1. Affixation.
2. Internal inflection.
3. Function words.
4. Word order in a sentence.
5. Repetition of words (reduplication).
6. Laying down the basics.
7. Emphasis.
8. Intonation.
9. Suppletivism.
1. Affixation– expressing grammatical meanings using affixes. Affixation is characteristic of the Russian language and other Indo-European languages. In Russian, this is the main means of expressing grammatical meanings. To express grammatical meanings in the Russian language, inflections are mainly used (including zero), and less often - prefixes and suffixes. In Russian, English, French and other European languages, affixes are usually: 1) ambiguous, for example in the word horse ending - I expresses grammatical meanings a) gender. p., b) units. h., c) husband. R.; 2) synonymous: the same meaning can be expressed using different affixes, for example in Russian the endings - A , -at express grammatical meanings of gender. p.un. h. in nouns husband. R. 2nd declension: piece of sugar A, piece of sugar at; 3) homonymous, for example in Russian the ending is s (-And ) are used for nouns of the 1st declension in gender. p.un. h ( countries y , land And ) and in them. p.m. h. ( countries s , earth And ); V English language ending - s (-es ) can be used to denote plural. h. in nouns ( pen s "pens" , tabl es "tables") and to designate 3l. units present vr. (read s"reads, go es"goes")
2. Internal inflection- this is the alternation of sounds within the stem, which is a means of expressing grammatical meanings. It should be borne in mind that only those alternations that express grammatical meanings have the status of internal inflection. Such alternations are usually historical alternations. Historical these are called alternation, which can be explained historically, i.e. based on the phonetic laws of previous eras. For example, historical alternations To//h, G//and, X//w, T//h//sch, d//and//railway, With//w, h//and and others can be explained by the law of palatalization (mitigation) that was in force back in the pre-Slavic era (before the 5th-6th century AD). And alternations O//ø , e//ø associated with the fate of reduced phonemes ъ And b, which in the X1-X1I centuries. lost as independent phonemes. Wherein ъ And b in strong positions changed accordingly ъ→ oh, b→ e, and in weak positions they were lost. For example: with ъ n〤 → sleep;d b n〥 → day(s), as a result, alternations arose O//ø , e//ø.
Having emerged as a phonetic phenomenon, such alternations turned into a morphological means of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. acquired the status of internal inflection.
In the Russian language, internal inflection in its pure form is rare, for example in aspectual pairs of verbs: collect - collect, send - send, avoid - avoid. More often, internal inflection accompanies affixation. For example: convince(owl) – convince(nonsov.) Species difference is expressed here by affixation - And- (owl.), - A- (non-sov.), internal inflection d//railway.
Internal inflection in its pure form is especially characteristic of Semitic languages, as well as Germanic languages. For example, in Hebrew gn O b"steal", G A n A b"stole" G O neb"stealer"; in English s i ng"sing", s a ng"sang" s u ng"sung".
3. Function words express the grammatical meanings of a word. Functional words include prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, postfixes, auxiliary verbs, words of degree of comparison etc. Function words are widely used in those languages where affixation is poorly developed: Chinese, Vietnamese, English, German, French. For example, in it. language case meanings are expressed mainly using articles, cf.: der(name p. unit h. male b.), den(win. p. unit h. male. r.), dem(d. n. unit h. male r.). In Russian, function words often accompany affixation.
Prepositions express different relationships between members of a sentence: spatial ( in, on, above, under, behind, at, about etc.), temporary ( before, after, before), goals ( For), causes ( because of, thanks to, owing to) and etc.
Conjunctions express coordinating relationships between words and predicative units (conjunctive - And, Yes, adversative – A, But, Yes in meaning But, separating – either-or, or-or, either-or etc.), subordinating relations between predicative units ( what, as, as if, when, so that, because, since, if - then, although - however).
Particles are used to express inflection values 1) would– for expression subjunctive mood; 2) let, let him, Yes– to express the imperative mood.
Articles are used in Arabic, Romance and Germanic languages. Articles have multiple meanings. First of all, they are grammatical accompaniments of the noun, i.e. indicate the attribute of a noun. Wed: English play- play, a play- a game; German schreiben- write, das schreiben- letter. In addition, articles have meanings:
1) certainty-uncertainty - cf.: English. the letter - a letter; German der Brief – ein Brief;
2) gender - Wed: German. (female) die Mutter,(Wed. R.) das Kind,(male b.), der Vater;
3) case - Wed: German. (im.p.) der Vater, (vin.p.) den Vater, (date) dem Vater;
4) numbers - Wed: German. (units) das Kind, (plural) d ie Kinder.
Auxiliary verbs are also function words. Auxiliary verbs are used in analytical forms and express grammatical meanings, for example in the future tense the auxiliary verb expresses the meanings of person and number. In Russian it is a verb will(will be, will be, will be etc.) , in English shall (will): I shall…, you will… etc.
Words of degree of comparison: for example in Russian more, less, very, most, in English language – more, most.
4. Word order may also be a way of expressing grammatical meanings. Word order as a grammatical device is more often used in languages with poorly developed affixation (English, French, Turkic languages). For example, in English language Only thanks to the fixed word order can one establish what is the subject and what is the object: The father loves the son. Wed: Russian Father loves son. Here the addition is expressed by affixation - the use of a grammatical means of expressing the category of animation - the form of the genitive accusative case.
5. Repeating words (reduplication). In a number of languages, repetition is used to indicate plural. For example, in Malay orang"person" and orang-orang"People"; in a dead Sumerian language chickens"a country", chickens-chickens"countries". In Russian, repetition is used 1) to reinforce a message: yes, yes, no, no, no, no; 2) to express a high degree of quality: handsome-handsome, tall-tall and etc.; 3) to express the duration of action: you walk and walk.
6. Laying down the basics. In Russian, this is a way of forming new words. But in ancient languages, for example in Latin, the addition of stems could serve as a grammatical means: (present time) do « I give", (past tense) dedi « gave».
7. Accent as a grammatical device it is used only in languages that have heterogeneous places, i.e. movable stress. For example, in Russian: 1 ) hands(generic units) - hands(nominal plural) , mountains(generic units) - mountains(nominal plural); 2) slice(nonsov. v.) – slice(Soviet century).
8. Intonation used to form a sentence. The sentence is characterized by intonation completeness. Intonation is one of the main features of a sentence. With the help of intonation, types of sentences are distinguished: exclamatory, interrogative, narrative, imperative; parts of non-union complex sentences are connected; stand out homogeneous members, separate members proposals, appeals, introductory words. Wed. He might be at a lecture now. He might be at a lecture now.
9. Suppletivism(from Latin suppleo “replenish”, “supplement”) - this is the expression of grammatical meanings using
different root forms. Thus, in Russian, suppletivism is used to express:
1) species differences: take - take, put - put;
2) temporary differences: I'm coming(present time) – walked(past tense), cf.: English. go – went;
3) for nouns – number meanings: Human(units) – People(plural), child(units) – children(plural);
4) for pronouns – meanings of number and case: I(units) – We(plural), I(im.p.) – me(gen. p.), We(nominal plural) – us(gen. plural), cf.: English. I-me, we-us;
5) for adjectives and adverbs – values of degree of comparison: good is better,bad - worse; good - better,bad - worse; cf.: English good - better; bad - worse.
Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings:
Synthetic (from Greek - “connection”) - assumes the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, word-forming and inflectional) within one word: the grammatical meaning is expressed within the word;
Analytical (from Greek - “decomposition, dismemberment1”) - involves the separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word, which is manifested in the morphological invariability of the word and the use of auxiliary elements that, in combination with full-nominal lexical units, form complex (analytical) grammatical forms (in Russian read - complex shape future tense of the verb, more important - complex comparative form);
Mixed, or hybrid - combines the characteristics of synthetic and analytical types (in Russian, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed in two ways: synthetically - by case inflection and analytically - by a preposition).
Depending on whether synthetic or analytical methods expressions of grammatical meanings predominate in the language; there are two main morphological types of languages:
Synthetic - in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates (English, Chinese);
Analytical - in which the tendency towards analyticity prevails.
Varieties of synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings:
Affixation (using different types affixes);
Reduplication (from Late Latin reduplicatio - “doubling”) - expression of grammatical meaning by complete or partial repetition of the stem (Latin mordeo “bite” - momordi “I bitten”);
Suppletivism (from Latin suppleo - “I replenish, replenish”) is the combination of words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (in Indo-European languages when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives with the meaning “good / bad” and forms of pronouns: English good - better , I - me, German gut - besser, ich - mich, Russian bad - worse, I - me);
Stress and differences in tone - whether a word belongs to one or another part of speech is determined by the place of stress (in English, progress is the verb “to develop”, progress is the noun “development”; in line, stress can distinguish between the forms of the number of nouns and the type of verb:
heads - heads, pour - pour).
Types of affixation:
Inflectivity;
Agglutination.
Inflection(from Latin flexio "bending") - inflectional affixation or inflection through inflection, which can convey several grammatical meanings at the same time:
With the help of endings, including zero ones (domO - at home, shelO - walked);
With the help of internal inflection - a grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root (English foot - feet "leg - legs"; mouse - mice "mouse - mice"). Varieties of internal inflection (according to J. Grimm):
Ablaut (German Ablaut "alternation") - historical alternations of vowels in roots, expressing inflectional or word-formative meanings (English sing "sing" - sang "sang"; German singen "sing" - sang "sang");
¦ umlaut (German Umlaut - “revocalization”) - a change in the vowels (shifting them forward) of the root under the influence of the vowels of the suffix or ending, performing a grammatical function (German Vater “father” - Vnter “fathers”).
Agglutination(from Latin agglutinare - “to stick”) - when each grammatical meaning of a word is expressed by a separate standard affix, and each affix has one function; types of agglutination:
With the help of suffixes expressing grammatical meanings (in Russian, past tense forms are formed using the formative suffix -l-: read-l-0, preach-l-a);
Prefixes (in Latvian, the prefix )а - serves as an indicator of the obligatory mood of the verb);
Confixes (confixation) - complex intermittent morphemes of the encircling type (in German, the formation of the participles gefunden, gemachf);
Infixes (Latin - vici-vinco, rupi-rumpo);
Transfixes - the use of affixes, which, breaking the consonantal root, serve as a “layer” of vowels among consonants (in Arabic, the general idea of “scripture” is expressed by the consonantal stem ktb, and the past tense form of the active voice is formed using the transfix a-a-a - kataba " wrote", and the form of the passive zapog is through the transfix u-i-a - kutiba "he wrote").
Varieties of analytical method:
The use of function words - prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, particles, articles and postpositions;
Through intonation, which performs the following functions:
¦ forms a statement and reveals its meaning;
¦ distinguishes between different communicative types of sentences (question, incentive, narration);
¦ identifies parts of a statement according to their semantic importance, formalizes the syntactic structure as a single whole and at the same time divides it into separate segments;
Through the use of word order - a specific arrangement of words in a sentence or phrase. Word order distinguishes the syntactic functions of words in a sentence and the communicative types of the sentences themselves (along with intonation). There are languages in which a fixed order of components expresses certain syntactic relationships.
38. Parts of speech - basic lexical and grammatical classes according to which
the words of the language are distributed. These sets of words have some common grammatical features. Depending on the structure of the language and the theoretical positions of researchers, from 2 to 15 parts of speech are distinguished.
Signs, on the basis of which the lexicon units are distributed into large grammatical classes:
Semantic criterion - the general categorical grammatical meaning of words;
Syntactic criterion is a common, primary syntactic function, i.e. the ability to act in the position of a certain member of a sentence and be combined with certain classes of words), on the basis of which in most languages of the world nouns and verbs are distinguished primarily (according to I.I. Meshchaninov);
Morphological criterion (features of formation and composition of grammatical categories, i.e., the system of its morphological categories and morphological categories), according to which words are divided into inflectible (declined and conjugated), consisting of a main part and a formal one, and unchangeable (F.F. Fortunatov);
Derivational criterion - features of word formation, i.e. a set of word-formation models and word-formation means, as well as the ability to identify the bases for replenishing the vocabulary of other parts of speech;
Phonological - features of the phonemic and prosodic structure of words of different classes.
When dividing the entire set of lexical units on the basis of a syntactic criterion in combination with a semantic criterion, the bulk of lexical units are divided:
For significant words (full-valued, full-valued, autosemantic) - they can function as members of a sentence; a separate significant word can be the minimum of a sentence (statement);
Functional words (incomplete, incomplete, synsemantic, formal) cannot function as members of a sentence;
Interjections are isolated on the basis that they are sufficient in themselves to formulate a statement, and do not enter into syntactic connections with other words in a given speech formation.
Types of significant words:
Denominatives - have the most clearly expressed part-speech features: their characteristics are based simultaneously on both syntactic and associated semantic features;
Pronouns (pronominal-demonstrative, deictic);
Numerals (numerical, numeral).
In the structure of the sentence, first of all, the positions of actants (subject participants in affairs, events, situations) and the positions of predicates (features) are distinguished.
Within the framework of one objective situation, actants act as carriers of signs that characterize their attitude to the situation as a whole and their attitude to each other.
Actant classification of nominal words:
Actant (non-predicate, non-attribute, subject) - nouns that are characterized by such primary actant (syntactic) functions as subject and object. The use of a noun as a function of circumstance, definition or
the predicate is secondary for him;
Predicate (feature) - a verb for which the predicate function is primary (attribution of some currently relevant attribute to an object put forward as a subject). Its functioning in any other position (subject, object, adverbial, attribute) is secondary for it. Adjectives and adverbs, as well as the verb, belong to characteristic words. Adjectives that express the characteristics of objects as if outside of time (i.e., non-actualized predicates) are specialized for use in the function of definition, and adverbs, the meanings of which are characteristics of other characteristics, are specialized in the function of circumstances. An adverb is syntactically related to a verb, and
adjective - with a noun. This classification system does not distinguish classes of pronouns and numerals.
Grammemes (formal indicator) of the main parts of speech:
Noun - grammeme of objectivity (substantiality): substantive word-classifying grammemes of gender or nominal class; inflectional grammes of case, number, animation - inanimateness, certainty - uncertainty, alienable - inalienable belonging;
Verbs - procedural grammeme™ (verbal): predicative verbal grammemes of tense, aspect, mood, voice, version, gender, interrogative, negation, as well as concordant grammemes of person, number, gender; grammes of transitivity - intransitivity, dynamism - staticity, ultimacy - infinity, modes of action (initiativeness, repetition, one-act, unidirectionality - non-unidirectionality of movement, cumulativeness, distributivity);
Adjective - grammeme of attribute (adjectivity): opposition of full and short forms, categories of degrees of comparison and categories of intensity, as well as concordant grammes of number, gender and case;
Adverbs - adverbial grammeme (adverbial™): grammemes of the category of degrees of comparison and the category of intensity.
Transitivity of parts of speech- a phenomenon that can be traced between significant and auxiliary parts of speech, the volume of which is largely replenished by significant words. The phenomenon of transitivity is also observed between significant parts of speech due to conversion - a morphological-syntactic method
fishing The essence of this process:
From a phonetic point of view, a new word is not formed;
As a result of its transition from one part of speech to another, the word acquires new structural and grammatical properties, while losing a number of its grammatical features.
37 Grammatical category- a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning (for example, nouns in singular and plural form are opposed to each other and form the grammatical category of number). Members of one grammatical category are united by a common grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of number) and differ in private meanings (for example, the meaning of singularity - plurality). Grammatical categories provide a systematic organization of the morphological component of a given language.
At the heart of the grammatical category As a specially organized system of linguistic elements, opposition lies. If one of the members of the opposition is actually absent, then the second one is also absent (in meaning and content), even if it is formally represented in the word (material nouns have a singular form, but these words do not have a singular meaning, since they actually do not and cannot have a plural form).
Types of oppositions:
Private opposition is a contrast between two members in which one member (strong, marked) has a pronounced semantic feature, and the second (weak, unmarked) is characterized by its absence, which leads to the fact that the weak member can act as a strong one
Transposition is the figurative use of a grammatical form, when one of the forms of a grammatical category can act in the meaning of another form of the same paradigmatic series (for example, present, time can be used in the context of the past (historical present), which makes the story more lively).
Types of grammatical categories.
By the number of members they unite (grammatical forms):
Binary (binary) - combines two grammatical forms that are opposed to each other;
Three-membered (trinary) - combines three members;
Polynomial grammatical categories are a system of more than three members opposed to each other.
By the nature of grammatical forms:
Inflectional (formative) - represented by forms of the same word;
Non-inflectional grammatical categories are classifying; they combine grammatical forms that are not forms of the same word, but independent lexical units that do not change, but are distributed among the forms of a given category; members of a non-inflectional category or may be connected by word-formation relations.
In relation to extra-linguistic reality and. hence the functions:
Interpretive, or meaningful grammatical categories interpret certain phenomena and relationships in extralinguistic reality;
Relational, or formal grammatical categories serve only as a means of expressing syntactic connections of linguistic units.
A morphological category, a closed system with a limited number of elements, is not just a system of oppositions of elementary grammatical meanings, but a system of oppositions of grammes as two-sided entities, each with its own
the signified and its signifier (or a standard set of signifiers). The number of elements determines the number of morphological oppositions and the set of differential semantic features of grammemes (the grammatical category of case in Russian includes 6 grammemes, the number of oppositions between them reaches 16);
Syntactic grammatical categories that belong primarily to the syntactic units of language (the category of predicativity or the category of sentence members), but they can also be expressed by units belonging to other language levels (the word
and its shape). This division is typical mainly for languages of the inflectional type; in languages of the agglutinative type, the boundaries between morphological and syntactic categories are erased.
45. Classification of languages- determining the place of each language among the languages of the world; distribution of the world's languages into groups based on certain characteristics in accordance with the principles underlying the study.
Issues of classifying the diversity of languages of the world, distributing them according to certain taxonymic (from the Greek taxis - arrangement in order, nomos - law) headings are being actively developed in early XIX V. From the second half of the 20th century. Interest in the possibilities of other classifications of the world's languages increased, and the areal and functional classifications of languages gained recognition. Each classification explains linguistic similarity from its general theoretical positions and subdivides languages accordingly. The most developed and recognized are two classifications - genealogical and typological (or morphological).
Genealogical (genetic) classification:
Based on the concept of linguistic kinship;
The goal is to determine the place of a particular language in the circle of related languages, to establish its genetic connections;
The main method is comparative-historical;
The degree of stability of the classification is absolutely stable (since each language initially belongs to one or another family, group of languages and cannot change the nature of this belonging).
Typological classification (originally known as morphological):
Based on the concept of similarity (formal and/or semantic) and, accordingly, differences between languages; is based on the peculiarities of the structure of languages (on the characteristics of the morphological structure of a word, methods of combining morphemes, the role of inflections and affixes in the formation of grammatical forms of a word and in conveying the grammatical meaning of a word);
The goal is to group languages into large classes based on the similarity of their grammatical structure (the principles of its organization), to determine the place of a particular language, taking into account the formal organization of its linguistic structure;
The main method is comparative;
The degree of stability of the classification is relative and historically changeable (since each language is constantly developing, its structure and the very theoretical understanding of this structure change).
Geographical (areal) classification(possible within one
language in relation to its dialects):
Associated with the place of distribution (initial or later) of a particular language (or dialect);
The goal is to determine the area of the language (or dialect) taking into account the boundaries of its linguistic features;
The main method is linguogeographical;
The degree of stability of the classification is more or less stable depending on the characteristics underlying it.
Functional classification comes from the sphere of language functioning; is based on the study of acts of speech and types of linguistic communication and divides languages:
In natural ones, which are a means of communication (oral and written languages);
Artificial, i.e. not reproducing the forms of natural languages;
Graphic, used in the field of science and technology (programming languages, information, logical, etc.).
Cultural-historical classification examines languages from the point of view of their relationship to cultural history; takes into account the historical sequence of cultural development; highlights:
Unliterate;
Written;
Literary languages of nationality and nation;
Interethnic communication.
Based on the prevalence of the language and the number of people who speak it, they are divided into:
Languages that are common among a narrow circle of speakers (tribal languages of Africa, Polynesia; “one-aul” languages of Dagestan);
Languages spoken by individual nationalities (Dungan - in Kyrgyzstan);
Languages spoken by the entire nation (Czech, Bulgarian);
Languages that are used by several nations, the so-called interethnic (French - in France, Belgium, Switzerland; Russian, serving the peoples of Russia);
Languages that function as international languages (English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Arabic, Russian - which is also an international language).
According to the degree of activity of the tongue, they are distinguished:
Living languages are actively functioning languages;
Dead (Latin, Gaulish, Gothic) - preserved only in written monuments, in place names or in the form of borrowings in other languages, or disappeared without a trace; some dead languages are still used today (Latin is the language of the Catholic Church, medicine, scientific terminology).
44. Members of a sentence- structural and semantic components of a sentence, expressed in words or phrases with their characteristic syntactic categories. Parts of speech and members of a sentence differ from each other and interact with each other, since each significant part of speech in a statement acts as one or another member of the sentence.
Criteria for selecting sentence members:
Logical (or semantic);
Formal (or grammatical);
The communicative function of a sentence that allows one to determine the topic and rheme of the message. Members of a sentence according to their function and in relation to the grammatical minimum of the sentence divide:
The main members are the subject and the predicate (they perform logical functions in a sentence and act as nuclear, grammatically supporting components of the sentence);
Secondary members - definition, addition and circumstance (perform structural and semantic functions in a sentence, expanding, clarifying, detailing the content of the statement).
There are dependency relationships between the main and minor members in a sentence: the minor members are grammatically dependent on the main members.
Functions of the main members of the proposal:
They are the center of the structure of the sentence, its core, since they are the ones who organize the minimal basis of the sentence;
They formally determine the grammatical organization of a sentence, express its grammatical meanings (modality, tense, person);
Perform a logical function.
Functions of minor members of a sentence:
The semantic function, that is, they are the distributors of its remaining members (main and secondary) or the entire sentence as a whole, when the needs of communication force the components of the sentence to be clarified, specified, and “expanded”;
They can be more informative than the main ones.
Subject(tracing paper from Latin subjectum “subject”) is a significant grammatically independent member of a sentence, denoting an object and pointing to a “logical subject” (in the traditional concept) or, more broadly, to the object to which the predicate refers. The subject can be expressed by a noun in it. etc., but in this position it can
any substantivized form, phraseological unit and even a whole sentence can be used.
Predicate- the main grammatically semi-independent member of a sentence, depending only on the subject and indicating an action, state, property or quality in their relation to the subject or, more broadly, to the object expressed by the subject, i.e. the predicate expresses the predicative attribute of the subject.
Signs of the predicate:
Formally depends on the subject;
Conveying modality and tense, it forms the predicative center of the sentence;
Usually expressed as a verb, but its place can also be taken by various adverbial phrases.
Secondary members of the sentence:
definition- a minor grammatically dependent member of a sentence, extending and explaining any member of a sentence with an objective meaning and denoting a sign, quality or property of an object. It is connected with the defined name (or any other substantivized part of speech) by an attributive connection according to
by the method of coordination, less often - by the method of control or adjacency.
The definition is usually expressed as an adjective;
addition- a minor grammatically dependent member of a sentence, extending and explaining any member of a sentence with the meaning of an action, object or characteristic and denoting an object in its relation to the action, object or characteristic. The object is usually expressed by a noun in the indirect case and is attached to other words using a control. Types of add-ons:
The direct (expressed in the accusative case without a preposition) correlates with the subject, so it is sometimes classified as the main member of a sentence;
Indirect;
circumstance- a minor grammatically dependent member of a sentence, extending and explaining the members of the sentence with the meaning of an action or attribute or the sentence as a whole and denoting where, when, under what circumstances the action is performed, or indicating the condition, reason, purpose of its implementation, as well as the measure, degree and the method of its manifestation. Circumstances are expressed by an adverb, the main type of syntactic connection is adjacency.
43. Proposal- the central unit of the syntactic system, and according to many modern linguists, in general, the central unit of language, the generation of which in speech is served by all other components of the language system as a whole. In the syntactic system, the sentence occupies a fundamental position, since it marks the transition from the sphere of language to the sphere of speech.
Offer functions:
Formation and expression of thoughts;
Description of a certain state of affairs as an integral ensemble of elements of the situation.
Offer properties:
Has a high pragmatic potential (compared to a phrase);
The connection to the communicative-pragmatic context is less than that of the text, when it is only one of the components of the text, and does not act autonomously (being a potential minimum of the text) in the role of a speech act, i.e., minimal discourse;
Ability to be the minimum possible text;
It is a unit of text, that is, a unit closer to the text than to a phrase;
Has a communicative purpose;
Intonationally designed;
Acts both as a speech and as a linguistic unit (like a phrase);
In itself, it is not reproducible as a finished, inventory item;
It is built from words (more precisely, from word forms) that are members of a sentence;
Each time it is built anew in speech: in the process of implementation (updating) of one of the invariant formal-content schemes (models) included in the syntactic system of the language; in the process of using certain (also invariant, belonging to the language) rules for its transformation from the original form to the final one.
The multidimensional nature of the proposal is manifested in the fact that it:
It is a communicative sign (a complex sign formation capable of serving the transmission of a message; acts as a minimal communicative unit that directly correlates with a minimal communicative action - a speech act);
It has situational relevance (i.e., it correlates with a certain class of situations that are complex in structure as its complex denotation in the subject line and, accordingly, with a complex significative in the mental series);
“linking” a sentence to a specific situation is carried out using means that relate the situation being described to one or another modal plan and time plan;
It has a structural minimum, an initial structure, which can be reduced to the unity of subject and predicate; unity of subject, predicate and object; only to the predicate in itself (zero subject position);
Spreads and collapses, combines with other sentences into more complex complexes in accordance with a finite set of expansion rules and transformation rules;
When describing a sentence grammatically, a hierarchy of syntactic significant units is revealed: syntaxeme - sentence member - sentence;
The multidimensionality of the content structure of a sentence is manifested in the fact that
As a complex nomination, it describes a certain holistic state of affairs (as an ensemble of participants in the situation and the relationship connecting them, i.e., the unity of semantic actants and a semantic predicate);
As a predicative unit expresses a certain holistic judgment (as the unity of a logical subject and a logical predicate correlated with it);
How a communicative-information unit conveys a certain holistic message about something, which is embedded in one or another “package” (as the unity of the given and the new, as the unity of the definite and the indefinite, as the unity of theme and rheme, etc.);
As a communicative-pragmatic unit, it includes an invariant, context-independent part (propositional, factual component, or dictum) and a variable, contextually determined part (pragmatic frame, or communicative mode).
The same sentence combines several different substantive and formal structures, each of which acts as a way of “packaging” the information conveyed through the sentence:
Propositional (propositional, predicate-argumentative);
Predicative (predicative, subject-predicate);
Actualization (informational, identification, thematic and a number of other additional) - structures through which the conceptual categories of modality, temporality, personality, or personality - impersonality, affirmation - negation, etc., which have formative paradigms, are realized), ensuring the “binding” of the sentence to the described objective situation and the situation of utterance;
Intensional (speech-actual, or communicative-pragmatic).
1. The most important features of a sentence as a syntactic unit:
The act of predication (from Latin praedicatio - statement) - a statement about the subject of thought, the original image and its interpretation;
Predicativeness - grammatical expression predication.
Predication (in the broad sense) establishes a connection between an object and a feature, and predication establishes a connection between what is communicated in a sentence and the situation in existence itself.
Predication is the act of connecting independent objects of thought, expressed in independent words, to display and interpret in language an event, a situation of reality; it involves attributing a certain attribute to an object - a subject: S is P. This attribute is called predicative, or predicate (from late Latin praedicatum - “said”). A simple sentence is characterized by one predication. Combining several predications in the structure of one sentence
called polypredicativity. Basic form - difficult sentence.
Synthetic ways of expressing GS:
1) Affixation is the use of affixes to express grammatical meaning (do - do, exchange - exchange, table - table - table). The most common way of expressing GZ.
2) Internal inflection - a grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root (walked - walked, dik - game, dial - dial)
3) Reduplication (repetition) - expression of the GC by complete or partial repetition of the base (you walk and walk, barely, the very best).
4) Emphasis. Changing the stress serves as a way of expressing GC. In RY, stress can differentiate the forms of nouns, mood and type of the verb (Windows - windows, love - love, pour - pour)
5) Suppletivism - combining words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express GC (good - better, bad - worse, I - me, child - children)
Analytical methods of expressing GS:
1) Word order. Distinguishes between the syntactic functions of words in a sentence (subject-object relations, relations of the defined and the definition) and the communicative types of the sentences themselves: Joy (S) replaces sadness (O) – Sadness (S) replaces joy (O); deaf scientists are deaf scientists.
2) Function words - units that accompany significant words and free them from the expression of grammar or accompany inflectional affixation.
Prepositions (or aftersyllables)
Particles
Articles
Reformatsky also highlights auxiliary verbs, words of degree (more, less)
3) Intonation. This method does not refer to a word, but to a phrase, so it is related to the sentence and its structure.
ü Distinguishes between communicative and modal characteristics of a sentence: distinguishes interrogative sentences from affirmative, expressing doubt, surprise, motivation, etc. (You wrote. Did you write? You wrote!)
ü The arrangement and gradation of pauses can divide the sentence differently (I couldn’t walk for a long time and I couldn’t walk for a long time)
ü Pausing can distinguish between simple and complex sentences: I see a face in tears - I see: a face in tears.
Mixed (hybrid) way of expressing GC:
Combines characteristics of synthetic and analytical types.
GZ of the prepositional and other cases is expressed in two ways - case inflection and preposition (talk about the conference, visit the Botanical Garden, go fishing, meet the artist)
Means of expression of civil language (grammatical indicators):
1) Endings (beautiful)
2) Formative suffixes (verbs, adjectives: screaming, shouted, woven)
3) Alternation (friend-friends)
4) Accent (oknA - Windows)
5) Prepositions (without a hat, in a hat, under a hat)
6) Intonation (I hope you are sitting comfortably? Sit.)
7) Auxiliary words (I will study, stronger)
4. Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical meaning, grammatical method, grammatical form, grammatical category. The concept of morphological paradigm.
Grammatical meaning is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its own regular/standard expression in the language.
Grammatical method - a way of expressing GC
Grammatical form is a regular modification of a word, united by the identity of its TL and differing in morphological/grammatical meanings.
GC is a system of rows of morphological forms opposed to each other with homogeneous meanings.
An example of a category that has a double position is the category of number in nouns. The GC can be recognized as a two-sided unit of the morphological level of language, since it has a plan for the content of PS and a plan for the expression of PV.
From a semantic point of view,GK is a set of homogeneous gram values. So, general meaning case categories include the particular meaning of 6 cases. Private civil orders can also be composite. Using cases as an example: in R.p. stand out: meanings of belonging, part, subject, spatial. They are elementary and cannot be expanded into other meanings.
From a formal point of view, GK - a set of grammatical forms used to express private grammatic meanings.
GCs differ from each other:
By the nature of the relationship
By the number of opposing members
Binary opposition - number
Triple - time
Civil Code system in the Socialist Republic
Inflectional and non-inflectional GCs
Inflectional- categories, the forms of whose members can be represented by forms of the same word.
Non-inflectional (classificatory)- cannot be represented by forms of the same word.
A paradigm is an ordered set of grammatical forms of a word. Functional parts of speech do not have a paradigm.
The totality of all particular paradigms is a complete paradigm. The complete noun paradigm consists of all singular and plural forms.
At the head of each complete paradigm is the original form, which has a naming function and is recorded in the dictionary.
Incomplete (scissors, barefoot, vacuuming, getting dark) and redundant paradigms (tea - tea, years - summer) are also distinguished.
Words with a complete paradigm - table, fresh, run, etc.
With an incomplete (flawed) paradigm - milk, barefoot (has no degree of comparison), dawn (because it describes the state of nature, cannot be applied to humans).
With a zero paradigm - borrowed words, for example: metro, cliche, cockatoo, burgundy, beige
With a redundant paradigm - word forms that have two paradigms (waving - waving)
Grammatical meanings can be expressed in a word in different ways. The main means of expressing grammatical meanings is affixation, when the grammatical forms of a word are formed with the help of affixes: endings (cf. house-a, house-u), prefixes ( do - do) suffixes ( do - did), attached to the formative base, transfixes that break the consonantal root (cf. Arabic consonantal base ktb, transmitting general idea“scriptures”, from which, using the transfix - A- the past tense form is formed: kataba‘wrote’), and affixes can be not only materially expressed, but also zero (cf. in Russian the significant absence of a past tense suffix in verbs carried-0, baked-0, dried-0 or ending in them. p.un. including nouns male table-0, house-0, horse-0, may-0).
In the languages of the world there are two types of affixation that influence structural organization words and types of their syntactic connections in a sentence: 1) inflection (flexio ‘bending’); 2) agglutination (agglutinare ‘to stick’). The main difference between them is the nature of the connection of affixes with the formative basis and their functional load. In agglutination, each grammatical meaning of a word is expressed by a separate standard affix, and each affix has one function. The root of the word or the formative basis remains, as a rule, unchanged, therefore each case form can be easily decomposed into its constituent parts, all forms are regular and quite predictable (for example, in the Turkic languages the suffix -lar conveys plural meaning, suffix -ha- the meaning of the dative case, therefore in the Kazakh language the word macaw‘saw’ in them. p.m. h will have the form ara-lar, in date p.m. h. ara-lar-ga, those. the method of word formation occurs mechanically, by “gluing” standard affixes to unchangeable stems or roots in a certain sequence). The structure of the word is transparent, since the boundaries of the morphemes are distinct, no changes are observed at the morphemic seams (if they occur, they are of a single nature). Agglutination is widespread in languages of the agglutinating type (for example, in Turkic and Finno-Ugric).
Agglutination as a method of connecting morphemes is opposed by inflection, i.e. inflectional affixation or inflection through inflection. In this case, inflection can convey several grammatical meanings simultaneously (cf. inflection -y in verbs I'm carrying, I'm writing, I'm flying: it expresses the meaning of the 1st person, singular number, present tense, indicative mood), moreover, the same grammatical meaning can be conveyed by different inflections (for example, in Russian, the meaning of the dative case of nouns is conveyed by inflections -e, -i, -u, -om). The connection between the formative stem and the affix is so close that interpenetration of contacting morphemes often occurs, i.e. phenomenon fusions(fusio ‘fusion’), a fusion of morphemes, accompanied by a change in their phonemic composition, in which drawing morphemic boundaries between the base and the affix becomes difficult (cf. man+ suffix -sk -» peasant). This phenomenon is observed most often in the following cases: 1) when connecting a prefix and a root, when the same sound belongs to both morphemes (cf. at- + + I'm going -> I'll come); 2) when the final sound of the root merges with the initial sound of the suffix (cf. growth + -ti -> grow); 3) when two affixes merge (cf. Biy-sk+ -sk -> Biysk, where is the first suffix -sk is included in the stem, and the second is a suffix of the relative adjective); 4) when parts are intertwined in a complex word, resulting in the loss of one of two consecutive identical syllables (cf. dick-o-image -> porcupine). As a result of these regular morphological transformations, unpronounceable syllables are shortened.
Inflection is widely represented in inflectional languages (especially Indo-European, most of which are inflectional languages, and also in many Afroasiatic languages). Inflectional languages are characterized not only by the close connection of affixes with the stem, but also by the so-called internal inflection (alternation of sounds), with the help of which various grammatical meanings are conveyed (cf. in the Russian language, for example, aspectual oppositions are expressed with the help of internal inflection: lock - lock, die - die). Internal inflection is especially widespread in the Germanic languages, where it can be represented by two, three or even five phonemes: with the help of internal inflection the meaning of tense, mood or voice in participles is conveyed (cf. German. helfen'to help', hilft'helps', half'helped', halfe'would help', geholfen‘passive participle’); In English and German, internal inflection is also used to express the grammatical category of number (cf. German. Bruder'Brother' - Bruder‘brothers’; English, foot'leg' - feet‘legs’) or time (cf. English. I sing‘I sing’ and I sang'I sang'). J. Grimm proposed to distinguish between two types of internal inflection - ablaut and umlaut: ablaut (Ablaut ‘alternation’) is historical alternation vowels in the root of the word, with the help of which the grammatical meaning is conveyed (cf. German. singen‘sing’ and sang‘sang’: with the help of ablaut the meaning of time is conveyed); umlaut (Umlaut ‘revocalization’) is a shift of the vowels of the root forward (under the influence of the vowels of the suffix or ending), which also serves to express the grammatical meaning (cf. German. Vater'father' and Voter‘fathers’: the meaning of the number is conveyed using the umlaut); Internal inflection is also regular in Semitic languages; in Arabic, for example, internal inflection serves as the only means of distinguishing between singular and plural (cf. kitab'book' and kutub‘books’) or different types tense and mood (cf. qatala'killed', qutila'was killed' uqtul‘kill’).
In addition to affixation, grammatical meanings can be conveyed by suprasegmental morphemes, i.e. morphemes-operations, which in their function are analogues of affixes, since they are described as operations performed on segmental morphemes in order to express one or another grammatical meaning. Such morphemes-operations include: 1) stress (cf. Russian. pour - pour or cut - cut, where specific oppositions are expressed using a shift of stress); Moreover, even in languages with a fixed stress, a stress shift can be observed to convey one or another grammatical meaning (for example, in the Gypsy language, to form a vocative form, there is a stress shift from last syllable on the penultimate one, cf. damn'boy', but chava‘hey boy’); 2) meaningful alternation (cf. Russian. torn - torn bare - bare) in which the difference in the quality of the last consonant of the stem is an indicator of the grammatical characteristics of the word: a hard consonant is an adjective, a soft consonant is a noun; at the same time, not only materially expressed morphemes, but also zero ones can participate in alternation (cf. the transfer of gender differences in adjectives in French: and. R. douce‘sweet’, from which the adjective husband is formed. R. doux'sweet'); 3) suppletivism, i.e. the formation of grammatical forms from different stems (cf. in Russian, the grammatical meaning of number is conveyed using suppletivism: child - children type: catch - catch; degrees of comparison: good - better; time: I'm going - walking; case: I - me and etc.); in Indo-European languages, suppletivity is often observed in the verb meaning ‘to be’ (cf. French 3rd singular and plural present tense: est-sont and past tense: fut), and also in verbs with the meaning ‘to go’ (cf. Russian. I'm coming And walked; French je vais'I'm coming fallais'I was walking' j'irai'I will go'); 4) doubling, or reduplication, i.e. complete or partial repetition of the root (in Russian, for example, with the help of reduplication the meaning of strengthening the attribute of an object is conveyed: white-white or actions: barely made it; action intensity value: asked and asked for help; process continuity value: sat and sat etc., however, in some languages, reduplication serves to designate a weakened feature, cf. in the Maori language, which belongs to the Polynesian languages wera‘hot’, a wera-wera'warm'). This method of expressing grammatical meaning is also known in other languages (in particular, in Armenian, Chinese, Japanese, Malay: in Armenian, for example, the meaning of a number is conveyed using reduplication, cf.: gund‘regiment’ and gund-gund‘shelves’, and in Chinese reduplication is actively used in word formation, cf. cap‘look’ and cancan‘take a look’, May'slow' and man-man‘slowly’), however, reduplication is most widespread in Austronesian languages, where it is used both for word formation and inflection (cf., for example, complete reduplication in the Indonesian words ‘matches’: api-api, Where api'fire',
orang-orang ‘people’, where orang 'Human'; or partial in the Javanese word for 'disease' Step , Where lam 'sick').
All these ways of expressing grammatical meaning are synthetic, because just like lexical meaning, it is conveyed within one word, but there are also analytical methods that manifest themselves in the separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. In this case, complex constructions are used, which are a combination of a significant and an auxiliary word (cf. in Russian the expression of the future tense, subjunctive mood or degree of comparison: I will read it, I would read it, more beautiful). Prepositions and postpositions following the name are used as auxiliary elements (cf. Fin. talon alia ‘under the house’), articles, full-meaning words that have undergone desemantization (verbs to be, have, become V compound predicates and etc.). In addition to Russian, this way of expressing grammatical meaning is productive in English, French, Bulgarian languages, in which case meanings are conveyed using prepositions.
The analytical method of expressing grammatical meaning also includes a special word order (in Russian, for example, this method conveys the meaning of approximateness, cf. twenty people And twenty people ), this method of conveying grammatical meaning is especially productive in languages with a fixed order of sentence members (for example, in English and French, where the subject always comes first, the predicate comes second, and the object comes third). Here, word order is the only way to determine the syntactic role of a name in a sentence, i.e. it performs a semantic-distinguishing function (cf. French. Pierre voit Paul, mais Paul ne voit pas Pierre ‘Pierre sees Paul, but Paul doesn’t see Pierre’, if you rearrange the nouns, the sentence will have a different meaning). In Russian, this method of conveying grammatical meaning is also important (cf., for example, the sentence mother loves daughter in which only the word order allows you to understand who loves whom).
Intonation can also be used as a way of expressing grammatical meaning (intonation is used to convey a question, motivation, enumeration, explanation, etc.). This method of conveying grammatical meaning is common in Vietnamese and Chinese, where intonation is used as a means of expressing not only grammatical, but also lexical and syntactic meanings. In the Indian language Tlingit (Southern Alaska), according to E. Sapir, many verbs with a low tone convey the meaning of the past tense, and with a high tone the meaning of the future.
The analytical method of expressing grammatical meaning is most widespread in languages of the agglutinative type and, to a lesser extent, in inflectional languages.
There is also a hybrid, or mixed, way of expressing grammatical meaning, when it is conveyed both by a significant word, which has inflectional forms, and by a service word (cf. Russian. in the house : the meaning of the prepositional case is expressed here by a preposition and an inflection) or two significant words, cf. rus. I'm a dog : the category of person here is expressed analytically (using the pronoun I) and synthetically (using inflection -y).
The method of expressing grammatical meaning is an important classification feature, according to which languages of analytical and synthetic types are distinguished: in languages of analytical type (for example, in Chinese), the main way of expressing grammatical meaning is analytical (since these languages are characterized by separate expression of lexical and grammatical meanings words: the grammatical meaning is outside the word), and in languages of a synthetic type (for example, in Russian), the grammatical meaning is most often expressed in a synthetic way (since in these languages the lexical and grammatical meanings are synthesized within one word). At the same time, as studies in linguistics show, there are no absolutely “pure” types of languages in the world, since in no language in the world is analyticism and synthetism presented in a pure form: in every language there are elements of synthetism and analytism, although their ratio may be different different (for more details, see the section " Typological classification languages").
Grammatical meanings are expressed in different ways material means(suffixes, prefixes, endings, etc.). These funds are combined on the basis general characteristics into groups called methods. For all languages of the world, grammatical methods come down to the following: 1) affixation 2) alternation 3) emphasis 4) repetitions 5) word formation 6) suppletivism 7) method of function words, 8) method of word order, 9) ru intonation. Methods that express grammatical meanings by means located within the word are called synthetic, and methods that express grammatical meanings by means located outside the words are called analytical.
Synthetic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
Synthetic ways of expressing grammatical meanings include affixation, alternation, stress, reduplication, compounding and suppletivism.
affixations are the expression of grammatical meanings using affixes (suffixes, prefixes, endings, etc.). Since the languages of the world use a variety of affixal means, c. The affix method bi distinguishes the following varieties:
a) suffixation - expressing grammatical meanings using suffixes. It is one of the most common ways of expressing grammatical meanings in Indo-European and Semitic languages. It's time to reread in Ukrainian - pere echituvaty (imperfect form), sleep - bayinki (meaning affection), beautiful - more beautiful (highest degree) rus knock - knock (perfect form), cheerful - more fun (highest degree), sololia - straw (meaning singularity) German Arbeit "work" - Arbeiter "worker" - Arbeiterin "worker", krank "sick" - Krankheit "illness"; English write "to write" - writing "writing"; English write "to write" - writing "how you write";
b) prefixation - expressing grammatical meanings using prefixes. This is the main way of expressing the lexico-grammatical meanings of verbs in Indo-European language family: ukr carry - bring in, bring in, pr rinesty, present, transfer; rus read - read, write - write; nem gehen "to go" - vergehen "to pass", entgehen "to depart"; bolg cherven "red" - cherven "redder" "chervoniy" - cherven "chervonish";
c) confixation - expressions of grammatical meanings by a combination of two affixes - a prefix and a suffix, which, although they represent two morphemes, act collectively, together. IN German with the help of confixation, passive participles arise: machen "work" - gemacht "done", schreiben "write" - geschrieben "written", fahren "to go" - gefahren "arrived" fahren "to go" - gefahren "who has arrived";
d) infixation - expression of grammatical meanings using. INFIX, i.e. morphemes inserted in the middle of the root. Lat vici "won" - vinco "I win", fidi "prick" - findo "stab", Tagalog sulat "pi letter" - sumulat "write" Galsk. sulat "writing" - sumulat "to write";
d) transfixation - expression of grammatical meanings using transfixives, i.e. affixes, which, breaking the root, consisting of only consonants, themselves break and serve as a “layer” of vowels x among the consonants, defining the word form and formalizing it grammatically. Transfixation is characteristic of Semitic languages. Dav-noevr gnob "steal" -. Ganaba "stole", goneb "that which steals; thief". Ganub "Stolen e"; Arabic, kataba "wrote", kutibah "written". Katibi "writer". Kitab "writing", uktub "write" writings", katibu "that which you write", kitab "writing", uktub "write";
e) null affixation, i.e. the absence of an affix in one of the forms of the paradigm in the presence of affixes in other forms. Ukr wall - walls, work - works; rus white - white, water - water, peasant - peasants. In Turkic languages, the zero affix is an indicator of the nominative singular case of nouns: Kazakh, balla "child". Balaga for a child, ballad for a child, balalar for children, balalarga for children, balalarda for children, balalarga for children, balalarda for children.
When talking about affixation, we need to distinguish between fusion and agglutination. In fusion, the affixes are ambiguous (por stena, vola, sleeves, where the ending -a expresses the nominative singular female, gender differences between the singular masculine and the nominative case of the plural masculine), non-standard (walls, songs, names, here the endings -and, -and, -a express the same meaning of the nominative plural), stems without affixes , as a rule, are not used (door-i, grab-i, handle-i, red-i), there is a kind of fusion of the base and affix (Cossack with Cossack sk (iy) rus passage - roadway, bald m root can change phonetically composition (sleep - sleep /, friend - friends).
During agglutination, which is inherent in the Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, the affixes are unambiguous (Kazakh, -я always denotes the dative case, -lar - many others), standard, they are mechanically glued to the stem, and the stem is used without an affix (am "horse ", balla "child", bat "head") and never changes its phonetic structure; it changes its phonetic structure.
Alternation (internal inflection) is a means of expressing grammatical meanings, characteristic of Indo-European languages. So, in particular, in the Ukrainian and Russian languages, with the help of alternation, the grammatical meaning of the form is expressed (collect - collect, you can collect - boil), in English and German - time and number (sing "sing", "I sing" - sang "sang" ", drink "drink", "drink" - drank ogi, tooth "tooth" - teeth "teeth"; Mutter "mother" - Mutter "mother", Bruder "brother" - Br family For example: rus ask - ask, Ukrainian walk - go; dumb Hand "hand" - Hask, Ukrainian walk - nim. Hand "hand" - Hände "hands", Gast "guest" - Gäste "guests", singen "sleep" - gesungen "sleeping" .
Stress is a phonetic means of expressing grammatical meaning. It can perform such a function only when it is mobile and unfixed. This is how it is in Ukrainian, Russian, Belarusian, Bulgarian and other languages. In these languages, changing the place of stress in the paradigm of a word is a way of distinguishing between the forms of that word. For example: hands (genus otm singular) - hands (genus otm plural), cut, pour, take out (undo den view) - cut, pour, take out (perfect view). Emphasis as a grammatical method can be combined with affixation: (hands - hands, forest - forests) and with alternation (shout - shout, rus knock - knock) knock)"
Reduplication is a complete or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word without changing the sound composition or with a partial change. It is used to express the plural of names in Chinese, Japanese and Korean, as well as in Indonesian, Paleo-African, Austronesian languages. So, for example, in the Indonesian language orang "person" - orangorang "people", sedulur "friend" - sedulur sedulur "dru so", kuda "horse" - kuda-kuda "horses" in Chinese ren "person" - ren-zhen -kuda "horses"; in Chinese zhen "liudina" - zhen-zhen
"people", sin "star" - sin-sin "stars" In Ukrainian and Russian languages it is clearly expressed in a grammatical way repetitions occasionally appear to convey the specific shades of the verb (duration of action): you speak w-you speak, you work-work, you speak, you work-work.
In Turkic languages, reduplication serves as a means of expression highest degree adjectives. Kazakh. Kyzyl "red" - kyzyl-kyzyl "the reddest". Jacques sy "good" - zhaksy-zhaksy "best" We have similar things in Slavic languages, although this phenomenon is interpreted here as enhancing signs. Por ukr clean-clean, light-light, big-big (with the prefix) rus white-white, blue-blue with the same fixation); grew up white-white, blue-blue then.
In some languages (mainly Turkic) incomplete repetitions are used to express conciliarity (the first consonant is replaced by a labial b, p or m). For example: Kazakh "camel" - tuyo-muyo "camels and other cattle", kulak "rich man, kulak" - kulak-Mulaku "fist" The same phenomenon is observed in the Ukrainian and Russian languages, however, repetitions here act as a means of expressing grammatical meanings: tar-i-bars, tur-murs, figli-migli, gogol-mogol, shurum-burum. Note also that in modern languages reduplication is most often used in onomatopoeic words: Ukrainian and Russian ku-ku, oink-oink, knock-knock, clap-clap; Persian khor-khor "grunt", tag-tag "knock"; Tamil kubu-kubu "gurgle", sala-sala "slap, clap"; Tamil kubu-kubu "gurgle", sala-sala "slap, slap".
Word formation is a combination of a root morpheme with a root one, resulting in the appearance of a new word. Word-folding is a way of conveying only derivational grammatical meaning. It resembles affixation, because morphemes are combined here and there, but in word-composition only root morphemes are combined.
Full roots and truncated ones, stems and whole words can be combined. In the languages of the world, two tendencies of composition can be traced: 1) mechanical (agglutinating), when the meaning of a complex word is equal to the sum of the meanings of its constituent parts (for example, Ukrainian wall newspaper, Russian profrabota, German Kopfschmerz “headache”, Augenapfel “eyeball”) and 2) organic (fusional), when the value of the whole is not equal to the sum of the values of the glass parts (English typewriter = not “font”, “scribe”, but “typewriter”, killjoy = not “kill” “joy”, but “a person who spoils everyone mood", French cachnez = not "hide" "on, as it is in all mood", French cachnez = not "howy" + "nes", but "scarf, muffler").
Not all languages are equally characterized by composition. Of all languages, the German language is distinguished by its richness of composition: Taschenworterbuch “pocket dictionary”, Kaufmann “merchant”, Handschuh “glove”, Wand duhr “wall clock”, Stundenplan “lesson schedule”, Vergilad of lessons”, Vergißmeinnicht “forget-me-not”.
WITH historical development language, one of the elements of a complex word may lose its lexical meaning and become a suffix or prefix. Thus, the German suffix-heit (Schonheit "beauty", Wahrhe eit "truth", etc.) was previously a noun with the meaning "type, method", the suffix schaft (Wissenschaft "science", Gesellschaft "society") meant "property, state , quality"English suffixes -ful (useful"useful", beautiful"good"),"less (helpless"helpless", endless"), -able (suitable"appropriate", companionable"sociable, sociable", valuable" valuable") and now have homonymous significant words full"full", less"less", able"capable" In the Ukrainian language, the suffix in (Kievite, tradesman, peasant, etc.) was once the pronoun yin with the meaning "that , one", which is why this suffix does not appear in the plural forms (Kievans, townspeople, peasants). In German there is a prefix ein-(einfahren "to enter", einlegen "to invest", einkaufen "to buy", einschlafen "to fall asleep ", eindecken "covered") and the numeral ein "one line"). German language has the prefix ein- (einfahren "to squeeze", einlegen "to invest", einkaufen "to buy", einschlafen "to sink", eindecken "to crumple" ) and number ein "one".
suppletivism - the formation of grammatical forms of the same word from different roots or from different stems. For example: brothers (imperfective) - take (perfective), speak (imperfective) - say (d perfective) rus sits down (imperfective) - sit down (perfective), put (imperfective) - put (perfective) , Human ( singular) - people (plural) German Der Mensch "man" - die Leute and Leute "people".
suppletivism as the only way of expressing grammatical meanings is characteristic of the paradigm of personal pronouns in Indo-European languages: Ukrainian i - me, she - her, we - us; German ich - mich, sie - ihr, wir - uns, English / - me, she - her, we - us; fr je - t- those.
In Indo-European languages, the method of supletivism is also used to create degrees of comparison of adjectives with the meaning “good” and “bad”: Ukrainian good - best, Russian good - better, German gut - - besser, English good - better, fr, bon - meilleutter, fr , bon-meilleur.
