ON THE DISCIPLINE "HISTORY OF THE RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE"
Lecture #1
Historical characteristics of the language. History of the Russian literary language as a science. main categories.1. The subject of the history of the Russian literary language. Course subject- the history of the development of the native language, the processes of its development, their essence. Appeal to ancient written monuments as object of study course.
The history of the Russian literary language is the science of the essence, origin and stages of development of the Russian national language, its use in different speech registers, the change of these registers, their evolution. Traditions of studying the history of the Russian literary language: the history of the Russian literary language as a historical style (in the works of V.V. Vinogradov, G.O. Vinokur and their followers A.I. Gorshkov, E.G. Kovalevskaya), as a historical orthology (the founder of the direction is A.I. Sobolevsky, followers - N.I. Tolstoy, M.L. Remneva), as historical sociolinguistics (B.A. Uspensky, V.M. Zhivov).
The concept of literary language. Literary language as a phenomenon of book culture. Historical and cultural background and conditions for the formation of the literary language. The concept of literary and written language, literary language and the language of fiction. Literary and colloquial language. Stylistic heterogeneity of the literary language, changes in its nature in the process of historical development.
The concept of a language norm. Book norm as the basis of the literary language, linguistic norm as a historical category. Language system and norm. different types of norms. The specificity of the book norm. Its connection with learning and conscious assimilation, with the literary and linguistic tradition. Connection of the history of the literary language with the history of culture.
2. Language situationas a factor in the development of the literary language. Typology of cultural and linguistic situations: monolingualism, bilingualism (foreign language), diglossia. Dhigher education- coexistence in society of two languages that are equal in their functions. Diglossia- a stable language situation, characterized by a stable functional balance of coexisting languages that are in additional distribution. Signs that distinguish diglossia from bilingualism: the inadmissibility of using the book language as a means of conversational communication, the lack of codification of the spoken language and parallel texts with the same content. Changing the language situation in the history of the development of the Russian literary language. Evidence of the existence of diglossia in Ancient Russia (B.A. Uspensky, V.M. Zhivov). Arguments against diglossia (V.V. Kolesov, A.A. Alekseev).
3. The main stages in the development of the Russian literary language . Different points of view on the issue periodization of the course of the history of the Russian literary language: B.A. Uspensky, A.M. Kamchatnov and the periodization accepted by most linguists.
I period. The literary language of Ancient Russia (XI-XIV centuries) is the initial stage of the literary and linguistic history of the Eastern Slavs. II period. The development of the Russian literary language on the basis of ancient Russian literary and linguistic traditions in the context of the consolidation of the Russian people (XIV-XVII centuries). III period. Formation of the Russian literary language of a new type (XVIII - early XIX centuries). Experiences in the normalization of the Russian literary language and the construction of its stylistic system. IV period. The development of the modern Russian literary language (since the beginning of the 19th century) as a single and universal normalized system serving all spheres of cultural activity. Formation of the system of normalized oral speech as a reflection of the process of displacement of dialects and vernacular from the sphere of oral communication.
Lecture #2
Literary language of Ancient Russia (XI-XIV centuries): origin of the Russian literary language.
1. First South Slavic influence (X- XIcenturies).After the baptism of Russia (988), the Bulgarian version of the Old Slavonic language was adopted - the South Slavic language, and writing in this language is spreading. The assimilation of the South Slavic book tradition was due not so much to the orientation towards Bulgaria, but to the mediating role of the South Slavs as conductors of Greek cultural influence: the orientation was Greek, the writing was Bulgarian. Thus, Christinization introduces Russia into the orbit of the Byzantine world, and the Church Slavonic language acts as a means of Byzantization of Russian culture. All of the above allows us to speak about first South Slavic influence and connects with it the initial phase of the formation of the literary language of the Eastern Slavs. In fact, the first South Slavic influence was the baptism of Russia according to the eastern model and the borrowing of the ancient Bulgarian script. The Old Church Slavonic language early began to be exposed to the influence of ethnic languages and fell into different editions (revisions), in particular, the Russian recension of the Church Slavonic language is being formed. On the other hand, the presence of ancient Russian monuments in Russia testifies to the existence of writing in two languages. An important question of this period is the following: to determine which of them is the literary language of Ancient Russia.
2. History of scientific controversy about .
History of scientific controversy about the origin of the Russian literary language associated with the tradition of opposing the theory of the Old Slavonic origin of the Russian literary language A.A. Shakhmatov and the theory of the original East Slavic basis of the Russian literary language by S.P. Obnorsky.
Hypothesis A.A. Shakhmatova was widely used. In the work "Essay on the modern Russian language" A.A. Shakhmatov wrote: “By its origin, the Russian literary language is the Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian by origin) language transferred to Russian soil, which for centuries has been approaching the folk language and gradually losing and losing its foreign appearance.” In his opinion, “the ancient Bulgarian language in Russia was perceived as a foreign language for no more than a century, after which they got used to it as their own”, which allows us to speak about "Russification" of the South Slavic foundation. To prove this thesis, A.A. Shakhmatov cites 12 signs of the foreign language basis of the modern Russian language: 1) disagreement; 2) combination ra, la at the beginning of a word; 3) combination railway vm. and; 4) affricate sch vm. h; 5) no transition [e] > [o]; 6) initial Yu vm. at; 7) solid s vm. soft ( useful, unassuming); 8) vocalization oh e in place of the reduced ones; 9) vowel clearing s, and in place of tense reduced; ten) grammatical forms with Church Slavonic inflections (m. R.: -ago, -yago; and. R.: - her); 11) Church Slavonic word formation; 12) Church Slavonic vocabulary.
In the 50s. 20th century S.P. Obnorsky put forward the theory of the East Slavic basis of the Russian literary language, assuming that the modern Russian language in its genetic basis is not borrowed, but Russian. In his works, we are talking about the Old Russian literary language, which since the time of the second South Slavic influence began to undergo Church Slavonicization, more precisely, "slander" of the Russian language. The shortcomings of the theory: it is not clear what is the proportion of the Church Slavonic superstratum; orientation to a genre-limited range of sources of oral folk tradition, which served as the basis for the formation of a supra-dialect form - Koine. As a result, the Church Slavonic language "froze", being used only in the cult sphere, and the Old Russian language evolved.
After the publication of works by S.P. Obnorsky (1934), a scientific discussion began, a critical attitude to his theory was noted (A. M. Selishchev, V. V. Vinogradov), new concepts appeared. The concept of diglossia (B.A. Uspensky, A.V. Isachenko), according to which the literary language was the Church Slavonic language, and folk colloquial speech existed in parallel, not being a literary form. The concept of bilingualism (F.P. Filin, following M.V. Lomonosov) is the coexistence of Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages, each with its own varieties. Hypothesis V.V. Vinogradov - the idea of the unity of the literary language on a nationwide basis. Two types of Old Russian literary language: book-Slavonic and folk-literary (according to V.V. Vinogradov).
Lecture #3
Literary language of Ancient Russia (XI-XIV centuries): characteristics of written monuments.
1. Types of written monuments of Kievan Rus.Traditionally, it is customary to talk about two types of written monuments of Kievan Rus: Christian and secular. Monuments of Christian literature were created in the Church Slavonic language. Translation of Christian literature includes the Gospel, Psalter, Prologues, Patericons. Genres of original Christian literature are "Journeys", "Lives", "Words", "Teachings". Translation secular literature- these are works translated from Latin, Greek (“History of the Jewish War” by I. Flavius, “Degenius Act”). Original secular literature- folk literary monuments created in the Old Russian language (chronicles, chronicles; "The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh").
The variety of written monuments of Kievan Rus also determines the typology of linguistic traditions and their varieties, which are characterized by the ratio of different linguistic elements within one ancient text.
Varieties of language traditions based on Church Slavonic: standard, complicated, formulaic, simplified, hybrid Church Slavonic. The standard Church Slavonic language is the language of the Gospel, life. The complicated Church Slavonic language is a presentation reinforced rhetorically, poetically, exotic, expressive, archaic lexemes. The formulaic (“clichéd”) Church Slavonic language is a direct quotation or paraphrasing of canonical (biblical) texts (kryst kissing, signing kryst in a way, etc.). The simplified Church Slavonic language is characterized by the inclusion of elements of the vernacular language. The hybrid Church Slavonic language is a striped stripe, the replacement of the language means of the Church Slavonic language with elements of the vernacular language.
Varieties of language traditions based on Old Russian: standard, dialectal, complicated, business (formula), Slavicized Old Russian language. The standard Old Russian language is a linguistic tradition that demonstrates the general tendencies of the Old Russian language. The dialectal Old Russian language reflects certain dialectal features. The complicated Old Russian language is a presentation reinforced rhetorically, poetically, contains symbolic and figurative usage, a reflection of folklore traditions. The business (formula) Old Russian language is based on the use of clichés, standard expressions of Old Russian documents (go to the company, knock your head down, take your face, etc.). The Slavicized Old Russian language is a linguistic tradition where only some forms are non-systemically Slavicized.
2. The status of business writing in Ancient Russia
In Ancient Russia, business writing has an ancient tradition, which is confirmed by Oleg's 3 agreements with the Greeks, found in the "Tale of Bygone Years". The ambiguous status of business writing in the history of the Russian literary language (isolation or stylistically defined variety) is motivated by the critical socially oriented situation of its emergence. G.O. Vinokur gives arguments that testify to the isolation of the business language: functioning only in the field of business documentation, the content of business documents is limited by the nature of use, the semantically limited composition of the vocabulary. A.I. Gorshkov, A.M. Kamchatnov believe that there are no sufficient grounds to isolate the business language from the system of varieties of the Old Russian language, since “it (the business language) is a socially important, stylistically processed and ordered variety of the use of the Old Russian language, and at subsequent stages of development it gradually strengthened its ties with the “actually literary "language and its influence on it." A.M. Kamchatnov: “... XI-XIV centuries. characteristic opposition of three styles of the literary language - sacred, Slavic-Russian and business.
The linguistic specificity of business documents was determined by the peculiarities of its content, as evidenced, for example, by the statement of Afanasy Matveyevich Selishchev: “When they talked about theft, about a fight, about a torn beard, about a bloody face, the corresponding speech was also used - the speech of everyday life ... Not only style, but also the accuracy of the content business speech, documentary accuracy required the use of appropriate words - Russian words of a certain meaning. Indeed, it was about objects, phenomena and concepts that are specifically Russian. Therefore, business monuments are based on the Old Russian language, connection with the terminological system of oral law, and the absence of sacredness. Thus, the following features of the business legal writing of Ancient Russia (“Russian Truth”, donative and contractual letters) can be noted: genre-functional marking (use for practical purposes), semantically limited composition of the content structure (use of legal vocabulary: vira, vidok, obsluh, tatba, golovnichestvo, claim, etc.), the monotony of syntactic constructions (conditional clauses, imperative-infinitive constructions, stringing simple sentences), the presence of linguistic formulas and the absence of figurative and expressive means.
3. Linguistic specificity of works of everyday writing: birch bark letters (private correspondence) and graffiti (everyday, dedicatory, religious inscriptions).
Lecture #4
Cultural and linguistic situation of Muscovite Rus at the end of the 14th - the middle of the 15th centuries.
1. Ways of development of colloquial and literary language during the formation of the Moscow state.
From the second half of the 14th century, the Moscow principality began to develop rapidly, annexing neighboring ones. Moscow is the spiritual and political center of Russia: "Moscow is the third Rome." The dialect of Moscow becomes colorful, including borrowings from the languages of neighboring peoples. One of the transitive dialects is formed - Moscow Koine, which became the basis of the language of the Great Russian people. This language differed from the Old Russian language, for example, in its vocabulary (due to a change in ideology, realities). In addition to the extralinguistic prerequisites that led to the restructuring of relations between the bookish and non-bookish language, intralinguistic reasons were also identified that characterize the spoken language of the Moscow state by the 14th century. Among them are the change in the phonological system after the process of the fall of the reduced ones; loss of grammatical categories (vocative form, dual number); unification of types of declension in plural. hours; use of the perfect without a copula; the spread of new alliances. In this situation, the spoken and literary language began to differ from each other: previously neutral (general) forms become specifically bookish, i.e. new correlations of Church Slavonic and living Russian are formed. So, the forms of ruch, nozh, help, God, bake, moogl, me, cha, etc. are now opposed to forms of colloquial speech. Accordingly, the distance between Church Slavonic and Russian as a bookish and non-bookish language is increasing.
2. Second South Slavic influence.
One of contentious issues in the history of Russian writing, the question remains about the role of the so-called to. XIV century. - early 16th century - the second wave of influence on the Russian book culture from the side of the South Slavic written culture (Bulgaria and partly Serbia) after the period of the Christianization of Russia (X-XI centuries). It was a reform of the principles of translation from the Greek language, the literary language and spelling, carried out in the 14th century. Bulgarian Patriarch Evfimiy Tarnovskiy, which spread very quickly. The implementation of the reform in Russian writing is associated with the name of Metropolitan Cyprian - a Serb or, according to other sources, a Bulgarian by birth, who emigrated to Russia in the general flow of South Slavic emigration. Hence another name for the process - Kipranovsky on the right.
The second South Slavic influence as a cardinal event in the history of the Russian literary language was first noticed in the 19th century by A.I. Sobolevsky. Sobolevsky's discovery was widely recognized. B.A. Uspensky: “This phenomenon is based on purificatory and restoration tendencies: its immediate stimulus was the desire of Russian scribes to purify the Church Slavonic language from those colloquial elements that had penetrated into it as a result of its gradual Russification (i.e., adaptation to local conditions).” First of all, A.I. Sobolevsky drew attention to changes in the external design of manuscripts, pointed out innovations in graphics, changes in the spelling of these written monuments compared to previous periods. Based on this material, he concluded that Russian writing in the period of the end of the XIV century - early. 16th century fell under the strong influence of South Slavic writing, hence the term "second South Slavic influence". In fact, all the indicated changes brought the Old Russian manuscripts closer to the Bulgarian and Serbian written monuments of the same era. Indeed, the model for Russian manuscripts is the corrected church books of Bulgaria and Serbia, where by the end of the 14th century. the editing of religious books ended, and many prominent church figures (Metropolitan Cyprian, Grigory Tsamblak, Pakhomiy Logofet) arrived in Moscow. In connection with the political and economic growth of Moscow, the authority of the Moscow church, church literature, and hence the role of the Church Slavonic language, is also growing. Therefore, the activity of editing church books in Moscow during this period turned out to be appropriate. The correction and rewriting of books was primarily due to the translation of the Russian Church from the Studium charter, which prevailed in Byzantium until the end of the 11th century. and from there came to Russia, to the Jerusalem rule, which was established in the 14th century throughout the Orthodox world. Conservatism and reverence for antiquity, natural for the church, prompted scribes, on the one hand, to preserve the written tradition of ancient texts, deliberately archaizing the bookish language, and on the other hand, Slavic languages it was in the XIV century that they changed so significantly in the system of vocalism, consonantism, accentology, and in lexical and grammatical terms that the use of many signs in ancient texts became incomprehensible. These are letters such as @, \, #, >, i, s, ^, h. A true understanding of their use could be achieved on the basis of the creation of a scientific history of the Slavic languages, but the church scribes of the XIV century were still far from even setting such a task. And now artificial rules for writing these letters are being developed, the use of which has become unclear. Among Russian scribes, these artificial rules meet with dull but stubborn resistance. Therefore, the purpose of the editing undertaken by the scribes is to bring the church books into the original, most accurate, corresponding to the Greek originals form.
Consequences second South Slavic influence:
1) restoration in the graphics of Greek letters (j, k, ^, i), large yus, which disappeared from practice; the appearance of ideographic signs and symbols (D.S. Likhachev notes the “geometric ornament of the text”);
2) elimination of iotation, i.e. the absence of spellings with j in the postvocalic position before a and #, now iotation is conveyed not by the letter ", but by the letters a and #: svo# (////// svoa), dobraa, deacon (writing neioted letters is a Greek sample);
3) the spelling of ers obeys distributive rules: at the end of the word there is always ь, in the middle ъ. This artificial rule was due to the coincidence of the etymological reflexes *ъ, *ь in one phoneme, which made these letters homophonic and interchangeable.
4) the distribution in the spelling of the letters i and i: i is written before vowels, which is also associated with the Greek model (this rule was adopted by civil orthography and was preserved until the reform of 1917-1918);
5) reflection of the reflexes and processes of the Book Slavonic language (palatalizations, the first full accord);
6) an increase in the number of titles, superscripts and punctuation marks.
7) the emergence and spread of a rhetorically decorated manner of writing - word weaving style- as a way of constructing a text that originates in church works, then transferred to secular ones. For the first time in Russia weaving style scribe of the XIV century - early. 15th century Epiphanius the Wise introduced in the Life of Stephen of Perm.
Word weaving style arose “from the idea of hesychasm about the unknowability and unnameability of God, i.e. the name of God can only be approached by trying different ways of naming” (L.V. Zubova). Hesychasm is an ethical and ascetic doctrine of the path to the unity of man with God, the ascent of the human spirit to the deity, the "divinity of the verb", the need for close attention to the sound and semantics of the word, which serves to name the essence of the subject, but often not able to express the "soul of the subject" , convey the main thing. Hesychasts refused the word: contemplation gives direct communication with God, therefore hesychasts were also called “silent ones”. The word is "divine verb".
The term "weaving of words" does not quite adequately convey the essence of the style. The phrase "weave words" was known even before Epiphanius in the sense of "to produce new words"; in the translations of the Byzantine hymn we meet: "the word weaving the word sweetness." Thus, neither the term "weaving of words", nor the ornate rhetorical style for the XIV - XV centuries. are not new. New is the motive for the return to floridity. The hesychast identification of the word and the essence of the phenomenon caused in verbal creativity, it would seem, the opposite result - pleonasm, which for this era was justified, since the unity of a high idea with a base one was embodied in the designation of the concreteness of a “thing”. And the hagiographic genre accumulated various vocabulary of general meaning, the general meaning turned out to be important, and not the meanings of individual words, which became the basis for the development of polysemy and synonymy. Moreover, the focus is on abstractness, emotionality, symbolism, figurativeness of linguistic means of expression and constructions.
An important consequence second South Slavic influence became the emergence of correlative pairs of correlative Slavisms and Russisms. Direct lexical borrowings from Russian into Church Slavonic have become impossible. A kind of bilingual Russian-Church Slavonic dictionary is being created (I say - I say, advertising - I said, today - today, truth - truth). In this way, second South Slavic influence predetermined the transition to bilingualism.
On the whole, it should be noted that the Cyprianian right, which took place against the backdrop of a national upsurge (the century between 1380 and 1480 is the time between the Battle of Kulikovo and the complete elimination of Russia's dependence on the Golden Horde), still did not cause such a split in the church and society, which was later caused by the Nikonian right of the 17th century, which took place against the background of the serfdom of the peasantry. Meanwhile, after all, both of them on the right are two stages of the same process of the formation of the modern Church Slavonic language with its artificial spelling and other features of inept archaization, carried out in an atmosphere of complete absence of the history of the Slavic languages as a science.
Lecture #5
The language situation of the second half of the XV-XVI centuries.
1. Archaization of the language of journalism second half of the 15th-16th centuries.
In the second half of the 15th century, the process of state building was influenced by the worldview of two spiritual and religious movements: mystical Orthodoxy and theological rationalism. The ideas of mystical Orthodoxy were defended by the “Volga elders” headed by Nil Sorsky, since they opposed church and monastic land ownership, condemned the decoration of monasteries, declared asceticism, detachment from worldly affairs, including politics, continued to develop the ideas of hesychasm. In their messages, the “Zavolzhsky elders” preferred religious and moral issues, expressed a critical attitude towards the Holy Scriptures, therefore, for their manner of writing, strict observance of the norms of the Church Slavonic language and the absence of rhetorical excesses were important. Maxim Grek and Andrey Kurbsky followed the style of presentation of the “trans-Volga elders”. The ideologist of another ecclesiastical and political trend of the late XV - the first half of the XVI centuries, called "Josephism", - Joseph Volotsky (Ivan Sanin, 1439-1515) - is the author of bright works of a journalistic nature. The views of its supporters are directly opposite: they defend the inviolability of church dogmas and the political influence of the church, defend church and monastic land ownership, support the concept of absolute monarchy, the aestheticization of the rite. The "Josephites" paid a lot of attention to the description of specific events, details of Russian life, so their works reflected both book-Slavonic lush rhetoric and colloquial everyday language elements. Ivan the Terrible wrote in the style of "Josephites".
2. Stylistic varieties of secular literature and business writing in Muscovite Russia.
The specifics of the secular literature of Muscovite Russia- Strengthening the socio-political significance. Therefore, those works that had pronounced political tendencies and were aimed at glorifying and exalting the young Muscovite state are made out by means of the Church Slavonic language (“The Legend of the Mamaev Battle”, “The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople”). This literature gradually began to become on a par with ecclesiastical-religious literature, and at the same time the authority of the folk-literary language was rising. In addition, the folk-literary type of language could differ not in structural elements, but in rhetorical technique: the presence / absence of rhetorical embellishment (A. Nikitin’s “Journey Beyond Three Seas” is a work of a folk-literary type of language without rhetorical means of expression).
In general, the following can be considered specific features of secular literature during this period: semantic conditioning in the choice of language tradition; alternation of contexts, characteristic of the Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages, within the framework of one work; deliberate mixing of linguistic elements of different traditions depending on the context; strengthening the authority of the folk literary language.
Function expansion business language of Muscovite Russia. Variety of genres: from charters (private letters) to government acts, reflecting the standard command business language. Rapprochement of the business language with the literary language (article lists). The invasion of the folk-colloquial element in the sphere of business writing (letters, "pompous" speeches, "questioning" speeches). Availability of standard language formulas - initial and final forms (refusal and vacation books, petitions). Mastering foreign vocabulary and expanding the topics and structure of the business language (“Vesti-Kuranty”, article lists).
Lecture #6
Cultural and linguistic situation of Southwestern Russia (mid-16th century). The influence of the book tradition of Southwestern Russia on the Moscow book tradition.
1. Characteristics of the cultural and linguistic situation of Southwestern Russia.
By the middle of the XVI century. in South-Western Russia, a situation of bilingualism has developed, when two literary languages coexist: the Church Slavonic language of the south-western Russian edition and "prosta Mova". At the heart of the "simple language" is the official clerical language of Southwestern Russia, officially recognized in the Polish-Lithuanian state as the language of legal proceedings. This language gradually lost the functions of a business language and became a literary language. In contrast to the Book Slavonic language of Muscovite Rus, it reveals in its composition an undoubted colloquial substratum, which is artificially “bookish” due to Slavicization (Ukrainian version of “simple language”) and Polonization (Belarusian “simple language”). By the second half of the XVI century. the prestige of the “simple language” is growing: it is being codified (dictionaries by L. Zizania and P. Berynda); create scientific, journalistic works; translate Bible books into plain language. The Church Slavonic language at this time takes the status of the language of the learned class: the fundamental grammars of Lawrence Zizania and Meletius Smotrytsky appear; orientation towards Latin in grammar (constructions and forms) and vocabulary (borrowings-Latinisms) as a result of the influence of Western European Catholic culture; the presence of polonisms and ukrainisms through the secular business and social everyday language of educated people. This is how the southwestern version of the Church Slavonic language was formed. Thus, the southwestern edition of the Book Slavonic language and the “simple (Russian) language” are literary and linguistic mediators of Western European influence.
2. Literation of "Russian baroque"
In the middle of the XVII century. Ukraine reunites with Russia and turns from a cultural center into a periphery. Local scribes moved to Moscow: Simeon Polotsky, Sylvester Medvedev, Karion Istomin, later Feofan Prokopovich. Their creative legacy literation of "Russian baroque", represented by solemn, epistolary, oratorical prose, verses and dramaturgy. The language of this literature is book-Slavonic, but different both from the Church Slavonic language of the Russian version and from the Church Slavonic language of the South-West Russian edition. It is distinguished from the “old” Church Slavonic by the presence of Latinisms, Polonisms, Ukrainianisms, names of ancient heroes and gods. It differs from the Church Slavonic language of the southwestern Russian edition in a smaller number of polonisms and provincialisms.
Lecture No. 7
Cultural and linguistic situation in the first half of the 17th century. Formation of the East Slavic grammatical tradition.
The process of standardization of the literary language is associated with the development of book printing. In 1553, the Printing Yard was established in Kitai-Gorod. In the second half of the XVI century. The first printed books appear in Moscow. Typography contributed
development of uniform spelling;
strengthening the unifying role of the literary language in relation to the territorial dialects;
spreading the literary language throughout the state and among all social groups of literate people.
Grammar existed before the beginning of printing: in the XI - XIV centuries. specific lexico-grammatical compositions appeared (a pre-national stage in the development of the grammatical tradition), in the 16th-17th centuries. - translated grammars (pre-national stage of development of the grammatical tradition). So, in the 20s. 16th century Dmitry Gerasimov translated the Latin grammar of Donatus (4th century BC).
Grammar works published during this period in Western Russia are also oriented towards Greek grammars. In 1596, the grammar Adelfotis (adelfotis from Greek ‘brotherhood’) was published by students of the Lviv fraternal school, which became the first manual for the comparative study of Slavic and Greek grammar. It is no coincidence that the full grammar was called “Grammar of the Good-Verbal Hellenic-Slavonic Language”, contained grammatical categories similar to Greek samples (long and short vowels, semi-vowel and voiceless consonants).
Grammar "Adelfotis" became the basis for another grammatical work. It was Lavrenty Zizaniy's Grammar of the Slovene Perfect Art of the Eight Parts of the Word, published in Vilna in 1591, where the traditional for antiquity “the doctrine of the eight parts of the word” was expounded. Some parts of Zizania's grammar are presented in such a way that the text in Church Slavonic is accompanied by a translation into "simple language". This feature of grammar reflects the school practice of Southwestern Russia. There is a contrast between the forms of the Church Slavonic language and the “simple language” at different levels: spelling (kolikw - kolkw, four - chotyri), lexical (prevailing - vhdane, known - singing) and grammatical (hedgehog - zhebysmy wrote). Correlates to Church Slavonic words of Greek origin in the “simple language” are compound words tracing them, which in their structure can be regarded as Slavic words (etymology - true words). Therefore, the opposition of the forms of the Church Slavonic language and the “simple language” in some cases is the opposition of bookish and colloquial, in others - the opposition of Greek and Slavic. Thus, Lavrenty Zizaniy clearly artificially seeks to contrast the spelling appearance of words that coincide in the Church Slavonic language and “simple language”. Specific features of grammar: singled out proper and common nouns (unlike "Adelfotis"), 5 voices, 4 moods (indicative, vocative, prayerful, indefinite). Grammar application - "Lexis, that is, the sayings are briefly collected and interpreted from the Slovenian language into simple Russian dialect" (1061 words).
AT early XVII in. appears the most complete and thorough work on Church Slavonic grammar. This is the "Grammar of the Slovenian correct syntagma", published in the city of Evie in 1619 by Meletiy Smotrytsky. The grammar contained the following sections: "Spelling", "Etymology", "Syntax", "Prosody". Grammar terminology has been introduced: words are syllables, speech is a word, a word is a sentence, etymology is morphology, word parts are parts of speech. There were 8 “word parts” in Smotrytsky’s grammar. “The parts of a word are eight: Name. Mhvalue. Verb. Participle. Addicts. Predlog. Soyuz. Interjection". In this case, the adjective is part of the name. The term "communion" is introduced by M. Smotrytsky for the first time. Thus, the ancient (Greco-Roman) division of the dictionary into parts of speech passed into the Slavic-Russian grammar of Smotrytsky. Specific grammatical categories are noted: 7 genders (general, masculine, feminine, neuter, everyone, bewildered, general); 4 voices (real, passive, middle, suspensive); 4 past tenses (transitory, past, past, nonlimiting); introduces the concept of transitive and intransitive verbs, as well as personal, impersonal, obstinate (irregular), insufficient verbs. At the same time, M. Smotrytsky translates individual grammatical constructions into “simple language”, thereby codifying it in a certain way.
In 1648, a revised edition of the Grammar by Melety Smotrytsky was printed at the Printing House in Moscow. When reissuing the form where, abym etc., since they were alien to the colloquial speech of Moscow spravochnikov, were perceived as bookish and preserved in the text. Therefore, the forms of the "simple language" that are intended to explain the Church Slavonic forms of Meletius Smotrytsky's "Grammar" were transferred to the rank of normative Church Slavonic forms. The revision also affected many grammatical rules, in particular the declension paradigm, bringing them closer to the traditions of colloquial Great Russian speech. The changes also concerned the accent system, which in the previous edition reflected the norms of Western Russian pronunciation.
On the whole, Meletius Smotrytsky's Grammar is a fundamental set of grammatical rules of the Church Slavonic language and a normative model for liturgical books. It was this treatise that became the basis for the grammatical normalization of the official version of the Church Slavonic language until the time of M.V. Lomonosov, who himself studied this grammar.
Along with the indicated grammars in the 16th century. Church Slavonic-"Russian" dictionaries appear in Western Russia. To appreciate the significance of this phenomenon, it is enough to note that in Russian conditions such dictionaries would be published only in the second half of the 18th century.
In addition to the “Lexis” of L. Zizania indicated above, one should mention the “Lexicon of Slovene Russian and names of translation” by Pamva Berynda (1 edition - Kyiv, 1627). There are almost 7,000 words in the dictionary, and this number seemed incredible. At the same time, “Russian speech” (“prosta mova”) is contrasted with “Volyn” (Ukrainian) and “Lithuanian” (Belarusian): tssl. phten - ox. pven - lit. rooster. "Lexicon" by P. Berynda is wider in its vocabulary. Attached to the dictionary is an index of proper names contained in the church "Saints", which presents the interpretation of the names of Greek, Jewish, Latin origin.
Lecture No. 8
New traditions in the development of the literary language in the second half of the 17th century. Expansion of the functions of the Church Slavonic language.
1. Nikonovskaya on the right(serXVIIin.).
The change in the Church Slavonic language under the influence of the southwestern ideology is the result of the need to normalize the language, which is expressed in the middle of the 17th century. in carrying out a new book right under the leadership of Patriarch Nikon. Linguistic attitudes of the referees - editing books according to Greek samples. So, the spellings were brought into Greek correspondence: aggel, Jesus. Nikon's edition regulated changes in the accentology of names: Avvakum (vm. Avvakum); Michael (vm. Michael); in case management: forever and ever (vm. forever and ever); in Christ (mind about Christ); in the use of old word forms: mine, yours (vm. mi, ti); However, the opponents of the reform - a truly Orthodox audience - the spelling of Jesus was perceived as anti-Christian. In their opinion, changing the form of a word, the nomination of something entails a distortion of the very essence of the Christian concept; God is the author of the text, and the text cannot be changed; the expression must be correct, i.e. Christian. Therefore, a different attitude towards the linguistic form of the word became the reason for the split of the church under Patriarch Nikon between the opponents of the reform (“Old Believers”) and its supporters (“New Believers”).
The correlation of the Church Slavonic language of South-Western Russia and the Church Slavonic language of Moscow Russia determines the direct influence of the first on the second, which happens in the process of the Nikon and post-Nikon book right: the formal features of the Church Slavonic language of the South-West Russian edition are transferred to the Church Slavonic language of the Great Russian edition, as a result, it is noted education unified all-Russian edition of the Book Slavonic language.
2. Activation in use Church Slavonic.
17th century - the time when the Russian literary language begins to take shape. This process is characterized
the emergence of the "learned" Church Slavonic language under the influence of the literacy of Southwestern Russia;
democratization of literature and literary language, the emergence of new genres, which is associated with the socio-economic shifts of the era. Southwestern Russia
In the development of the literary language during this period in Moscow, new trends are observed: 1) rapprochement with the spoken language of the people; 2) modeling of the Slovenian language, which led to its isolation and the emergence of new phenomena - quasi-Slavicisms. Simply put, new democratic tendencies are emerging in the system of the Church Slavonic language. Their vivid expression is the works of preaching and polemical literature of the Old Believers (deacon Fyodor, Epiphanius, Archpriest Avvakum, etc.). “Vyakanye” (“colloquialism”, opposed to Church Slavonic eloquence) is the main style of the works of Archpriest Avvakum. Avvakum deliberately creates a stylistic dissonance that combines the reduced colloquial and Church Slavonic. home stylistic feature his texts - the neutralization of Slavicisms, within which vernacular expressions are built into church-biblical formulas; Church Slavonicisms in the neighborhood with colloquial expressions are assimilated ( full of nets came the God of fish...), i.e. quasi-Slavicisms appear.
Similar tendencies are also manifested in literary genres that have little to do with the Slavic language - in secular stories of the 17th-18th centuries. (“The Tale of Frol Skobeev”, “The Tale of Shemyakin Court”, “The Tale of Grief-Misfortune”, etc.), with the appearance of which begins fformation of democratic (posad, trade and handicraft) literature. The main characteristics of the works of this literature are the style-forming nature of colloquial everyday and emotionally expressive vocabulary, the absence of unified norms of the grammatical system, the influence of oral folk art (techniques and formulas of the epic style, proverbs and sayings, a kind of rhymed prose).
Another manifestation of Book Slavonic modeling is its parodic use. The examples of the first half of the 17th century testify to the parodic use of the Book Slavonic language. (letter from a handwritten collection of the 1st third of the 17th century). In the second half of the XVII century. the number of parodies in the Book Slavonic language is increasing, which is associated with the decline in the authority of the church, church literature, and the Church Slavonic language. These are satirical works, where Church Slavonicisms are often used to achieve a comic effect, where the use of outdated formulas is played up (“The Legend of peasant son”, “Service to a tavern”, “The Tale of Ersh Ershovich”, etc.).
The possibility of parodic use of the Book Slavonic language is evidence of the beginning destruction of diglossia. In addition, the coexistence of parallel texts in Church Slavonic and Russian (for example, in the Code of 1649) is a clear sign of bilingualism and a violation of the diglossia principle. From Ser. 17th century in Russia - the situation of bilingualism. A further trend is the displacement of the Church Slavonic language by the Russian language to the periphery.
Lecture No. 9
Prerequisites for the formation of a new type of literary language (I quarter of the 18th century): the cultural and linguistic policy of Peter I.1. The purpose of Peter's reforms.
The initial period of the formation of a new literary book language is associated with the Petrine era, which covers the last decade of the 17th century. – I quarter of the 18th century. The secularization of Russian culture is a radical achievement of the Petrine era. The main manifestations of this process can be considered the creation of new educational institutions, the establishment of the Academy of Sciences, the publication of the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti (1703), the introduction of the General Regulations (1720), the Table of Ranks (1722), increase in the number of printed books and Russian-foreign dictionaries. Language construction is an integral fact of Peter's reforms. V.M. Zhivov: “The opposition of two languages was conceived as an antagonism of two cultures: the old bookish language (traditional) is barbaric, clerical (church), ignorant in the ideas of Peter the Great reformers, and the new bookish language was to become European, secular and enlightened.”
2. Graphics reform as the first stage of Peter's transformations in the field of language.
The creation of the Russian civil typeface (1708 - 1710) was the initiative of Peter I himself. The activity to create a new alphabet was carried out by Peter I together with the employees of the Moscow printing house (Musin-Pushkin, F. Polikarpov), starting from 1708, when the decree was issued Sovereign "with new alphabets to print a book of geometry into Russian, which was sent from a military campaign and other civil books to print in the same new alphabets." On January 29, 1710, Peter approved a new alphabet - a civil printed font, on the cover of which it was indicated: “Images of ancient and new letters of Slavonic printed and handwritten". On the back of the cover, Peter wrote: “These letters should be printed in historical and manufactory books, and which are blackened, do not use them in the books described above.” By May 1710, in the "newly invented" alphabet - citizen - 15 editions were printed, among them the first: "Geometry of the Slavic Earth"; "Methods of a compass and a ruler"; "Compliments, or samples of how to write letters to different persons," etc. An example of the standard use of civil type and the spelling practice of newly printed books is the typesetting manuscript “An Honest Mirror of Youth”, or “Indications for everyday behavior, collected from authors of the early 18th century.”
Parameters of Peter's reformation of the Cyrillic alphabet:
change in the alphabetic composition: initially, Peter orders to exclude 9 (according to V.M. Zhivov) / 11 (according to A.M. Kamchatnov) Cyrillic letters: and (like); w (omega); z (ground); q (uk); f(fert); i (Izhitsa); k(xi); j (psi); ^ (ligature "from"); @ (us big); # (us small). But in the finally approved alphabet of 1710, the following were left: and (like); z (ground); q (uk); f(fert); k (xi).
regulation of letters e, e, i(the letter e is entered; instead of >, "- i; instead of ~ - e);
editing the forms of the letters themselves (legalized rounded lettering as opposed to square Cyrillic);
introduction of new designations of numbers (instead of letters, Arabic numbers);
elimination of titles and superscripts.
The newly introduced civil type and the church half-charter began to be functionally opposed: just as church books could not be printed by a citizen, so civil books could not be printed by a church semi-charter. The division of the alphabet into ecclesiastical and civil is evidence of bilingualism (the coexistence of two living bookish languages) and dual culture (the opposition of secular and spiritual in printed books).
3. The second aspect of the linguistic transformations of Peter I - language reform.
In 1697, Peter I in Europe discovered "what they write, how they say." Therefore, the main principle of language construction in this period was the formation of a new literary language on a folk basis. The main goal is the transition from the hybrid Church Slavonic language to the "simple" Russian language. The way to create a new literary language is a combination of Europeanized vocabulary and Russified morphology.
The main trends in the language construction of the Petrine era:
Enrichment of the vocabulary of the native language with Europeanized vocabulary.
Creation of Russified morphology.
The displacement of the command language of Muscovite Russia.
with the advent of powerful translation activities, which also solved the problem of the state's personnel policy. The appearance of translation literature meant that not only foreign vocabulary got into the Russian language, but also the new content required the development of new forms of the native language, as indicated by the order of the sovereign: “... in order to translate more clearly, it is not necessary to keep speech from speech in translation, ... write in your own language as clearly as possible ... ".
with the process of reorganization of the administrative system, the reorganization of naval affairs, the development of trade, factory enterprises, as a result of which the formation of a new terminological system of different thematic groups begins.
1) pragmatic: lexical borrowings are mostly motivated by the borrowing of new things and concepts that speakers had to master in order to be codified;
2) semiotic: the use of borrowings indicated the assimilation of a new system of values and the rejection of traditional ideas.
At the same time, the latter function manifested itself in those cases when borrowings were accompanied in the text by a gloss (Greek "language, speech"), i.e. interpretation of an incomprehensible word through the equivalent of a given language familiar to the reader (for example, in the "General Regulations or Charter" (1720)).
In general, the process of borrowing during this period is characterized by
1) both redundancy (presence of glossing) and insufficiency (translators were not always able to designate new concepts and objects, choosing words from Russian usage);
2) successful tracing ( productus"work", Sonnestand"solstice", etc.);
3) temporary displacement from the active use of Russian words ( Victoria instead of victory, battle instead of battle, surname instead of a family, fortification instead of fortress and etc.);
4) the transition to the passive vocabulary of the disappeared realities ( senate, footman, camisole, caftan and etc.).
Thus, the widespread use of borrowings did not solve the main linguistic task of Peter. A stable feature of the language policy of that time was complaints about the incomprehensibility of legal documents (a number of borrowings first appear in legislative acts). So, in the "Military Regulations" (1716), in addition to those borrowings that are glossed, there are a number of similar lexical elements that the reader had to understand on his own ( patent, officer, article, execution). For the language situation of the Petrine era, not only bilingualism as a sign of local significance is relevant, but also multilingualism associated with the appearance of foreign vocabulary.
Another striking sign of the language construction of this time is lack of uniform morphological norms: unsystematic use of Russian, colloquial and Church Slavonic elements (letters and papers of Peter I, stories of the beginning of the 18th century). On the one hand, the influence of the former Book Slavonic tradition was reflected in the morphological features of the language being created. On April 19, 1724, Peter I wrote a decree to Senod on compiling short teachings, where he ordered “just write so that the villager knows, or two: the villager is simple, but in the city it is prettier for the sweetness of those who listen ...”. One gets the impression that the marked Church Slavonic elements are perceived as a rhetorical embellishment, or as a socio-cultural task in the activities of poets and writers, and not as general cultural significance. Therefore, Church Slavonic is no longer a universal language. On the other hand, the creation of Russified morphology is an attempt to edit the texts in accordance with the new language policy. Morphological corrections include the replacement of the aorist and imperfect forms with l-forms without a copula, infinitive forms with –t, forms 2 l. units ch. into -sh, dual forms into plural forms, coexistence of vocative and nominative forms in address. Syntactic editing was expressed in the replacement of constructions “particle yes + form of the present tense” with synthetic forms of the imperative mood, single negative double, constructions with nouns in gender. n. on agreed phrases.
Stylistic disorder of the literary language as a genetic heterogeneity of linguistic means of expression in its composition. The mixed nature of speech is a sign of the formation of a cultural dialect.
Two varieties of literary speech: the Slavic Russian language and the civil mediocre dialect. The Slavic Russian language is “secularized” Church Slavonic: a combination of Church Slavonic grammar and a small amount of vernacular, borrowings (sermons by Feofan Prokopovich, Stefan Yavorsky, translated scientific works, preface to the “Trilingual Lexicon” by Fyodor Polikarpov). Creation of civil mediation as an accessible and understandable written literary language of a new type - the main linguistic setting of Peter I. The complex composition of this literary language: colloquial Russian, colloquial, Church Slavonic elements, European borrowings, artificial formations, neologisms, calques, individual author's lexemes (translations of technical books, translated novels , dramas, intimate poetry, letters, newspapers).
The role of the "order" language in the development of the literary language: previously opposed to Church Slavonic, now it is moving to the periphery. Under the new conditions, the literariness of texts ceases to be associated with the signs of bookishness and is determined by extralinguistic parameters. As a result, the possibility of the existence of non-literary texts in the literary language is created. New language acquires the attribute of polyfunctionality: the inclusion in the linguistic culture of those areas that were outside the limits of its functioning (spiritual literature, legislation, office work).
Thus, the cultural policy of Peter I led to a radical change in the language situation:
The "mandatory" language of Muscovite Russia: out of use and in competition with the traditional bookish language.
Church Slavonic loses its polyfunctionality: only the language of worship.
a written literary language of a new type is being formed - a civil mediocre dialect.
the new literary language is distinguished by stylistic disorder, a mixture of old and new, one's own and others', bookish and colloquial.
The history of the Russian literary language as an independent scientific discipline arose in the 20th century. Although the study of the peculiarities of the Russian literary language belongs to a very early period, since "vague and one-sided, but vitally effective, practical ideas about the process of the historical development of the language invariably accompany the evolution of the Russian literary language and precede the emergence of the scientific history of the Russian literary language."
Since the 18th century, observations have been made on the connections of the Russian literary language with other Slavic and European languages, on the composition of the Church Slavonic language, its similarities with the Russian language and its difference from it.
For understanding the national specifics of the Russian literary language, the creation in 1755 of the “Russian Grammar” by M.V. Lomonosov was extremely important. The publication of the “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” (1789-1794), the appearance of the teachings of M.V. Lomonosov about the three styles of the Russian literary language, set forth in the discussion “On the Usefulness of Church Books”, “Rhetoric” and “Russian Grammar”, since the creator theory for the first time pointed out the main elements of the Russian literary national language, anticipating Pushkin's style. (4, p. 18).
The question of the origin of the Russian literary language has not been resolved by experts, moreover, they argue that the final solution is not close.
Such a close interest in the problems of the origin of the Russian literary language is explained by the fact that the whole concept of its further development, the formation of the national literary language from the 17th to the 19th century (6, p 53) depends on one or another understanding of the process of formation of the Old Russian literary language.
The history of the Russian literary language with its obviousness convinces that the language reacted very sensitively to various changes in the history of the people and, above all, in public life, that the history of the appearance and use of many words and expressions finds its justification in the development of social thought. So, for example, in the 40-60s of the 19th century, such words as socialism, communism, constitution, reaction, progress, etc. (5, p. 4) came into general use.
As a result of the October Revolution, the very composition of the native speakers of the literary language expanded significantly, since already in the first years after the revolution, masses of working people who had not previously had the opportunity to do so began to join the literary language.
In the Soviet era, the ratio of the literary language and dialects changed. If earlier dialects had a certain influence on the literary language, then after the revolution, thanks to the powerful development of culture and the dissemination of knowledge through schools, theatre, cinema, radio, the population began to energetically join the means literary expression. In this regard, many features of local dialects began to quickly disappear; remnants of the old dialects are now preserved in the countryside mainly among the older generation.
The Russian literary language freed itself in the Soviet era from the influence of class jargons that existed in the past and to a certain extent influenced the norms of the literary language. (5, p. 415).
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, bibliographic reviews were published that summed up the study of the Russian literary language. Kotlyarevsky A.A. Ancient Russian writing: Experience of bibliological presentation of the history of its study. - 1881; Bulich S.K. Essay on the history of linguistics in Russia. - 1904; Yagich I.V. History of Slavic Philology. - 1910.
In the 20th century, the history of the Russian literary language becomes the subject of special attention.
V.V. Vinogradov did a lot to create the science of the Russian literary language, the list of his main works on the history of the Russian literary language and the language of writers includes more than twenty works (4, p. 19).
The works of G.O Vinokur left a deep mark on the development of the history of the Russian literary language: “The Russian literary language in the first half of the 18th century”, 1941; "Russian language", 1945; "On the history of the rationing of the Russian written language in the 18th century." 1947; and etc.
To solve the problems of the origin of the Russian literary language, the formation of the Russian national language, the studies of L.P. Yakubinsky - "The History of the Old Russian Language", published in 1953, and "A Brief Essay on the Origin and Initial Development of the Russian National Literary Language", published in 1956.
The issue of the origin of the Russian literary language, the problems of the formation of the Russian national language, the history of the Russian literary language of the older period (Moscow state) are the subject of the works of F.P. Filin (4, p. 21).
The richness and power of the Russian literary language was created thanks to the ongoing impact on the literary language of the living national language. The language of Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Saltykov - Shchedrin, L. Tolstoy and many other luminaries of the Russian figurative word owes its brightness, strength, captivating simplicity primarily to the living sources of folk speech.
Thus, the history of the Russian literary language is, first of all, the history of a continuous and ever-developing process of literary processing of the wealth of the national language and creative enrichment and replenishment of them at the expense of new linguistic and stylistic values (5, p 46).
How often do we, Russian speakers, think about such an important moment as the history of the emergence of the Russian language? After all, how many secrets are hidden in it, how many interesting things you can find out if you dig deeper. How did the Russian language develop? After all, our speech is not only everyday conversations, it is a rich history.
The history of the development of the Russian language: briefly about the main
Where did our native language? There are several theories. Some scientists consider (for example, the linguist N. Gusev) the Sanskrit of the Russian language. However, Sanskrit was used by Indian scholars and priests. This was the Latin for the inhabitants ancient Europe- "something very clever and incomprehensible." But how did the speech that was used by the Indian scholars suddenly end up on our side? Is it really with the Indians that the formation of the Russian language began?
Legend of the Seven White Teachers
Each scientist understands the stages of the history of the Russian language differently: this is the origin, development, alienation of the bookish language from the folk language, the development of syntax and punctuation, etc. All of them can differ in order (it is still unknown when exactly the bookish language separated from the folk language) or interpretation. But, according to the following legend, seven white teachers can be considered the "fathers" of the Russian language.
In India, there is a legend that is even studied in Indian universities. In ancient times, seven white teachers came from the cold North (the Himalayas region). It was they who gave people Sanskrit and laid the foundation for Brahmanism, from which Buddhism was later born. Many believe that this North was one of the regions of Russia, so modern Hindus often go there on pilgrimage.
A legend today
It turns out that many Sanskrit words completely coincide with - such is the theory of the famous ethnographer Natalia Guseva, who wrote more than 150 scientific works on the history and religion of India. Most of them, by the way, have been refuted by other scientists.
This theory was not taken out of thin air by her. Her appearance was an interesting case. Once Natalia accompanied a respected scientist from India, who decided to arrange a tourist trip along the northern rivers of Russia. Communicating with the inhabitants of local villages, the Hindu suddenly burst into tears and refused the services of an interpreter, saying that he was happy to hear his native Sanskrit. Then Guseva decided to devote her life to studying the mysterious phenomenon, and at the same time to establish how the Russian language developed.
Indeed, it is truly amazing! According to this story, representatives of the Negroid race live beyond the Himalayas, speaking a language so similar to our native one. Mystic, and only. Nevertheless, the hypothesis that our dialect originated from Indian Sanskrit is in place. Here it is - the history of the Russian language briefly.
Dragunkin's theory
And here is another scientist who decided that this story of the emergence of the Russian language is true. The famous philologist Alexander Dragunkin argued that a truly great language comes from a simpler one, in which there are fewer derivational forms, and the words are shorter. Allegedly, Sanskrit is much simpler than Russian. And the Sanskrit writing is nothing more than Slavic runes slightly modified by the Hindus. But after all, this theory is just where is the origin of language?
scientific version
And here is the version that most scientists approve and accept. She claims that 40,000 years ago (the time of the appearance of the first man) people had a need to express their thoughts in the process of collective activity. This is how the language was born. But in those days the population was extremely small, and all people spoke the same language. After thousands of years there was a migration of peoples. The DNA of people has changed, the tribes have isolated themselves from each other and began to speak differently.
Languages differed from each other in form, in word formation. Each group of people developed their native language, supplemented it with new words, and gave it shape. Later, there was a need for a science that would deal with describing new achievements or things that a person came to.
As a result of this evolution, so-called "matrices" arose in people's heads. The well-known linguist Georgy Gachev studied these matrices in detail, having studied more than 30 matrices - language pictures of the world. According to his theory, the Germans are very attached to their home, and this served as the image of a typical German speaker. And the Russian language and mentality came from the concept or image of the road, the way. This matrix lies in our subconscious.
The birth and formation of the Russian language
About 3 thousand years BC, among the Indo-European languages, the Proto-Slavic dialect stood out, which a thousand years later became the Proto-Slavic language. In the VI-VII centuries. n. e. it was divided into several groups: eastern, western and southern. Our language is usually attributed to the eastern group.
And the beginning of the path of the Old Russian language is called the formation of Kievan Rus (IX century). At the same time, Cyril and Methodius invent the first Slavic alphabet.
The Slavic language developed rapidly, and in terms of popularity it has already caught up with Greek and Latin. It was (the predecessor of modern Russian) who managed to unite all the Slavs, it was in it that the most important documents and literary monuments were written and published. For example, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".
Normalization of writing
Then came the era of feudalism, and the Polish-Lithuanian conquests in the 13th-14th centuries led to the fact that the language was divided into three groups of dialects: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, as well as some intermediate dialects.
In the 16th century, in Muscovite Russia, they decided to normalize the writing of the Russian language (then it was called “prosta mova” and was influenced by Belarusian and Ukrainian) - to introduce the predominance of the composing connection in sentences and the frequent use of the unions “yes”, “and”, “a”. The dual number was lost, and the declension of nouns became very similar to the modern one. And the characteristic features of Moscow speech became the basis of the literary language. For example, "akanye", the consonant "g", the endings "ovo" and "evo", demonstrative pronouns (yourself, you, etc.). The beginning of book printing finally approved the literary Russian language.
Peter's era
It greatly influenced speech. After all, it was at this time that the Russian language was freed from the "guardianship" of the church, and in 1708 the alphabet was reformed so that it became closer to the European model.
In the second half of the 18th century, Lomonosov laid down new norms for the Russian language, combining everything that had come before: colloquial speech, folk poetry, and even command language. After him, the language was transformed by Derzhavin, Radishchev, Fonvizin. It was they who increased the number of synonyms in the Russian language in order to properly reveal its richness.
A huge contribution to the development of our speech was made by Pushkin, who rejected all restrictions on style and combined Russian words with some European ones to create a full and colorful picture of the Russian language. He was supported by Lermontov and Gogol.
Development trends
How did the Russian language develop in the future? From the middle of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th centuries, the Russian language received several development trends:
- Development of literary norms.
- Rapprochement of the literary language and colloquial speech.
- Expansion of the language through dialectisms and jargon.
- The development of the genre "realism" in literature, philosophical problems.
A little later, socialism changed the word formation of the Russian language, and in the 20th century, the media standardized oral speech.
It turns out that our modern Russian language, with all its lexical and grammatical rules, originated from a mixture of various East Slavic dialects that were common throughout Russia, and the Church Slavonic language. After all the metamorphoses, it has become one of the most popular languages in the world.
More about writing
Even Tatishchev himself (the author of the book “Russian History”) was firmly convinced that Cyril and Methodius did not invent writing. It existed long before they were born. The Slavs not only knew how to write: they had many types of writing. For example, traits-cuts, runes or a drop cap. And the scientist brothers took this very initial letter as a basis and simply finalized it. Perhaps they threw out about a dozen letters to make it easier to translate the Bible. Yes, Cyril and Methodius, but its basis was a letter. This is how writing appeared in Russia.
External threats
Unfortunately, our language has repeatedly been exposed to external danger. And then the future of the whole country was in question. For example, at the turn of the 19th century, all the "cream of society" spoke exclusively in French, dressed in the appropriate style, and even the menu consisted only of French cuisine. The nobles gradually began to forget their native language, ceased to associate themselves with the Russian people, acquiring a new philosophy and traditions.
As a result of this introduction of French speech, Russia could lose not only its language, but also its culture. Fortunately, the situation was saved by the geniuses of the 19th century: Pushkin, Turgenev, Karamzin, Dostoevsky. It was they who, being true patriots, did not allow the Russian language to perish. It was they who showed how beautiful he is.
Modernity
The history of the Russian language is polysyllabic and has not been fully studied. Don't briefly describe it. It will take years to study. The Russian language and the history of the people are truly amazing things. And how can you call yourself a patriot without knowing your native speech, folklore, poetry and literature?
Unfortunately, today's youth has lost interest in books, and especially in classical literature. This trend is also observed in older people. Television, the Internet, nightclubs and restaurants, glossy magazines and blogs - all this has replaced our "paper friends". Many people have even ceased to have their own opinion, expressing themselves in the usual clichés imposed by society and the media. Despite the fact that the classics were and remain in the school curriculum, few people read them even in summary, which "eats" all the beauty and uniqueness of the works of Russian writers.
But how rich is the history and culture of the Russian language! For example, literature is able to provide answers to many questions better than any forums on the Internet. Russian literature expresses all the power of the wisdom of the people, makes you feel love for our homeland and better understand it. Each person must understand that the native language, native culture and people are inseparable, they are one whole. And what does a modern Russian citizen understand and think about? About the need to leave the country as soon as possible?
Main danger
And of course, foreign words are the main threat to our language. As mentioned above, such a problem was relevant in the 18th century, but, unfortunately, it has remained unresolved to this day and is slowly acquiring the features of a national catastrophe.
Not only is society too fond of various slang words, obscene language, and made-up expressions, it also constantly uses foreign borrowings in its speech, forgetting that there are much more beautiful synonyms in the Russian language. Such words are: “stylist”, “manager”, “PR”, “summit”, “creative”, “user”, “blog”, “Internet” and many others. If it came only from certain groups of society, then the problem could be fought. But, unfortunately, foreign words are actively used by teachers, journalists, scientists and even officials. These people carry the word to people, which means they introduce an addiction. And it happens that a foreign word settles so firmly in the Russian language that it begins to seem as if it is native.
What's the matter?
So what is it called? Ignorance? Fashion for everything foreign? Or a campaign directed against Russia? Perhaps all at once. And this problem must be solved as soon as possible, otherwise it will be too late. For example, more often use the word “manager” instead of “manager”, “business lunch” instead of “business lunch”, etc. After all, the extinction of a people begins precisely with the extinction of the language.
About dictionaries
Now you know how the Russian language developed. However, that's not all. The history of Russian language dictionaries deserves special mention. Modern dictionaries evolved from ancient handwritten and later printed books. At first they were very small and intended for a narrow circle of people.
The most ancient Russian dictionary is considered to be a short supplement to the Novgorod Pilot Book (1282). It included 174 words from different dialects: Greek, Church Slavonic, Hebrew, and even biblical proper names.
After 400 years, much larger dictionaries began to appear. They already had a systematization and even an alphabet. The then dictionaries were mostly educational or encyclopedic in nature, so they were inaccessible to ordinary peasants.
First printed dictionary
The first printed dictionary appeared in 1596. It was another supplement to the grammar textbook by Priest Lavrentiy Zizania. It contained over a thousand words, which were sorted alphabetically. The dictionary was explanatory and explained the origin of many Old Slavonic and was published in Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages.
Further development of dictionaries
The 18th century was a century of great discoveries. They did not bypass explanatory dictionaries either. Great scientists (Tatishchev, Lomonosov) unexpectedly showed an increased interest in the origin of many words. Trediakovsky began to write notes. In the end, a number of dictionaries were created, but the largest was the "Church Dictionary" and its appendix. More than 20,000 words have been interpreted in the Church Dictionary. Such a book laid the foundation for the normative dictionary of the Russian language, and Lomonosov, along with other researchers, began its creation.
Most Significant Dictionary
The history of the development of the Russian language remembers such a significant date for all of us - the creation of " explanatory dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dahl (1866). This four-volume book has received dozens of reprints and is still relevant today. 200,000 words and more than 30,000 sayings and phraseological units can be safely considered a real treasure.
Our days
Unfortunately, the world community is not interested in the history of the emergence of the Russian language. His current position can be compared to one incident that once happened to the extraordinarily talented scientist Dmitri Mendeleev. After all, Mendeleev was never able to become an honorary academician of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (the current RAS). There was a grandiose scandal, and still: such a scientist cannot be admitted to the academy! But Russian empire and her world were unshakable: they declared that the Russians since the times of Lomonosov and Tatishchev were in the minority, and one good Russian scientist, Lomonosov, was enough.
This history of the modern Russian language makes us think: what if someday English (or any other) will supplant such a unique Russian? Pay attention to how many foreign words are present in our jargon! Yes, the mixing of languages and friendly exchange is great, but the amazing history of our speech should not be allowed to disappear from the planet. Take care of your native language!
The literary Russian language began to take shape many centuries ago. Until now, there are disputes in science about its basis, about the role of the Church Slavonic language in its origin. The Russian language belongs to the Indo-European family. Its origins date back to the time of the existence and collapse of the common European (proto-Slavic) language. From this common Slavic unity (VI-VII centuries), several groups stand out: eastern, western and southern. It is in the East Slavic group that the Russian language will later stand out (XV century).
In the Kievan state, a mixed language was used, which was called Church Slavonic. All liturgical literature, being written off from Old Slavonic Byzantine and Bulgarian sources, reflected the norms of the Old Slavonic language. However, words and elements of the Old Russian language penetrated into this literature. In parallel to this style of language, secular and business literature also existed. If the “Psalter”, “Gospel” and so on serve as examples of the Church Slavonic language, then “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”, “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Russian Truth” are considered an example of the secular and business language of Ancient Russia.
This literature (secular and business) reflects the linguistic norms of the living spoken language of the Slavs, their oral folk art. Based on the fact that in Ancient Russia there was such a complex dual language system, it is difficult for scientists to explain the origin of the modern literary Russian language. Their opinions differ, but the most common is the theory of the academician V. V. Vinogradova . According to this theory, two varieties of the literary language functioned in Ancient Russia:
1) book-Slavonic literary language, based on Old Church Slavonic and used mainly in church literature;
2) folk-literary language, based on the living Old Russian language and used in secular literature.
According to V.V. Vinogradov, these are two types of language, and not two special languages, that is, there was no bilingualism in Kievan Rus. These two types of language interacted with each other for a long time. Gradually they became closer, and on their basis in the XVIII century. a unified literary Russian language was formed.
The beginning of the stage of development of the Russian literary language is considered to be the time of creativity of the great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, who is sometimes called the creator of the modern Russian literary language.
A. S. Pushkin streamlined artistic means Russian literary language, significantly enriched it. Based on various manifestations of the folk language, he managed to create in his works a language that was perceived by society as a literary one.
Pushkin's work is indeed a definite milestone in the history of the literary Russian language. We still read his works easily and with pleasure, while the works of his predecessors and even many contemporaries - with some difficulty. one senses that they wrote in a now obsolete language. Of course, a lot of time has passed since the time of A. S. Pushkin and a lot has changed, including the Russian language: something has gone out of it, a lot of new words have appeared. Although the great poet did not leave us a grammar, he was the author of not only artistic, but also historical, journalistic works, he clearly distinguished between the author's speech and characters, that is, he practically laid the foundations for the modern functional and stylistic classification of the literary Russian language.
The further development of the literary language continued in the work of the great Russian writers, publicists, in the diverse activities of the Russian people. Late XIX in. up to the present time - the second period of development of the modern literary Russian language. This period is characterized by well-established linguistic norms, but these norms are being improved over time.
Origin of the Russian language. The modern Russian language is a continuation of the Old Russian (East Slavonic) language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, which formed in the 9th century. Old Russian nationality within the Kievan state.
This language had a great similarity with the languages of other Slavic peoples, but already differed in some phonetic and lexical features.
All Slavic languages (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian) come from a common root - a single Proto-Slavic language that probably existed until the 10th-11th centuries.
In the XIV-XV centuries. as a result of the collapse of the Kievan state, on the basis of a single language of the ancient Russian people, three independent language: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which, with the formation of nations, took shape in national languages.
The formation and development of the book and writing tradition in Russia and the main stages in the history of the Russian language. The first texts written in Cyrillic appeared among the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century. By the first half of the X century. refers to the inscription on the korchaga (vessel) from Gnezdovo (near Smolensk). This is probably an inscription indicating the name of the owner. From the second half of the X century. also preserved a number of inscriptions indicating the belonging of objects. After the baptism of Russia in 988, book writing arose. The Chronicle reports on "many scribes" who worked under Yaroslav the Wise. Mostly liturgical books were copied. The originals for the East Slavic handwritten books were mainly South Slavic manuscripts dating back to the works of the students of the creators of the Slavic script Cyril and Methodius. In the process of correspondence, the original language was adapted to the East Slavic language and the Old Russian book language was formed - the Russian version (variant) of the Church Slavonic language. In addition to books intended for worship, other Christian literature was copied: the works of the holy fathers, the lives of the saints, collections of teachings and interpretations, collections of canon law.
The oldest surviving written monuments include the Ostromir Gospel of 1056-1057. and the Arkhangelsk Gospel of 1092. The original writings of Russian authors were moralizing and hagiographic works. Since the bookish language was mastered without grammars, dictionaries and rhetorical aids, compliance with language norms depended on the author's well-read and his ability to reproduce those forms and constructions that he knew from exemplary texts. Chronicles constitute a special class of ancient written monuments. The chronicler, outlining historical events, included them in the context of Christian history, and this united the chronicles with other monuments of book culture of spiritual content. Therefore, the annals were written in the bookish language and were guided by the same corpus of exemplary texts, however, due to the specifics of the material presented (concrete events, local realities), the language of the annals was supplemented with non-bookish elements. Separately from the book tradition, a non-book written tradition developed in Russia: administrative and judicial texts, official and private office work, household records. These documents differed from book texts as syntactic constructions, as well as morphology. At the center of this written tradition were legal codes, beginning with Russkaya Pravda, the oldest copy of which dates back to 1282.
Legal acts of an official and private nature adjoin this tradition: interstate and interprincely agreements, donations, contributions, wills, bills of sale, etc. The oldest text of this kind is the charter of the Grand Duke Mstislav to the Yuryev Monastery (c. 1130). Graffiti occupies a special position. For the most part, these are prayer texts written on the walls of churches, although there are graffiti and other (factual, chronographic, act) content. Starting from the first half of the XIII century. there is a division of the ancient Russian people into the inhabitants of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia, later Muscovite Russia, and Western Russia (later - Ukraine and Belarus). As a result of the development of dialects in the second half of the XII century. - the first half of the XIII century. on the future Great Russian territory, Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov-Suzdal dialects and the aka dialect of the upper and middle Oka and the interfluve of the Oka and the Seim developed.
In the XIV-XVI centuries. the Great Russian state and the Great Russian nationality are taking shape, this time becomes a new stage in the history of the Russian language. In the 17th century the Russian nation is taking shape and the Russian national language is beginning to take shape. During the formation of the Russian nation, the foundations of the national literary language were formed, which is associated with the weakening of the influence of the Church Slavonic language and the development of a language of a national type, based on the traditions of the business language of Moscow. The development of new dialect features gradually stops, the old dialect features become very stable.
Formation of the literary language. In the second half of the XVI century. in the Moscow state, book printing began, which was of great importance for the fate of the Russian literary language, culture and education. The first printed books were church books, primers, grammars, dictionaries. In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, on which secular literature was printed. Since the 17th century the trend towards convergence of book and spoken language is increasing. In the XVIII century. society begins to realize that the Russian national language is capable of becoming the language of science, art, and education. A special role in the creation of the literary language during this period was played by M.V. Lomonosov. He possessed a great talent and wished to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, wrote "Russian Grammar", in which he gave a set of grammatical rules, showed the richest possibilities of the language. It is especially valuable that M.V. Lomonosov considered language a means of communication, constantly emphasizing that people needed it for "a concordant common cause of the flow, which is controlled by the combination of different thoughts." According to Lomonosov, without language, society would be like an unassembled machine, all parts of which are scattered and inactive, which is why their very "existence is vain and useless." M.V. Lomonosov wrote in the preface to the "Russian Grammar": "The master of many languages, the Russian language, not only by the vastness of the places where it dominates, but also by its own space and contentment is great in front of everyone in Europe. Incredibly, this will seem foreign and some natural Russians, who have worked more on foreign languages than on their own." And further: "Charles the Fifth, the Roman emperor, used to say that it was decent to speak Spanish with God, French - with friends, German - with enemies, Italian - with the female sex. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, to I would add to this that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, for I found in him the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, the richness and brevity of Greek and strong in the images Latin"Since the 18th century, the Russian language has become a literary language with generally recognized norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech.
Creativity A.S. Pushkin laid the foundation for the modern Russian literary language. The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of the literary language up to the present day. In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, and also against the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words.
If the scientific and literary works of the Lomonosov era look rather archaic in their language, then the works of Pushkin and all literature after him became the literary basis of the language we speak today.
