese cedar, and juniper.
Along the Mediterranean coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane. Figs, mulberries, and citrus fruits are grown in the river valleys, and olives and grapes are grown on the gentle slopes. Corn, barley, and wheat are sown in the fields. Potatoes and vegetables are also grown. In the north, and partly on the eastern slopes of the ridge. Ansaria and others, and in the lowlands of the interior parts of the country, typical legume-cereal steppes are common, which serve as a fodder base for grazing livestock (mainly sheep). Wheat and barley, cotton are grown in the fields, and rice is grown under artificial irrigation conditions.
In deserts, the landscape comes to life only after rain, when young shoots of grasses and low-growing shrubs and shrubs appear, which are represented mainly by saxaul, biyurgun, boyalych, and wormwood. Nevertheless, even such poor vegetation cover is enough to feed the camels that are bred by nomads.
The fauna of Syria is not very diverse. Among the predators one can sometimes find a wild cat, lynx, jackal, fox, striped hyena, caracal; in the steppes and semi-deserts there are many ferrets; among ungulates there are antelope, gazelle, and wild ass onager. Rodents such as jerboas are numerous. Sometimes there are porcupines, hedgehogs, squirrels, and hares are also found. Reptiles are typical: snakes, lizards, chameleons. The bird fauna is diverse, especially in the Euphrates Valley and near water bodies (flamingos, storks, gulls, herons, geese, pelicans). Throughout the country there are larks, hazel grouses, bustards, in cities and villages - sparrows and pigeons, in groves - cuckoos. Among the predators there are eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls.
Most of the country is occupied by gray soils; chestnut soils are common in the north and west; in the mountains in the west there are also areas of brown soils, the most fertile soils. They are confined to the coastal lowlands and the lower slopes of the Ansaria ridge. Many soils are saline and gypsum-ridden.
Climate
The climate of Syria is subtropical Mediterranean, in the interior regions it is continental and arid. There is little precipitation, and it occurs mainly in the winter season. Characterized by intense evaporation. High air humidity and significant amounts of precipitation are characteristic only of the coastal lowlands and the western slopes of the Ansaria ridge.
Western Syria. The climate of the coastal strip and the windward slopes of the Ansaria ridge is humid Mediterranean. The average annual precipitation is 750 mm, in the mountains it increases to 1000–1300 mm. The rainy season begins in October and continues until March - early April, with maximum intensity in January. From May to September there is almost no precipitation. At low altitudes during this season the weather is uncomfortable for humans: during the day the air warms up to 30–35° C with high humidity. Higher in the mountains in summer, daytime temperatures are approximately 5° C lower than on the coast, and at night - even 11° C lower.
Average winter temperatures are 13–15° C, falling below 0° C only at some distance from the coastal lowland. Sometimes solid precipitation also falls, but snowfalls are common only in the upper mountain belt of the Ansaria Range, where snow cover can last for two to three months. Although winter is considered the rainy season, there are few rainy days, so even during this period the weather is clear, and the daytime temperature rises to 18–21 ° C.
Already on the eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Al-Sheikh ranges, the average precipitation decreases to 500 mm. In such conditions, steppes and semi-deserts dominate. Almost all precipitation occurs in winter, so winter crops can be grown without irrigation. The Syrian Desert, which extends to the east and south of the steppe zone, receives less than 200 mm of precipitation per year.
The temperature range within the steppes and deserts is greater than on the Mediterranean coast. The average July temperature in Damascus, at the western end of the steppe zone, is 28°C, as is the case in Aleppo further east, while in Deir ez-Zor, located in the desert region, the average July temperature is 33°C. Daytime temperatures in July-August often exceed 38° C. After sunset, the temperature drops sharply and air humidity decreases. Thus, despite the heat of the day, thanks to the cool, dry nights in the interior of the country in the summer, the climate is more comfortable than on the coast. In winter, steppe and desert areas are approximately 5.5° C cooler than the coastal zone. Average winter temperatures in Damascus and Deir ez-Zor are 7° C, and Aleb - 6° C. In the north of the steppe zone there are often frosts and snowfall, but in its southern regions, as well as in deserts, these climatic phenomena are observed less frequently. Night temperatures in winter drop well below 0°C.
Attractions
Despite the fact that Syria is a relatively small country, its territory contains a great many unique monuments of various cultures and eras, allowing tourists to make a unique journey through time.
The capital of Syria, Damascus, is one of the most ancient cities in the world, and its historical part is a unique urban monument with many important cultural and historical sites. The main one is the Basilica of St. Zechariah, which houses the shrine of John the Baptist.
The ancient city of Bosra has preserved city streets and the largest theater in the Middle East. The city of Apamea boasts one of the longest main streets with a colonnade, and the city of Kanawat boasts the ruins of the Temple of Helios. In general, in Syria there is a huge number of monuments of ancient history and ancient times: the ruins of the Aramaic city of Ain Dara, the ruins of the Phoenician city of Amrit, the ruins of the ancient city of Dura Europos, the ruins of ancient Philipopolis, as well as the city of Mari (the capital of the ancient Mesopotamian state) and the city of Ebla ( capital of the contemporary state of Akkad and Sumer). In addition, many historical monuments have been preserved in the ancient cities of Halabiya, Hama, Aleppo, Ugarit and Harbak. And the city of Palmyra was at one time the main rival of Rome in the East. Now it is famous throughout the world for such buildings as the complex of the Temple of Bel, the Temple of Baalshamin, the Great Colonnade, the Valley of the Tombs, etc. The dead Byzantine cities that abound in Syria are of no less interest.
There are also a large number of monuments to the history of Christianity in the country. In Damascus, the main ones are Straight Street, Bab Kisan Tower, the underground church of St. Ananias and the Basilica of St. Zechariah. In addition, many of the first Christian monasteries are scattered throughout the country: St. Takla, St. Sergius, St. Simeon, etc. Among other Christian attractions, it is worth noting the Cathedral of St. Sergius, the Basilica of Kalb Loze, the Church of Kanisa Umm Zunnar and the “Cave of the First Blood” » Makam Arbain.
Well, among the monuments of the Islamic period, the most famous are the Umayyad Mosque and the Qasr al-Azem Palace in Damascus, the Aleppo citadel, the Tekkiya Sulaymaniyah dervish monastery complex, the Qasr al-Kheir al-Sharqi palace and the Salah ad-Din fortress.
Kitchen
The cuisine of Syria is based on Arab, Aramaic and Caucasian traditions and is replete with many original dishes that will please even the most discerning gourmets. A characteristic feature of the local cuisine is the widespread use of spices, olive oil, grains, dairy products and fresh vegetables. Traditional dishes that are found everywhere here include unleavened flatbreads “khobz”, stuffed eggplants “makdus”, boiled wheat porridge “burgul”, fermented milk products “lyabne”, all kinds of pureed snacks, green salad “tabbouleh” and others.
Meat treats are dominated by hearty dishes, for example, baked lamb with nuts and rice “mensaf” or pilaf with spices and raisins “kabsa”. No less interesting and nutritious are such dishes as chicken with nut-rice filling “jaj mahshi”, lamb chop “kastaleta”, sheep legs “makkadem”, lamb cutlets “kafta”, lamb on a spit “meshvi”, the famous “dolma” , as well as “kebabs”, all kinds of kebabs, puff pastries and a variety of seafood.
The most popular dessert, which is usually used to complete any meal here, is baklava. Also worth trying are kunafa (a dish made from dough, cheese and nuts), mhalabie semolina pudding and baked chestnuts. All these delights are washed down with very strong and sweet coffee or tea. Various juices, fermented milk drink “ayran” and raisin compote “jelab” are also widespread. The most common alcoholic drink is arak aniseed vodka.
Accommodation
IN major cities In Syria, most hotels have a category of 3* or more, and their living conditions fully correspond to those stated. In most cases, hotels should be booked in advance.
The most luxurious hotel complexes are mainly located on the coast, and their territory necessarily includes swimming pools, fitness centers, tennis courts and massage areas. Hotels in the mid-price category can be found in any city; they are quite comfortable, but in such establishments the full range of services that is usual for European hotels is not always available. Inexpensive hotels and guest houses are scattered throughout the country, however, the level of service in them is minimal, and the rooms are cramped and not very clean.
It should be noted that the cost of living in Syrian hotels is low and, as a rule, reflects the level of comfort and service. Very often breakfast is included in the price. The most expensive hotels in the country are hotels of large hotel operators (Holiday Inn, InterContinental and Rotana).
Entertainment and relaxation
The coastline of Syria is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to which there are many beaches surrounded by picturesque plains that gradually turn into hills and mountains. Moreover, the swimming season here is very long - from May to November. The most popular beaches in Syria are located near the city of Latakia. First of all, this is Al Samra Beach, the territory of which is divided between Syria and Turkey. No less popular are beaches such as Badrouseigh and Ras al-Bassit, as well as Wadi al-Qandil beach with black volcanic sand. The most popular active recreation option on the coast is diving. Moreover, entire diving tours are organized here for him.
Rock climbing is also popular among extreme sports enthusiasts. The mountains here are so rich in mineral springs that in the summer tourists come here for medical procedures and mud therapy. For this purpose, it is worth going to cities such as Salma, Kasab and Draykish. Moreover, the country's mountainous terrain is popular not only in summer, but also in winter. For example, the town of Slenfe is a health resort in summer, and in winter it turns into a ski resort.
Vacationers with the whole family are recommended to visit the water parks in Damascus and Latakia, which offer a lot of water attractions. In addition, all major cities of the country have amusement parks, sports grounds, restaurants, bars and cultural institutions.
If we talk about holidays, then both Muslim and Christian religious dates are celebrated here, as well as state dates. The country also hosts many colorful festivals: the Flower Festival, the International Flower Show, the Syrian Theater Festival, the Cotton Festival, the Grapevine Festival, the Silk Road Festival, the Palmyra Festival, etc.
Shopping
Syria can rightfully be called a real paradise for shopping lovers. The fact is that this country is literally famous throughout the world for its oriental bazaars, where, if desired, you can find anything you want: from spices to furniture. Moreover, prices in the markets are much lower than in other trading establishments. Of course, you should bargain in such places. The country's best markets are in Aleppo and Damascus.
Among the range of goods offered here, the most popular are handmade carpets, national costumes, silk scarves, silver and gold jewelry, sheep skins, as well as products made of leather, mother-of-pearl and wood. In addition, you should pay attention to gastronomic souvenirs, for example, coffee with cardamom, oriental sweets, spices and olive oil.
In addition to markets, in large cities in Syria there are a great many shopping centers, stores with branded clothing, supermarkets and small private shops.
It should be borne in mind that in no store here is it possible to pay in foreign currency: only the Syrian pound or non-cash payments are in circulation.
Most shops are open from Saturday to Thursday from 9:30 to 21:00, and private shops often have individual opening hours.
Transport
The most convenient way to get to Syria is by plane, since the country has two international airports (near Damascus and Aleppo). In addition, Syria is connected with neighboring countries by railways, roads, and seaports.
Within the country you can travel by plane, train, bus, minibus and minibus. Public urban transport in Syria is represented by buses and taxis. Bus tickets are sold from the conductor or driver and are quite cheap. The cost of a taxi ride should be discussed with the driver before boarding the car.
Renting a car in Syria is quite expensive: prices here are twice as high as in Europe. Gasoline is also quite expensive, and most of the signs on the roads are made in Arabic, making travel difficult.
Connection
Syria's telephone system is quite well developed and is currently undergoing modernization. Pay phones are installed in all public places, so there will be no problems with communication here. Moreover, they work both with small coins and with cards that are sold everywhere. In addition, you can call abroad from a specialized call center or from a hotel (25% more expensive).
Mobile communications operate in the GSM-900/1800 standard and have fairly dense coverage. Roaming is available to all subscribers of major Russian operators. Phone rental is available at the offices of local cellular companies (Mobile Syria and Spacetel Syria).
The Internet in Syria is developing very quickly, however, the connection speed here is often not very high. Internet cafes operate in all major cities of the country.
Safety
If you follow a few simple rules, Syria will turn out to be a completely safe and hospitable country. Thus, when entering houses and mosques, you must take off your shoes, and it is forbidden to walk around those praying in front. Women should not wear short skirts or bare-shoulder clothing. Photograph transport and military facilities, government agencies, as well as local women are prohibited. Filming in mosques is also strictly prohibited.
Documents or their photocopies should always be carried with you. It is worth noting that alcoholic drinks are sold everywhere here, but you should not drink them in front of everyone. In addition, in Syria it is strongly recommended not to enter into any political discussions, including those related to Israel.
To enter the country you will need medical insurance. Prevention of polio, tetanus, hepatitis, typhus and malaria is also recommended. Local tap water is relatively safe, but it is still better to buy bottled water.
Business
The Syrian economy is based on oil exports, agriculture, chemical, food and textile industries. Moreover, the state completely controls the energy sector, finance, aviation and rail transport. However, now, as part of the course for gradual modernization and liberalization of the economy proclaimed by law, public sector enterprises have been given the right to enter foreign markets and attract foreign investment.
The country is currently developing quite actively private sector. In total, registering a private company here takes less than a month. To do this, the entrepreneur must submit a formal application to reserve the name of his company, as well as to register it with the Department of Internal Trade.
Real estate
Syria is one of the last countries in the Middle East to open the housing market to non-residents. Today, foreign citizens have the opportunity to purchase real estate, subject to a number of restrictions in the law. First of all, the area of the acquired property must be at least 140 m2. Foreign buyers are also required to obtain prior approval from the country's Ministry of Interior. In addition, legal nuances that concern foreigners include a ban on the subsequent sale of the acquired property within the next two years after purchase.
The average cost of apartments in Syria ranges from $280,000 to $350,000, and the cost of villas starts from $400,000.
In addition, you need to know that since 2009, a smoking ban began to apply in Syria. Therefore, smokers caught with a cigarette in any public place will have to pay a fine (about $50). It is worth noting that this ban also applies to hookah smoking. It is noteworthy that alcohol is not prohibited in the country. The exception is Ramadan, during which drinking alcohol in public places is prohibited even for non-Muslims.
Visa information
To travel to Syria, citizens of the Russian Federation and CIS countries need a tourist or transit visa. Any of them can be issued at the Moscow Consular Section of the Syrian Embassy (Mansurovsky Lane, 4) or immediately upon arrival in the country (at the airport or at the border crossing with any of the countries neighboring Syria, except Israel).
Population
The vast majority of the country's inhabitants are Arabic-speaking Syrian Arabs (approx. 90%). By religion they are predominantly Muslim, but there are also Christians. The largest national minority are the Kurds, who make up approx. 9% of the population. Most Kurds are concentrated in the Taurus foothills, north of Aleppo, and on the Al Jazeera plateau, in the northeast. Kurds also formed communities in the vicinity of Jarabulus and on the outskirts of Damascus. They speak their native Kurdish and Arabic and adhere, like the Syrian Arabs, to the Sunni branch of Islam. The majority of Kurds live in rural areas. Many Kurds lead a semi-nomadic life. In the cities (mainly Damascus and Aleppo), Kurds are primarily engaged in manual labor. Wealthy Kurds derive their income primarily from owning real estate. Some Kurds have reached high official positions, but they are practically not involved in trade. The share of Armenians, the second largest national minority, in the population is 2–3%. Many Armenians are descendants of refugees from Turkey who arrived in the late 19th century, but most emigrated between 1925 and 1945. Armenians profess Christianity and have retained their customs, schools and newspapers. Almost all Armenians live in cities: mainly in Aleppo (75%), where they have a prominent place in economic life, in Damascus (15%) and Hasakah. As a rule, Armenians are traders, small entrepreneurs and artisans, among them there are also many specialists with engineering and technical education and skilled workers, as well as liberal professions. Turkmens and Circassians also live in Syria. Turkmen profess Islam, wear Arabic clothes and speak Arabic. They originally led a nomadic lifestyle, but are now primarily engaged in semi-nomadic pastoralism on the Al-Jazeera plateau and in the Euphrates valley, near the Iraqi border, or farming in the Aleppo region. Circassians are descendants of Muslim nomads who moved to Syria from the Caucasus after its conquest by the Russians in the late 19th century; they have retained most of their customs and native language, although they also speak Arabic. Approximately half of the Circassians lived in the Quneitra governorate, but after the destruction of the Quneitra governorate by the Israelis in October 1973 administrative center many moved to Damascus. The smallest among national minorities are nomadic gypsies, Turks, Iranians, Assyrians, Jews (the latter are concentrated mainly in Damascus and Aleppo).
Story
Historically, Syria included Jordan, Israel, Lebanon and what is now Syria. The country occupied a favorable strategic position and its coastal cities were important Phoenician trading points. Syria was later part of the Roman, Persian, Egyptian and Babylonian empires. As a result, Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire and, along with Lebanon, was transferred to France after the defeat of Turkey in the First World War. The Syrians were never particularly tolerant of being invaded (they were even independent in 1918-20), and in 1925-26 they staged a rebellion that led to France bombing Damascus.
In 1932, parliamentary elections were held in Syria, and although most of the candidates were pro-French, Syria refused to recognize the French version of the constitution. In 1939, France granted Turkey the Syrian province of Alexandretta, which caused dissatisfaction with its policies among the local population. France promised to grant Syria independence in 1941, but did not do so until 1946.
Civilized rule did not last long in Syria: in 1954, after several military coups, the Baath Party, created in 1940 by a Christian leader, took control of the country. The main idea of the party was the creation of a single Arab state, where Syria would no longer be an independent country. Everything was moving towards the formation of a New United Arab Republic with Egypt in 1958, but many people did not support this idea, and a wave of armed uprisings took place throughout the country. By 1966, the Baath Party had returned to power, but the celebrations were marred by the outbreak of the Six-Day War with Israel, and in 1970 there was armed conflict with Jordan. As a result of all these armed clashes, a coup took place in the country and Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad seized power.
Since 1971, Assad has maintained his presidency through force and subterfuge; it strengthens Syria's position in the Middle East by concluding peace treaties and establishing trade relations. In 1999, he was elected for the fifth time to a seven-year presidential term with a majority of 99.9% of the vote. In the 1990s. the fall in oil prices forced the countries of the Middle East to unite, and Assad took advantage of the Gulf War in early 1991 to improve the economic situation in the country. During the war, Syria joined the anti-Iraq coalition, which made a favorable impression on the West, although it still remains on Washington's list of countries that support terrorism.
In 1997, Syria left the list of countries through which drug trafficking passes, and Assad strengthened ties with the EU, Turkey and America. Attempts to diversify the oil-based economy by investing in the agricultural complex were not entirely successful. In early 2000, U.S. State Department officials discussed whether to remove Syria from the list of countries that sponsor terrorism, on the grounds that there had been no evidence of Syrian involvement in terrorist acts since 1986. The chaotic retreat of Israeli units from eastern Lebanon in 2000 under fire from the Syrian-backed Herzbollah faction delayed further discussion of Syrian loyalty. The death of President Assad has called into question the peaceful resolution of various conflicts in the Middle East. After Assad, his son Bashar became president in June 2000.
Culture
You're unlikely to hear traditional Arabic singers on the streets of Damascus, but there is an interesting hybrid of Arabic-style singers and Western musicians. Favorite performers in Syria are Mayada al-Hanawi and Asala Nasri. The Bedouins have their own musical traditions, where several men sing a monotonous recitative that serves as accompaniment for a belly dancer.
Art in the Arab world is primarily architecture, perhaps because Islam prohibits the depiction of living objects. Everywhere in Syria you come across ancient and classical sites and examples of architecture not only from Muslims, but from Romans and Byzantines. There are several churches left behind by the Crusaders. The Qur'an is one of the greatest examples of classical Arabic writing. Al-Muallaqat is an ancient collection of Arabic poetry. For 10 centuries Syria was the center of poetry Arab world, the best poems belong to the pen of Al-Mutanabbi (who considered himself a prophet) and Abu Firas al-Hamdani. One of the monuments of Arabic literature is Alf Laila wa Laila (“A Thousand and One Nights”), a collection of stories about different times and peoples. Bedouin art in Syria is represented by silver jewelry, colorful fabrics and bladed weapons.
Hospitality is the main core of Arab life. It is customary for Syrian families, particularly those living in the desert, to invite strangers to visit. The tradition developed due to the difficulties of life in the desert, where a person cannot survive without water, food and friendly support. Wherever you are in Syria, you will hear the word "tafaddal" ("welcome") when people invite you over for a cup of tea.
Islam is the main religion of Syria. It is a monotheistic religion and the Koran is the holy book of Islam. Five times a day, Muslims, heeding the call of the muezzin from the top of the minaret, pray. Islam shares similarities with Christianity and Judaism, and therefore Muslims treat Christians and Jews with respect, and Jesus is revered in Islam as one of the prophets of Allah. Muhammad was the last prophet through whom Allah transmitted the Quran to Muslims. Most Syrian Muslims are Sunni, but there are also Shiites, Druze and Alawites. The Druze mostly live near the Jordanian border and their faith is shrouded in mystery. Alawites live in Lattakia and Hama Homs.
Islam forbids eating pork and drinking alcoholic beverages, and this rule applies to a greater or lesser extent throughout Syria. Islam also tends to separate the sexes, for example there are public places where only men are allowed. Although many places also have a family room where women are allowed. When Syrians eat, they usually order a selection of mezze appetizers first, and therefore the main courses that Syrians eat from the same plate. Arabic unleavened bread - khobz - is used with almost all dishes. Other dishes include falafel, fried bean balls, shawarma, a specially prepared chopped lamb, and fuul, a fava bean paste with garlic and lemon. Mensaf is a Bedouin dish - a whole lamb, head on, served with rice and nuts.
Economy
Syria is characterized by an economy mixed type with a high share of the public sector (approx. 50% of national income, 75% of the value of industrial products and 70% of fixed assets). Finance, energy, railway and air transport have been entirely under the control of the state for a long time. Private ownership clearly predominates in agriculture, and also includes small and medium-sized trade enterprises, the service sector, motor transport and housing construction. The annual growth of GNP in the mid-1990s was estimated at 3.6%. In 2003, GDP growth was 0.9%, i.e. $58.01 billion, per capita income was $3,300. According to 2003 data, GDP was divided by sector as follows: agriculture - 28.5%, industry – 29.4% and other services – 42.1%.
Syria is a major center of maritime and land trade. In this regard, an industry such as warehousing has developed. Large oil storage facilities were built at the oil refineries in Homs and Baniyas, at the oil loading terminal of the port of Baniyas, etc. The storage areas for metals and building materials were significantly increased, and large elevators were built.
Policy
Syria is a presidential republic. It is distinguished by a centralized, strictly hierarchical system, in which all power is concentrated in the hands of the country's president and the top leadership of the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV, or Baath). This system was created after the armed seizure of power by Baath supporters in 1963. From November 1970 to June 2000, the head of state was General Hafez al-Assad, the leader of the military wing of the Baath, who came to leadership as a result of a coup, displacing the civilian leadership of the party. Hafez al-Assad served as President, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, Secretary General of the regional Ba'ath leadership and Chairman of the Progressive National Front, a coalition of parties that has a majority in the People's Council, consisting of 250 deputies and serving as a unicameral parliament, elected by universal suffrage for a 4-year term.
The military, loyal to General Assad, who found themselves in power, soon convened a legislative body - the People's Council, which was given the development of a draft permanent constitution as a priority task. It was supposed to replace the temporary constitution of the country introduced by the Ba'ath in 1964, which was extended in 1969. Deputies to the People's Council were nominated by the president and his closest advisers and were supposed to represent the Ba'ath and its main left-wing allies - the Arab Socialist Union, the Syrian communist party, the Democratic Socialist Unionist Party and the Arab Socialist Movement. The People's Council also included a small number of independent members and representatives of opposition forces. In March 1973, the People's Council submitted a draft constitution to the president for approval, which was then submitted to a referendum. According to the new constitution, the People's Council is elected by universal direct and secret suffrage. All citizens over 18 years of age have the right to vote.
Elections to the People's Council are held in multi-member electoral districts, and in each of them one part of the seats is allocated to workers and peasants, and the other to representatives of other categories of the population. There is no formal nomination of candidates by political parties. In practice, the ruling Progressive National Front nominates a common unofficial list of candidates; Formally, all candidates are nominated and run individually. The voting results are determined by the majority system of relative majority.
The powers of parliament, according to the constitution, include passing laws, discussing government policies, approving the state budget and plans for socio-economic development, ratifying the most important international treaties and agreements, and declaring a general amnesty. Only the People's Council has the authority to make changes to the constitution and regulations of its activities. At the same time, the Syrian Constitution does not consistently delineate the substantive scope of the legislative powers of the parliament, on the one hand, and the head of state, on the other.
The central place in the political system of Syria belongs to the head of state - the president of the republic. A candidate for this post is nominated by the People's Council on the proposal of the leadership of the Baath Party, after which the issue is submitted to a national referendum. To be elected for a 7-year term, it is enough to receive a majority of votes of those who took part in the referendum.
In accordance with the basic law of the country, the President of Syria monitors compliance with the constitution and guarantees work state mechanism, develops (in agreement with the government) national policy and monitors its implementation. He appoints and dismisses civilian and military officials, including vice presidents, ministers, governors and senior diplomats, exercises the right to pardon and rehabilitate convicts, and is the supreme commander in chief. The President has the right to declare war, general mobilization and a state of emergency, can conclude peace agreements (if ratified by parliament), and conclude and terminate international treaties.
The head of state has the right to convene emergency sessions of parliament, prepare bills and submit them for consideration by the People's Council. He can veto a law passed by the legislature, which needs at least a two-thirds vote to override it. In emergency circumstances, the president can himself issue decrees during breaks between parliamentary sessions. The head of state has the right to directly submit bills to a referendum, bypassing parliament. His powers include the dissolution of the People's Council, but for specific reasons such a decision can be made only once. Parliament can hold the president accountable only in cases of high treason.
The supreme executive and administrative body of the republic is the government (Council of Ministers), consisting of the chairman (prime minister), deputy and ministers. The Council of Ministers controls the work of the state executive apparatus and state corporations, supervises the implementation of laws, participates together with the president in developing state policies and implements them, develops draft budgets, development plans and laws, ensures the security of the country, etc. The Prime Minister and ministers are responsible only to the President.
In the 3rd millennium BC. e. on these lands the Semitic city-state of Ebla was located; it was part of the circle of the Sumerian-Akkadian civilization. Subsequently, the Amorite state of Yamhad was formed here, but it was put an end to the invasion of the Hittites from the Balkans. In the 17th century, local Hurrian tribes formed the state of Mitanni. In the 15th century BC e. Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose I came here.
In the period from the X to the VIII centuries BC. e. Damascus became the center of the powerful Aramaic kingdom. At the beginning of the 9th century. BC e. The Syrians conquered part of northern Galilee from the Israelites. At this time, the Assyrians were gaining strength. They began to collect tribute from the rulers of Syria. The rulers created a powerful anti-Assyrian alliance. A fierce battle took place in 854 BC. e., under the walls of the city of Karkara, but it did not bring results.
However, the coalition of Syrian and Palestinian rulers, dangerous for the Assyrians, did not last long. A war began between them. The Assyrians managed to defeat the Syrian army, but were never able to take the city.
The Syrian king Hazael managed to retain the throne, but started a war with the Israelites. The Syrians practically made the Israeli king Jehoahaz a vassal. But in 802 BC. e. The Assyrians attacked Syria again. This time they captured and plundered Damascus. Hazael became a vassal of Assyria. But again he remained on the throne. Under his children, the Israelis continued to push Damascus.
The next Assyrian king, Tiglath-pileser III, decided to expand the borders to Syria. In 738 BC e. his troops captured 19 Syrian cities. Under these conditions, the rulers of Syria rallied around the new Damascus king Reason II. The king of Israel, Pekah, became his ally.
In 734 BC e. Tiglath-pileser III conquered Israel, and in 733 BC. e. The Assyrians took Damascus. The city was severely destroyed. Then the Assyrians were replaced by the Chaldeans, and then the Persians.
Alexander the Great captured Syria and made it part of the Macedonian kingdom. Later, Syria passed to Seleucus Nicator, under whom it reached its highest development.
But after his death, Syria was captured in 83 by Tigranes, king of Armenia. In 64, Pompey defeated Tigranes and made Syria a Roman province, annexing Judea. But gradually the power of the Roman emperors weakened, and Syria became the prey of the Saracens.
In 635, Syria was devastated and then conquered by the Arabs, who converted most of the Aramaic population to Islam. In 660-750 Damascus served as the residence of the caliphs. The Crusades for 2 centuries led to constant military clashes in Syria. The Principality of Antioch was formed here, which was conquered by the Egyptian Sultan Saladin in 1187.
In 1260, the weakened Ayyubid state was captured by the Mongols, who were stopped by Mamluk forces led by Sultan Qutuz.
In 1517, Syria was conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I. Its territory was divided into 4 provinces led by governors.
In the 18th century, French influence increased here. In the late 1850s and early 1860s. Bloody feuds broke out between the Druze and Maronites.
From Europe, through the Young Turk movement, ideas of nationalism penetrated into Syria. During World War I, Damascus was declared the seat of an independent government for all of Syria, which was perceived as a revival of the Damascus Caliphate.
Faisal I declared himself king of Syria. But behind his back, Britain agreed to give Syria to France in exchange for giving up the oil-rich Mosul region.
In 1920, France received a mandate to govern Syria. Her troops expelled Faisal. After the Uprising of 1925-27, France had to make concessions in matters of local government. In 1932, Syria was declared a republic (with the retention of the French mandate). In 1939, France granted Turkey the Syrian province of Alexandretta.
Syria received complete independence from France on April 17, 1946. The first president was the head of the colonial administration, Cuatli. The emergence of the State of Israel in 1948 and the subsequent Arab-Israeli War led to an acute political crisis. In 1949, three military coups took place in Syria.
In 1958, Syria attempted to unite with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic.
But in 1963, Syria came under the rule of the leaders of the Baath Party (Arab Socialist Renaissance Party) with an orientation towards total socialism.
During the reign of Hafez al-Assad, Syria sought to limit Israeli influence in the region. The Syrian Golan Heights came under Israeli control, but Syria gained almost complete political control over Lebanon, established during the civil war in that country. This was put to an end in 2005, Syrian troops were withdrawn from Lebanon.
After the death of Hafez al-Assad, his son, Bashar al-Assad, whose policy was more gentle, became the president of Syria.
In 2011, an uprising broke out in Syria.
Civilization arose here in the 4th century. BC. According to Karl Baedeker, the German founder of the publishing house of guides to various cities and countries, the capital of Syria, Damascus, is the oldest existing capital in the world.
Modern state Syrian Arab Republic borders Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Iraq and Turkey. It is washed in the west by the Mediterranean Sea.
State symbols
Flag– The modern flag of Syria was reintroduced in 1980. This flag was previously used by the United Arab Republic.
The colors of the flag are traditional for the flags of Arab countries. The two stars stand for Egypt and Syria, two nations that were part of the United Arab Republic. Green is the color of the Fatimids (dynasty of Muslim caliphs from 969 to 1171), white is the color of the Umayyads (dynasty of caliphs founded by Muawiyah in 661), black is the color of the Abbasids (the second (after the Umayyads) dynasty of Arab caliphs (750-1258) and red represents the blood of martyrs; also red is the color of the Hashemite dynasty and was added when Sharif Hussein joined the Arab Revolt in 1916.
Coat of arms- represents a golden “hawk of the Quraish”, which has a shield on its chest, twice cut into scarlet, silver and niello with two green five-pointed stars one above the other in the middle (the colors of the flag of Syria). In its paws the hawk holds a green scroll on which the name of the state is written in Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية (al-Jumhuriyya al-Arabiya al-Suriyyah). On the tail are two diverging green wheat ears.
State structure of modern Syria
Form of government- parliamentary republic.
Head of State- the president. Elected for 7 years, the number of consecutive terms in power is not limited.
Head of the government- Prime Minister.
Official language– Arabic. The most common languages also include Kurdish, Armenian, Adyghe (Circassian) and Turkmen. Among foreign languages the most popular are Russian, French and English.
Capital- Damascus.
Largest cities– Aleppo, Damascus, Homs.
Territory– 185,180 km².
Population– 22,457,336 people. About 90% of the country's population are Syrian Arabs (including about 400 thousand Palestinian refugees). The largest national minority is the Kurds (9% of the Syrian population). The country's third largest ethnic group is the Syrian Turkmen, followed by the Circassians; there is also a large community of Assyrians in the country.
Currency– Syrian pound.
Economy– the most developed industries: oil, oil refining, electric power, gas production, phosphate mining, food, textile, chemical (production of fertilizers, plastics), electrical engineering.
Only a third of Syria's territory is suitable for agriculture. Cotton, livestock products, vegetables and fruits are produced.
Political instability, fighting and trade and economic sanctions imposed on Syria have led to a deterioration in the Syrian economy.
Export: oil, minerals, fruits and vegetables, textiles. Import: industrial products, food.
Damascus University
Education– in 1950, free and compulsory elementary education. Currently, there are about 10 thousand primary and more than 2.5 thousand secondary schools in Syria; 267 vocational schools (including 107 women's), 4 universities.
Textbooks in secondary schools (under the rule of B. Assad) are provided free of charge up to grade 9 inclusive.
Damascus University was founded in 1903. It is a leading university educational institution in the country. The second most important is the university in Aleppo, founded in 1946 as the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Damascus, but in 1960 it became an independent educational institution. In 1971, Tishrin University was established in Latakia. The youngest university was founded in Homs - Al-Baath University. A large number of Syrians receive higher education abroad, mainly in Russia and France.
Syrian landscape
Climate– arid, subtropical Mediterranean, in the interior – continental.
Administrative division– Syria is divided into 14 governorates, the head of which is appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs after the approval of the cabinet. Each governorate elects a local parliament.
Golan Heights. The territory of the Golan Heights makes up the Syrian governorate of Quneitra, with its center in the city of the same name. Israeli troops captured the Golan Heights in 1967, and the region was under the control of the Israel Defense Forces until 1981. In 1974, the UN Emergency Force was deployed here.
In 1981, the Israeli Knesset adopted the “Golan Heights Law,” which unilaterally declared Israeli sovereignty over this territory. The annexation was declared invalid by the UN Security Council Resolution of December 17, 1981 and condemned by the UN General Assembly in 2008.
In 2005, the population of the Golan Heights was approximately 40 thousand people, including 20 thousand Druze (an Arabic-speaking ethno-religious group in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel), 19 thousand Jews and about 2 thousand Alawites (a number of Islamic religious movements, branches or sects). The largest settlement in the area is the Druze village of Majdal Shams (8,800 people).
Syria and Israel are de jure in a state of war, since a peace treaty between these countries has not yet been signed.
Religion– approximately 86% of the population of Syria are Muslims, 10% are Christians. Of the Muslims, 82% are Sunnis, the rest are Alawites and Ismailis, as well as Shiites, which is constantly increasing due to the flow of refugees from Iraq.
Among Christians, half are Syrian Orthodox, 18% are Catholics.
There are significant communities of the Armenian Apostolic and Russian Orthodox churches.
Currently in Syria, Iraq and other countries there are people who want to create a split between Sunnis and Shiites.
Sunnis- the most numerous movement in Islam. Sunni theologians (ulema), unlike Shiite ones, do not enjoy the right to make their own decisions on the most important issues of religious and public life. The position of a theologian in Sunnism comes down primarily to the interpretation of sacred texts. Sunnis place special emphasis on following the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (his actions and sayings), on loyalty to tradition, on the participation of the community in choosing its head - the caliph.
Shiites- a branch of Islam that unites various communities that recognized Ali ibn Abu Talib and his descendants as the only legitimate heirs and spiritual successors of the Prophet Muhammad. Distinctive feature Shiites are convinced that the leadership of the Muslim community should belong to imams - appointed by God, chosen persons from among the descendants of the prophet, to whom they include Ali ibn Abu Talib and his descendants from Muhammad's daughter Fatima, and not elected persons - caliphs.
Russia is concerned about attacks on Christian minorities in Syria.
Chapel of Saint Ananias in Damascus
Armed forces- includes the Ground Forces, Air Force, Navy and Air Defense Forces. The supreme commander of the armed forces is the president.
Sport– the most popular are football, basketball, swimming and table tennis.
Syrian culture
Syria, how the most ancient state the world, is the cradle of many civilizations and cultures. Ugaritic cuneiform and one of the first forms of writing, Phoenician (XIV century BC), originated here. Syrian figures, scientist Antiochus of Ascalon, writer Lucian of Samosata, historians Herodian, Ammianus Marcellinus, John Malala, John of Ephesus, Yeshu Stylite, Yahya of Antioch, Michael the Syrian, contributed to the development of Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine cultures.
Lucian of Samosata in his satirical writings he ridicules social, religious and philosophical prejudices, as well as other vices of his contemporary society. His essay “The True Story,” which describes a journey to the Moon and Venus, influenced the development of science fiction.
John Chrysostom. Byzantine mosaic
John Chrysostom(c. 347-407) - Archbishop of Constantinople, theologian, revered as one of the three Ecumenical saints and teachers, along with Saints Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian.
St. John Chrysostom. Byzantine mosaic
Christian theologians Pavel Samosata, John Chrysostom, Ephraim the Syrian, and John of Damascus are also known.
In the 12th century. In Syria, the famous warrior and writer Osama ibn Munkyz, the author of the autobiographical chronicle “The Book of Edification”, a most valuable source on the history of the Crusades, lived and worked.
Old houses in Damascus
The city of Damascus was one of the world centers for the production of bladed weapons, the famous “Damascus steel”.
In modern Syrian society, special attention is paid to the institution of family and religion and education.
Modern life in Syria is intertwined with ancient traditions. In the old quarters of Damascus, Aleppo and other Syrian cities, living quarters are preserved, located around one or more courtyards, usually with a fountain in the center, with citrus orchards, vines, and flowers.
The most famous Syrian writers of the 20th century: Adonis, Ghada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani, Hannah Mina and Zakaria Tamer.
Adonis (Ali Ahmad Said Asbar) (b. 1930)
Syrian poet and essayist. Lived mainly in Lebanon and France. The author of more than 20 books in his native Arabic, he is considered the most significant representative of the New Poetry movement.
Nizar Qabbani (1923-1998)
Syrian poet, publisher, diplomat. One of the most significant Arab poets of the 20th century. He is one of the founders of modern Arabic poetry. Qabbani's poems are mainly written in simple language, often reflecting the realities of the Syrian spoken language contemporary to the poet. Qabbani published 35 collections of poetry.
Cinema in Syria not very developed, it is completely in the hands of the state. On average, Syria produces 1-2 films per year. Films are often censored. Famous directors include Amirali Omar, Osama Mohammed and Abdel Hamid, Abdul Razzaq Ghanem (Abu Ghanem), etc. Many Syrian filmmakers work abroad. But in the 1970s, Syrian-produced series were popular in the Arab world.
Together with the Syrian film studio "Ghanem-film" they filmed in the USSR and Russia art films: “The Last Night of Scheherazade” (1987), “Richard the Lionheart” (1992), “Destroy the Thirtieth!” (1992), "Angels of Death" (1993), dedicated to the 50th anniversary Battle of Stalingrad, “Tragedy of the Century” (1993), “ Great commander Georgy Zhukov" (1995), etc.
Nature
There are five natural regions on the territory of Syria: the Maritime Lowland, the Western Mountain Range, the Rift Zone, the Eastern Mountain Range, and the Eastern Syrian Plateau. The country is crossed by two large rivers: El Asi (Orontes) and Euphrates. Cultivated lands are mainly in the western regions - the coastal lowland, the Ansaria Mountains and the valleys of the El Asi River, the Euphrates and its tributaries.
Euphrates River
The natural vegetation of Syria has changed significantly. In the distant past, the Ansaria range in the west and the mountains in the north of the country were covered with forests.
In Western Syria, the least disturbed habitats on mountain slopes are dominated by evergreen oaks, laurel, myrtle, oleander, magnolia, and ficus. There are groves of cypress, Aleppo pine, Lebanese cedar, and juniper.
Magnolia flowers
Along the Mediterranean coast there are plantations of tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane. Figs, mulberries, and citrus fruits are grown in the river valleys, and olives and grapes are grown on the gentle slopes.
Olive Tree
Corn, barley, and wheat are sown in the fields. Potatoes and vegetables are also grown. In the north and partly on the eastern slopes of the Ansaria and other ridges and in the low mountains of the interior parts of the country, typical legume-cereal steppes are common, which serve as a fodder base for grazing livestock (mainly sheep). Wheat and barley, cotton are grown in the fields, and rice is grown under artificial irrigation conditions.
In deserts, the landscape comes to life only after rain; young shoots of grasses and low-growing shrubs and shrubs appear: saxaul, biyurgun, boyalych, wormwood. But even such poor vegetation cover is enough to feed the camels that are bred by the nomads.
Animal world Syria is not very diverse. Among the predators one can sometimes find a wild cat, lynx, jackal, fox, striped hyena, caracal, in the steppes and semi-deserts there are many ferrets, and among the ungulates there are antelope, gazelle, and wild donkey onager.
Wild donkey onager
Jerboa rodents are numerous. Sometimes there are porcupines, hedgehogs, squirrels, and hares. Reptiles: snakes, lizards, chameleons. The bird fauna is diverse, especially in the Euphrates Valley and near water bodies (flamingos, storks, gulls, herons, geese, pelicans).
The country is home to larks, hazel grouses, bustards, sparrows and pigeons in towns and villages, and cuckoos in groves. Birds of prey include eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Syria
Old city in Damascus
Damascus has seven surviving city gates in the Old City wall, the oldest of which date back to the Roman period:
Bab el-Saghir (“Small Gate”) - behind the gate there are historical burial places, in particular, 2 wives of the Prophet Muhammad are buried here
Bab el-Faradis ("Heaven's Gate")
Bab el-Salam ("Gateway of Peace")
Bab Tuma (“Gate of Thomas”) - the name goes back to the name of the Apostle Thomas, leads to the Christian quarter of the Old City
"Gate of Thomas"
Bab Sharqi ("Eastern Gate")
Bab Kisan - built during the Roman era, were dedicated to the god Saturn. According to legend, the Apostle Paul fled from Damascus through them
Bab al-Jabiya
Old town in Bosra
Bosra – historical city in southern Syria, an important archaeological site. The settlement was first mentioned in documents from the times of Thutmose III and Amenhotep IV (XIV century BC). Bosra was the first Nabatean city in the second century BC. e. The Nabatean kingdom was conquered by Cornelius Palma, Trajan's general, in 106 AD. e.
Under the rule of the Roman Empire, Bosra was renamed Nova Traiana Bostrem and became the capital of the Roman province of Arabia Petra. Two early Christian churches were built in Bosra in 246 and 247.
Subsequently, after the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern, the city came under the rule of the Byzantine Empire. The city was finally conquered by the army of the Arab Caliphate in 634.
Today Bosra is an important archaeological site, containing ruins from Roman, Byzantine and Muslim times, as well as one of the best preserved Roman theaters in the world, which hosts a national music festival every year.
Archaeological sites of Palmyra
Palmyra(Greek “city of palm trees”) - one of the richest cities of late antiquity, located in one of the oases of the Syrian Desert, between Damascus and the Euphrates.
It was a transit point for caravans crossing the Syrian Desert, which is why Palmyra was nicknamed the “bride of the desert.”
Currently, on the site of Palmyra there is a Syrian village and the ruins of majestic buildings, which are among the best examples of ancient Roman architecture.
Several cities in the United States are named after Palmyra. St. Petersburg was poetically called the northern Palmyra, and Odessa - the southern.
Old town in Aleppo
Aleppo (Aleppo) is the largest city in Syria and the center of the country’s most populous governorate of the same name.
For many centuries, Aleppo was the largest city in Greater Syria and the third largest in the Ottoman Empire, after Constantinople and Cairo.
Aleppo is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world; it was inhabited already by the 6th century. BC e.
Castles Krak des Chevaliers and Qal'at Salah ad Din
Krak de Chevalier, or Krak de l'Hospital– fortress of the Hospitallers (a Christian organization whose purpose was to care for the poor). One of the best preserved Hospitaller fortresses in the world.
Citadel of Salah ad-Din- a castle in Syria, located in the highlands, on a ridge between two deep ravines, and is surrounded by forests. The fortification has existed here since the middle of the 10th century.
In 975 Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes captured the castle, it remained under Byzantine control until about 1108. beginning of XII V. The Franks took control of it, and the castle became part of the newly formed Crusader state - the Principality of Antioch.
The castle is currently owned by the Syrian government.
Ancient villages of Northern Syria
All that remains are the ruins of 40 settlements, which are grouped into 8 groups.
Other attractions of Syria
Umayyad Mosque
Also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus. Located in the Old City of Damascus, it is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered by some Muslims to be the fourth holiest site in Islam.
Nimrod Fortress
Medieval fortress located in the northern part of the Golan Heights, at an altitude of about 800 m above sea level.
Qasioun Mountains
Mountains overlooking the city of Damascus. The highest point is 1151 m. On the slopes of Qasiun there is a cave about which there are many legends. It is believed that it was here that the first man, Adam, was expelled from paradise. Medieval Arabic history books say that Cain killed Abel in this place.
National Museum in Damascus
The museum was founded in 1919. It displays exhibits of the history of Syria from prehistoric times to the present. The museum contains modern works artists from Syria, the Arab world and other countries.
Chapel of St. Paul (Damascus)
Built in honor of the Apostle Paul, who preached in Damascus.
Mountain hills of Syria
The country has very beautiful landscapes: rocky mountains, green valleys, deserts and mountain peaks forever covered with snow.
History of Syria
Ancient history
The history of Syrian civilization dates back to the 4th century. BC e.
Eblaitic (an extinct Semitic language) is the oldest known Semitic language. More than 17 thousand clay tablets in this language, dedicated to crafts, agriculture and art, have been found. Among the leading crafts of Ebla are woodworking, Ivory, pearls.
Ebla clay tablet
During the period between the invasion of the Canaanite tribes and the conquest of Syria in 64 BC. e. During the Roman Empire, its territory was under the rule of the Hyksos, Hittites, Egyptians, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, ancient Macedonians, the Hellenistic power of the Seleucids, and the Armenian Empire of Tigran II the Great.
From the 16th century BC e. in the south of Syria there is a city of Damascus, originally subordinate to the Egyptian pharaohs.
According to the Bible, Paul accepted the Christian faith on the road to Damascus, and then lived in Antioch, where the disciples of Christ first began to be called Christians.
Islam in Syria
Islam took hold in Syria in 661, when Damascus became the capital of the Arab Caliphate under the Umayyads. Damascus became the cultural and economic center of the entire Arab world already in the 8th century. being one of largest cities peace. In 750, the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty, after which the capital of the Caliphate moved to Baghdad.
From 1517, Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire for 4 centuries.
Syrian Arab Kingdom
It was formed shortly after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the First World War, which collapsed. In 1920, the Syrian Arab Kingdom was founded with its center in Damascus. But Syria's independence did not last long. Within a few months, the French army occupied Syria, defeating Syrian troops in the Battle of Maysalun Pass. In 1922, the League of Nations divided the former Syrian possessions of the Ottoman Empire between Britain and France. Great Britain received Jordan and Palestine, and France received the modern territory of Syria and Lebanon (“League of Nations Mandate”).
French Mandate
In 1940, France was occupied by German troops and Syria came under the control of the Vichy Regime (governor General Denz). Vichy mode- a collaborationist regime in Southern France during the occupation of Northern France by Nazi Germany after defeat at the beginning of World War II and the fall of Paris in 1940. Existed from July 10, 1940 to April 22, 1945. Officially adhered to a policy of neutrality. Nazi Germany, having provoked the rebellion of Prime Minister Geilani in British Iraq, sent units of its air force to Syria.
Charles de Gaulle - eighteenth President of France
In 1941, with the support of British troops, Free French units led by generals Charles de Gaulle and Catroux entered Syria during a bloody conflict with Dentz's troops. General de Gaulle indicated in his memoirs that the events in Iraq, Syria and Lebanon were directly related to German plans to invade Greece, Yugoslavia and the USSR, as they had the task of diverting the Allied armed forces to secondary theaters of military operations.
On September 27, 1941, France granted independence to Syria, leaving its troops on its territory until the end of World War II. On January 26, 1945, Syria declared war on Germany and Japan. In April 1946, French troops were evacuated from Syria.
Independent Syria
The president of independent Syria was Shukri al-Quatli, who fought for the country's independence under the Ottoman Empire.
Shukri al-Quatli
In 1947, a parliament began to operate in Syria. After Syria gained independence, attacks on Syrian Jews intensified and their businesses were boycotted. The new government banned emigration to Palestine, and the teaching of Hebrew in Jewish schools was limited. On November 27, 1947, the UN decided to divide Palestine, and in connection with this, Jewish pogroms took place in Syria. Pogroms continued in 1948 and in subsequent years, as a result of which Jews were forced to almost completely flee Syria to Israel, the United States and other countries South America, there are currently fewer than 100 Syrian Jews living in Damascus and Lattakia.
In 1948, the Syrian army took a limited part in the Arab-Israeli war started by the Arab League, after which a state of emergency was declared in the country. Colonel Husni al-Zaym came to power, abolishing the 1930 constitution, banning political parties and subsequently proclaiming himself president. He did not enjoy the support of the people and was removed after 4 months by his former comrades. Executed on August 14 near Damascus.
The civilian regime was restored by Colonel Sami Hinawi, but was soon removed by military leader Adib al-Shishakli. On September 5, 1950, a new constitution was proclaimed, according to which Syria became a parliamentary republic, but already in November 1951, the constitution was suspended and the country's parliament was dissolved. In 1953, Shishakli promulgated a new constitution and became president after a referendum.
President Adib al-Shishakli
In February 1954, a military-civil coalition led by Hashim Bey Khalid Al-Atassi came to power in the country, returning the 1950 constitution. In 1954, following the election results, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party received the majority of seats in parliament, demanding radical changes in industry and agriculture. In the elections in 1955, Shukri al-Quatli was elected president of the country with the support of Saudi Arabia.
On March 15, 1956, an agreement on collective security against possible Israeli aggression was concluded between Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia.
United Arab Republic
On February 22, 1958, Syria and Egypt united into one state - the United Arab Republic, with its center in Cairo. Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser became president, but Syrians held many important positions until Nasser dissolved all Syrian political parties. On September 28, 1961, a coup d'etat took place in Damascus under the leadership of a group of officers, Syria again declared independence. Nasser did not resist. The OAR lasted only 3.5 years.
Confrontation between Syria and Israel
Between 1962 and 1966 There were 5 coups in Syria, when the nationalization of the main sectors of the economy was carried out and cancelled.
In 1967, the Six Day War occurred. The Golan Heights were occupied by Israel. Israeli air strikes caused enormous damage to the economy. The government was unable to ensure the restoration of industry, and anti-government protests began. In November 1970, Saleh Jedid's group was removed from power. Syria has become the main ally Soviet Union in the Middle East. The USSR provided Syria with assistance in modernizing its economy and armed forces.
In 1973, Syria, along with other Arab states, began the War doomsday, military operations on the Syrian front were characterized by fierceness, especially the battle for El Quneitra, called the “Syrian Stalingrad.” El-Quneitra was held, but the Golan Heights remained with Israel. By decision of the UN Security Council at the end of the war in 1973, a buffer zone was created separating Israel and Syria. The Golan Heights are currently controlled by Israel, but Syria is demanding their return.
In 1976, at the request of the Lebanese government, Syrian troops entered the country to stop the civil war. The war ended in 1990, when Lebanon established a government that maintained friendly relations with Syria. Syrian troops left Lebanon only in 2005. Syria supported Iran in the Iran-Iraq war of 1980-1988.
After the death of Hafez al-Assad, who had led the country for almost 30 years, on June 10, 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad was elected president.
Bashar al-Assad
Civil War
Riots and revolutions in the Middle East have spread to Syria. Demonstrations began with demands to change the existing regime. The country's leadership made serious changes: it repealed the state of emergency law, laws on the media and political parties, and adopted democratic reforms.
In 2013, there were street battles with the use of heavy weapons in several large cities of the country, including the capital. More than 500 thousand Syrians have fled their country as a result of the fighting. Refugees find shelter in Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq.
Currently Civil War in Syria is being fueled by some Western countries.
Russia voted against the draft resolution “The situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic.” It was co-authored by a number of countries, including the UK, France, Saudi Arabia and Turkey. 123 countries supported the adoption of the project, 46 countries voted against.
“The proposed draft resolution acts contrary to the logic of the political-diplomatic settlement, placing the main responsibility for what is happening in the country on the government, while not it, but the foreign opposition needs to be pushed to start negotiations with the authorities,” the representative of the Russian Foreign Ministry emphasized.
