Modern Russian spelling is based on certain principles. To understand the principle of spelling means to see its system and perceive each of its individual rules as part of the system, to understand the spelling rule and each spelling in the interrelations of grammar, etymology, and the history of the language. The theory of Russian spelling specifies morphological, phonetic, traditional principles, as well as differentiating spellings.
Morphological principle spelling presupposes uniform, identical spelling of morphemes - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, regardless of phonetic changes in the sounding word that occur during the formation of related words or word forms, that is, regardless of positional alternations, other traditional inconsistencies of writing and pronunciation. Such inconsistencies include: all cases of unstressed vowels in different morphemes - root, prefix, suffix, ending, deafening of voiced consonants and voicing of voiceless consonants before paired deaf and voiced consonants, deafening at the absolute end of a word; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations.
Checking spellings written in morphological feature, includes: firstly: understanding the meaning the word or phrase being tested, without which it is impossible to select a related test word, determine the case form, proper name, etc.; Secondly: analysis morphological composition of the word, the ability to determine the location of the spelling, which is important for choosing and applying the rule; Thirdly: phonetic analysis, definitions syllabic composition, stressed and unstressed syllables, highlighting vowels and consonants, understanding weak and strong positions of phonemes, positional alternations and their reasons; fourthly, grammatical analysis words (phrases) - definition of a part of speech, form of a word, for example: a noun, first declension, in d.p., singular, etc.
The leading position of the morphological principle of Russian orthography also determines the methodology of teaching spelling: the latter is based on a conscious, analytical approach to language, on understanding the meanings of words and their combinations, text, grammatical categories and forms, and the phonemic composition of a word.
The following orthographic topics studied in the following correspond to the morphological principle: primary school: spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants, except for unverified words that are written according to a different principle; spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants in prefixes and suffixes, at the junctions of morphemes (except for certain cases, for example, prefixes with “-z”, which are written according to a different principle; this case is not studied in primary grades); spelling of unstressed vowels in the endings of word forms: in the case endings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd declension of nouns, in the case endings of adjectives, in the personal endings of verbs of the 1st and 2nd conjugations of the present and future tense; transferring words from line to line, since when transferring, not only syllabic, but also morphemic division of words is observed; to a certain extent, the morphological principle also operates in combined and separate spellings of words, in particular, in distinguishing between prefixes and prepositions, as well as in the use of “Ъ” after prefixes, since the application of the corresponding rules requires a morphemic analysis of words and the determination of their morphological features.
Even such spelling topics as indicating soft consonants in writing, capitalizing names, and double consonants also rely on children's morphological knowledge and skills.
So, the morphological principle is the basic principle of Russian orthography. As mentioned above, its essence lies in the fact that all significant parts of a word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections), repeated in different words and forms, are always written the same way, regardless of how they are pronounced in one position or another.
Thus, based on the morphological principle:
- 1) writing the tested unstressed vowels and voiced final consonants in the roots of words: sa d[sa T], gardens [s dy], s A Dov od, move [ho T];
- 2) spelling of prefixes, excluding prefixes with z-: p O play [piplay], prop at style [missed], approach [z hot].
- 3) spelling of unstressed endings of nouns: in the city [v - proud], above the table [нът - st lom];
- 4) spelling of the suffix -ok: wide [shyrok], low [low];
- 5) spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants: sad [grusnъ], local [m esnyj];
- 6) spelling of assimilated consonants: carry [n i s t i], grass [trafk].
- 7) spelling And after prefixes on a hard consonant and the first root starting with -I- in a compound abbreviated word: pedagogical institute [p dyns t i tu t], disinformation [d zynf rmatsyj].
The unity of the orthographic appearance of morphemes is achieved by the fact that the letter indicates not the pronunciation in one case or another, but the phonemic composition of the morpheme, formed by strong phonemes. Therefore, the basic principle of Russian orthography can also be called phonetic, meaning by this the principle of transmitting the phonemic composition of a morpheme in writing.
Deviations from the basic principle of Russian spelling are phonetic and traditional-historical principles.
Let us next consider the phonetic principle. It is assumed that it originally arose in different nations sound-letter writing has always been phonetic: each sound of speech was recorded as it sounds, as the writer hears it. And in modern Russian writing there are many such spellings where there are no discrepancies between sound and writing: “moon”; “chair”, “we”, “cancer” and many others. In most words, along with verifiable or unverifiable spellings, other sounds are designated by letters, essentially on a phonetic basis. Thus, in the word “car” the sound [a] is unstressed and is considered unverifiable, the letter -a- is written according to tradition, but the other letters of the word are written in accordance with the sound. In essence, all these spellings should be called not phonetic, but phonetic-graphic.
Phonetic-graphic spellings do not cause difficulties for writers, so they are usually simply not noticed; but in primary school their role is very important. Phonetic-graphic spellings do not contradict the morphological principle of Russian orthography, since they do not lead to unequal spelling of morphemes. But their danger is that they still create in students the illusion of well-being, the illusion that the letter corresponds to the sound, which in fact is not always the case.
Cases such as “table”, “hand”, “lamp” (phonetic spellings) reflect the phonemic composition of these words and do not oppose the morphological principle of spelling. So, the phonetic principle of Russian orthography is that sounds are written in words as they are heard, i.e. the spelling conveys the sound of the word.
Based on the phonetic principle:
- 1) writing prefixes in z-: without-, voz-, them-, from-, once-, through-, through-. So, before a root that begins with a voiceless consonant, the letter s is written, and in other cases z is retained: classless, harmless, inform, drink, fall;
- 2) writing stressed vowels: house, forest, garden;
- 3) spelling of vowels in the prefixes raz-, ras-, roz-, ros-: under stress, O is heard and O is written; in an unstressed position, A is heard and A is written: search - to search, painting - receipt;
- 4) writing Y instead of the initial I at the root after prefixes with a hard consonant: play, but play, search, but find, history, but background;
- 5) writing under the stress O and in the unstressed position E at the endings of nouns, adjectives and adverbs after hissing ones: with soul, but porridge, big, but red, hot, fresh, but melodious, lively;
- 6) writing under stress -ОY, in an unstressed position -Ой in the endings of adjectives, participles and ordinal numbers: big, but new, eighth, but fifth;
- 7) writing Y after C: Lisitsyn, Sinitsyn, Sestritsyn;
- 8) writing b after soft L: salt, coal, strong.
In the system of spelling rules, there are also those that are based on the phonetic principle and are in sharp contradiction with the leading, morphological principle. The contradiction lies in the fact that morphemes (in this case, prefixes with - -з) are not written uniformly, but depending on pronunciation, reflecting positional alternation. The prefixes from-, is-, time-, race-, vz-, vs-, through-, through- and others do not obey the morphological principle. According to the rule, these prefixes are written with the letter Z before vowels or voiced consonants, and in other cases - with the letter C: “unnamed, but “infinite.” It is easy to notice that the spelling Z- (S- in this example corresponds to the pronunciation, i.e., is subject to the phonetic principle.
Rules based on the phonetic principle and contradicting the morphological one cause difficulties for students, destroy the ideas about the spelling system that have just begun to form in them, and contradict general principle checking vowels and consonants in weak positions.
Since the rules based on the phonetic principle contradict the understanding of the Russian spelling system that is developing in children and are generally difficult to master, we are aware primary school they are not studied. But words containing such spellings are encountered by primary schoolchildren in writing and write them, mastering them on a practical basis by memorizing.
It can be emphasized that cases similar to the spelling of prefixes with -з- are few: other principles of spelling generally do not contradict, but, on the contrary, support the morphological principle of Prussian spelling. This is the third principle - traditional(historical). According to this principle, many words are written according to tradition, without checking the rules.
Words that are not verified by the rules are very numerous: in the text typical of the written speech of primary schoolchildren, their number reaches 20% (many of these words will later, in high school, become verifiable for students). These are mostly words borrowed from other languages. Many of them entered the Russian language relatively recently: “bath” - German, “suitcase” - Persian, others in ancient times: “watermelon”, “balyk”, “tulup” - Turkic. and etc.
Many spellings considered traditional can in fact be verified based on the source language: "cardboard" - from Latin; “suit” - from French, etc.
Sometimes a spelling considered traditional can be verified based on knowledge of the history of the etymology of words and historical changes in the phonetics of the Russian language: “rooster” - from the Old Russian “peti”, “peas” - contains the full vowel -oro-, in which there is no -a- .
Based on the traditional historical principle:
- 1) writing G in gender, singular. adjectives, participles, impersonal pronouns, masculine and neuter ordinal numbers: young (pronounced - in), fifth (pronounced - in). The spelling G has been preserved from those distant eras when these forms were pronounced with [g].;
- 2) according to tradition, the letter I is written after the hissing Zh and Sh. These consonants were soft in the Old Russian language, so after them it was natural to write I, E, Yo, Yu, Ya, as one hears, but by the 13th century. these consonants have hardened, but the writing And continues according to tradition, although the consonants are pronounced firmly and Y is heard, not I: to live, to sew;
- 3) according to tradition, b is written at the endings of verbs of the present and future tense in 2 l. units: reading, playing;
- 4) according to tradition, it is written, but there is no explanation for the spelling with unverified unstressed vowels: potter, blockhead, ship, dog, station;
- 5) suffixes -enk, -tel, -ochk, -echk, -enn, -ovat, -evat.
So, traditional historical writings are those writings that do not depend on either morphemes or pronunciations, and the writing according to tradition is preserved.
Within the framework of the traditional principle, which generally does not contradict the general rules of Russian writing and the leading principle of Russian orthography - morphological, there are several cases that contradict the general system.
The traditional spelling of the combinations ZHI, SHI, with the letter “i”, CHA, SHCHA, with the letter “a”, CHU, SHU with the letter “u” contradicts general rule Russian orthography, according to which after hard consonants one should write not “i”, but “y”, after soft consonants - not “u”, “a”, but “yu”, “ya”.
In the elementary grades, the spelling of these combinations is learned by heart without any explanation, and, of course, cannot but cause damage to the formation of the concept of a spelling system in the minds of students.
The morphological principle is contradicted by the traditional spelling of individual words: “kalach” (according to the morphological principle, one should write “kolach”).
If morphological spellings are checked and learned on the basis of phonetic, word-formation and grammatical analysis of words and their combinations, then traditional spellings are mainly based on memorization, in the order of the so-called dictionary-spelling work. Memorization plays in primary school important role, they cannot be neglected; on the contrary, it is necessary to develop a deep system of motivations, gaming techniques, making it easier for children to memorize words with difficult spellings.
With the development of phonology, with the introduction of the concept of phoneme into scientific use, a new phonemic principle was proposed, which some linguists define as the basic principle of Russian orthography. But, as mentioned above, the leading role in checking spellings belongs to the morphological approach: you need to know whether the spelling is in the root, suffix, prefix or ending. And without a morphological approach, the phonemic method of verification is blind and is applicable only in the simplest, obvious cases such as “water” - “water” or “meadow” - “meadows”.
It is impossible to check the spelling of words [p shot], [long], [shyt] and many other spellings without resorting to morphological analysis. The morphological principle explains all these cases; in other words, the morphological principle is wider than the phonemic one; it covers significantly large quantity orthograms than phonetic. Most authors teaching aids for universities, the morphological and phonemic principles are considered in close connection, but however not equal, since the phonetic principle is part of the morphological one.
Spelling, unlike graphics, is busy designating sounds of weak positions without a direct focus on pronunciation, but with a certain regard for it. The following rules apply here:
1. Sounds of weak positions, alternating within the same morpheme with sounds of strong positions, are designated by the same letters as these latter, and thus the designation of sounds of weak positions (the orthographic part of the letter) is equated to the designation of sounds of strong positions, established by graphics. This equation is carried out using a test - a comparison of alternating sounds: G[Ʌ] ra — G[O]ry, G O ra — G O ry; sa[T] — sa[d]y, sa d — sa d y; [p"e And] you — [p"a]t, P I you — P I t and so on.
Sounds of weak positions that do not alternate within the same morpheme with sounds of strong positions are designated in dictionary order - based on tradition, but only those letters are used that can be in the same positions if verified: unstressed sound [Ʌ] will be indicated only by letters A or O (barn, dog etc.), since if it is possible to check, unstressed [Ʌ] is designated precisely through A or about, for example: With A ma — With A m; G O ra — G O ry. Voiced and voiceless consonants of weak positions, which do not enter into alternation with sounds of strong positions as part of specific morphemes, are designated in the same way as the corresponding sounds that enter into such alternations, but only the choice of the desired letter is carried out in dictionary order: zi G zag, in To hall, but not To pillbox, domo V , I'm going T and so on. Let's compare the designation of the same sounds if possible: with G beny — with G Well; To That — To Wow; zo V — h V at; knu T — knu T A and so on.
Thus, the verification rules not only determine the choice of letters to be checked, but also have a significant impact on the choice of unchecked spellings, determining the range of letters from which the desired one is selected.
Both types of rules are subsumed under the morphological principle, which requires uniform spelling of morphemes, but with the possibility of verification ( With A hey, because With A d, And sa d , because sa d y, etc.) this principle manifests itself more fully and clearly.
The verification rules apply to the writing of morphemes of all types - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, connecting vowels, etc. They are used mainly when writing roots, since there are relatively few non-root morphemes and their spelling should be remembered: ending I.p. units nouns after hard consonants is always indicated by a letter A (books A , mint A ); ending of nouns w.r. in the same positions - with the letter o ( swamp O , gold O etc.), in words With cut, With beat and so on. - console With-, console from- always written with O And T, and the prefix under-- With O And d and so on.
But if verification rules are practically not used when writing prefixes, suffixes and endings, then the spelling of these morphemes in most cases is established on the basis of these very rules. Let me explain.
1. In words with a prefix With- always written WithV"], where [ With]: collect, play, drain, crush, take off, cutting down, move out, twist and etc.; b) in some cases instead of [ With] heard [ h], [and] or [ w], but it is written [ With]: [h]give, [and]reap, [w]sew and so on.
Console from- always written with T, and the prefix under- With d: a) in a strong position before vowels, sonorants and [ V"] is pronounced accordingly [ T] And [ d]: O You play — By yes play, O tl it — By dl it, O tm yat — By dm yat, O tn yat — By days yat, O tr drive — By etc. drive, O t drive — By db drive, O TV come back — By dv come back and etc.; b) in weak positions there may be another sound: O[d]beat, By[T]hew etc. The stress in these prefixes is always pronounced [ O]: O rest, O tlight, P O given and so on. Consoles pre- And at- in unstressed position they coincide in pronunciation ( etc e give, etc And give), but differ in emphasis: etc e the, etc And the etc., this is the basis for their difference in spelling.
2. Suffix - ov(th) in adjectives is always written with O, since under the stress it is pronounced [ O]: pine, spruce, maple etc., therefore o is also written in unstressed positions: birch, aspen, lime and so on.
3. Nouns in I.p. units have a stressed ending [-а] (voda), and nouns sr.r. - ending [- O] (village), therefore in unstressed endings they are written accordingly -A And - O: l O stalemate, books A , yam A , Sep O , years O , swamp O and so on.
In the same way, the spelling of other case endings nouns: shovels O th, because wall; swamp O m, because sat down O m; on shovels e , since on walls e , and so on. The same applies when writing the endings of adjectives: new, How young O th; new O mu, so young O mu; new s m, How young y m; oh new O m, How oh young O m, and so on. Violations of the morphological principle of spelling include, for example, writing the endings I.p. units m.r.: new s th, Although young O y.
Morphological principle .
Orthographic principles are the guiding ideas for the choice of letters by a native speaker where the sound can be indicated variably. The nature and system of Russian orthography is revealed using its principles: morphological, phonemic, traditional-historical, phonetic and the principle of differentiation of meanings.
The morphological principle requires that the spelling check be focused on the morphemic composition of the word; it assumes uniformity, the same spelling of morphemes: root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of positional alternations (phonetic changes) in the sounding word that occur during the formation of related words or word forms. Such inconsistencies between writing and pronunciation include: unstressed vowels in different morphemes - in the root, prefix, suffix, ending; deafening of voiced consonants and voicing of voiceless consonants in weak positions; unpronounceable consonants; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations: [siniev] - blue, [kan'eshn] - of course and many more. etc. Spelling, based on a morphological principle, outwardly diverges from pronunciation, but not sharply and only in certain parts of speech. In this case, the discrepancy between writing and pronunciation is carried out during morphological writing on the basis of strictly defined relationships with pronunciation. Morphological writing is a consequence of the seeker’s understanding of the structural division of a word into its constituent significant parts (morphemes) and results in the most uniform possible representation of these parts in writing. A method of writing with a uniform graphic representation of significant parts of words makes it easier for readers to “grasp” the meaning. Preserving the graphic unity of the same morphemes in writing, where possible, is characteristic feature Russian spelling. The uniformity of spellings of significant parts of words is achieved by the fact that positional alternations of vowels and consonants are not reflected in Russian writing.
Checking spellings written according to the morphological principle includes:
a) understanding the meaning of the word being tested or a combination of words, without which it is impossible to select a related test word, determine the grammatical form of the word, etc.;
b) analysis of the morphemic composition of a word, the ability to determine the place of the spelling - in the root, in the prefix, in the suffix, in the ending, which is necessary for choosing and applying the rule;
c) phonetic analysis, determination of stressed and unstressed syllables, identification of vowels and consonants, understanding of strong and weak phonemes, positional alternations and their causes. Next - solving a spelling problem using an algorithm.
It should be noted that the assimilation of spellings corresponding to the morphological principle cannot be effective without strong speech skills students: choosing words, forming their forms, constructing phrases and sentences.
The morphological principle in spelling has long been considered the main, leading one, because it ensures the leading role of semantics in language teaching. But in recent decades, a new, phonemic principle has claimed the role of the leading principle.
Phonemic principle.
In modern phonology, it is generally accepted that if two or more sounds alternate positionally, then in the language system they are identical. This is a phoneme - a linguistic unit represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds. Thus, the phoneme [o] can be represented by the following sounds, regularly reproduced in the speech of native speakers of the Russian language: strong position - under the stress [dom]; weak position - unstressed [queen]; weak position - reduced [m'lako], [obl'k].
The phonemic principle of spelling states: the same letter denotes a phoneme (not a sound!) in strong and weak positions. Russian graphics are phonemic: a letter means in its strong version and in a weak position, also in the same morpheme, of course. Phoneme is a meaning distinguisher. A letter, fixing a phoneme, provides a unified understanding of the meaning of a morpheme (for example, a root) regardless of its sound variations.
The phonemic principle explains basically the same spellings as the morphological principle, but from a different point of view, and this allows for a deeper understanding of the nature of orthography. He explains more clearly why, when checking an unstressed vowel, one should focus on the stressed version, on the strong position of the morpheme.
The phonemic principle allows us to combine many disparate rules: checking unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants; promotes understanding of consistency in spelling; introduces teachers and students to a new linguistic teaching - phonology.
The morphological and phonemic principles do not contradict each other, but deepen each other. Checking vowels and consonants in a weak position through a strong one - from the phonemic; reliance on the morphemic composition of a word, on parts of speech and their forms - from the morphological (morphematic) principle.
Some modern programs and textbooks of the Russian language (for example, V.V. Repkin’s school) provide basic information on phonology, and in those schools where V.V. Repkin’s textbook is used, the interaction of the two considered principles and practical methods is already being implemented.
There is also a phonetic principle, that is, one in which successive chains of sounds in words are designated on the basis of a direct “sound-letter” connection, without taking into account any other criteria. This principle is briefly defined by the motto “write as you hear.” But a very important question is what sounds should be designated using the phonetic principle, and with what detail. In practical writing, which is any letter-sound letter and with the phonetic principle of spelling, only phonemes can and should be designated.
The phonetic principle of spelling with the advent of the concept and term “phoneme” could be called the phonemic principle of spelling, but since the latter term is used in a different sense in modern linguistic literature, it is more convenient to leave the previous name for it.
The phonetic principle as a specific orthographic principle is proclaimed when positional alternations of phonemes (if they occur) are specifically reflected in the letter. The phonetic principle is a principle of designating phonemes when phonemes of weak positions, with which phonemes of strong positions alternate, are designated by letters that are adequate to the phonemes of weak positions based on the direct connection “phoneme - letter adequate to it.”
In addition, there are many words in the Russian language that are impossible (or difficult) to check with the rules, and they are written as is customary, as is customary, i.e. traditionally.
Traditional principle is a principle in which phonemes in weak positions are denoted by one of a number of letters phonologically possible to denote that phoneme. Phonologically, letters are possible that are adequate to the phonemes that lead the phonemic rows of the morphological system of the language, which could include one or another phoneme of weak position to be designated. The traditional principle is, as it were, a morphological principle intended for implementation, but not having the opportunity to move into it. Since when designating phonemes of weak positions on the basis of the traditional principle, phonemic oppositions in word forms are not violated, this principle could be called phonemic-traditional.
In this principle, the final choice of letter is based on tradition (based on etymology, transliteration, transcription, or simply convention). But the set of letters to choose from is also limited and completely specific. Here are presented only phoneme series that can be called potential.
Untestable words are learned on the basis of memorizing the letter composition, the whole “image” of the word, comparison and contrast, i.e. visually, by speaking, relying on kinesthesia, speech motor memory, through written and oral use in speech, etc.
So, knowledge of the basic principles of Russian spelling allows you to generalize the rules you have learned and find a single pattern in them. Spelling is necessary to ensure full communication and it is natural that each of its principles is communicatively appropriate.
Differentiating principle used where two words or two forms that have the same phonemic structure are conventionally distinguished using spelling (burn - burn, carcass - ink). Continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings using three graphic signs (continuous spelling, space and hyphen) include different grammatical categories of words: compound nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, adverbs, as well as the spelling of particles not with different parts of speech. The principles on which the spelling rules of this section are based are called: - lexical-syntactic - to distinguish between words and phrases (long-playing record - a child playing in the yard for a long time; finally, I did all the work - we are planning a trip at the end of summer);
Word-formation and grammar - for writing complex adjectives and nouns: automobile-road and highway, gas-oil and gas-oil; forest park and diesel engine.
Separate writing of words is based on the principle: write all words of the Russian language, independent and functional, separately, for example: “The moon is looking from the middle of the sky.” During the life of a language, prepositions and particles sometimes merge with the words they refer to, forming new words, for example: on the right, for the first time, not bad. At the same time, there are transitional cases, for example: on the go, for memory. A capital letter is used to highlight the beginning of a sentence and to highlight proper names, for example: “Our great poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin lived at that time in the Pskov province.”
The rules of transfer are based on dividing words into syllables, taking into account the composition of the words: smell, priplyat.
Spelling, which reflects a complex and living language process, is constantly being improved on the basis of spelling practice and theoretical linguistic research.
§4. Use of letters e and e. Spelling.At the beginning of words, the letters e and e are written in accordance with the pronunciation, for example: export (cf.: huntsman), ellipse (cf.: heresy), echo (cf.: Eve), this (cf.: eats).
After and, as well as after consonants, the letter e is written, for example: hygiene, diet, muffler, stand.
Exceptions: foreign words mayor, sir, peer and some proper names (Ulan-Ude).
After other vowels, e is often written, for example: poetry, silhouette, maestro. The letter e is used in certain words, for example: project, registry.
№1
Rewrite. Read these words correctly.
Make up a sketch..mu, colors sp..ktra, ..gersky costume, ancient..pos, great..poha, wide...screen movie, funny..pizod, di...tic dining room, personal hygiene..on, lie under t..ntom, latest mod..l, long tunnel..l, enemy..squad, wonderful highway.., mashed potatoes.., hot coffee.., new t..ma, dangerous incident...nt, slow. .volition, experienced tr..n..r, swimming pool..in, local history music..y, replace piece..ps..l, dark force..t, sew a coat in at..lie, art.. nd with books.
№2
Read the examples and indicate: a) verifiable morphological spellings of prefixes and roots; b) unverifiable morphological (traditional) spellings of roots; c) spellings of prefixes and roots that deviate from the morphological principle.
Planted, ran, low, river, steppe, confess, gatehouse, dog, ram, asbestos, apparatus, station, stick up, break, exclaim, painting, receipt, tan, tanned, tangent, touch, request.
Untalented, helpless, smell, clayey, patronage, cabin, crimson, jump, bend, slippery, asphalt, grow, thicket, collect, collect, corridor, gallery, collective.
№3
Rewrite. Explain what the separate or combined spelling of words is based on.
Shelter from the rain under (the) weight, value (the) weight in gold; rush (into) the distance, peer (into) the distance of the steppe; advance (into) the depths of the desert, retreat (into) the depths; return home (during) time, get sick (during) vacation; enter (in) a dense mass of clouds, approach (in) a dense mass of clouds; pour coffee (into) a hand mill, process parts (in) manually.
№4
Rewrite. Explain the rationale behind the use of capital letters.
Watch the (N, s)northern night on the coast of the (N, s)northern sea; cross
(K, k) Caucasian mountains, lush (K, k) Caucasian vegetation; send spaceship from (3, h) earth to its satellite - (L, l) una, admire the light of (L, l) una; fight for peace on
(3, h) earth; go down the marble (D, d) palace stairs, visit St. Petersburg on (D, d) Skvortsovaya Square; sell (K,k)tanned goods, live in (K,k)tanned lane.
The exploits of the (I, m)lya (M, f) Uromets, the fearlessness of the Gorky (S, s) circle, aphorisms
(K,k)ozmy (P,p)rutkova, nobility of the (Ch,h)atskys, good-heartedness of the (M,m)anilovs, high-society (L,l)ovelas, take on the role of (M,m)mentor, the whims of ( M, m) philanthropists.
§ 5. Use of capital letters
Written with a capital letter:
a) first names, patronymics, surnames of people, their nicknames, pseudonyms, for example: Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov, Dmitry Donskoy, Prince Vladimir Krasnoe Solnyshko, Ilya Ilf (pseudonym), as well as animal names: the horse Kholstomer, the cat Murka;
b) geographical and administrative names, for example: the Pacific Ocean, Lake Baikal, the Danube River, the Himalayan Mountains, Ukraine, the United States of America, the city of Kyiv, Matrosova Street;
c) names of periodicals, literary works, factories, etc. (and these names are enclosed in quotation marks), for example: the newspaper “Priazovsky Rabochiy”, the magazine “Focus”, the poem “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, the Azovstal plant, the publishing house “Prosveshcheniye” .
The use of capital letters in the names of institutions and organizations, in the names of holidays and significant dates, in the names of orders and honorary titles is based on the following rules.
Written with a capital letter:
a) all words, except official ones, in the names of the highest state legislative and governmental institutions, for example: the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, the Supreme Court of Ukraine, the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, the Red Cross and Red Crescent Society; also: Constitution (Basic Law) of Ukraine;
b) all words, except for the words order and degree, in the full names of orders, for example: Order of Kutuzov, Order of Glory III degree (but: order Patriotic War I degree)",
Note. If the name of the insignia is enclosed in quotation marks, then only the first word and the proper names included in the name are written in capital letters, for example: medal “For military service Ukraine", Order of Merit;
c) all words in the names of senior positions and honorary titles in Ukraine, for example: President of Ukraine, Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, Hero of Ukraine;
Note. The names of other positions and honorary titles are written with a lowercase letter, for example: minister, honored worker of science, people's artist of Ukraine, laureate of the Shevchenko Prize, etc.
d) the first two words in the names of two historical events: The Great Patriotic War.
The first word is written with a capital letter:
a) in the names of holidays and significant dates, major historical events, for example: Day of Knowledge, International Women's Day, Paris Commune, Civil War, World War II;
b) in the names of institutions (except for those indicated above in paragraph 1 “a”), educational institutions, industrial and other enterprises and organizations, for example: Ministry of Finance of Ukraine, Kiev-Mohyla Academy, Tretyakov Gallery, House of Journalists.
§ 6. Use of ь to indicate the softness of consonants in writing
At the end of a word, the letter ь is written after any soft consonant, except for hissing ones, for example: horse (cf.: horse), frost (cf.: frost), lantern (cf.: blow).
In the middle of the word the letter ь is written:
a) after a soft l, standing before any vowel (hard or soft), for example: sick, herring, flatter, boy, sawyer;
b) after a soft consonant standing before a hard consonant, for example: Kuzma, less, struggle;
c) between two soft consonants only if, when the word changes, the second consonant becomes hard, and the first remains soft (cf. “b”), for example: in request (request), Kuzmich (Kuzma), and struggle (struggle).
The letter ь is not written inside the combinations chk, chn, nch, nshch, rshch, rch: river, river, nurse, mason, lamplighter, spoiled.
The letter ь is not written between two soft l: illusion.
№5
Rewrite. Explain why you did or did not put b in place of the dots.
A rather boring time was approaching; It was November... already outside the yard. Nyan..ka Var..ka, a girl...about thirteen years old, rocks the cradle... He spends his time nannying little kids. I have a question for you: repeat your story to this young man, whom you can simply call Sanya. The rain... came in gusts, turning into showers... then into drizzle... Frost... - frost-like snow-like sediment. The guests are laughing and the glasses are chatting. As a reward for anyone, you will take a horse. On the table lay a map of the Volga, all covered with blue and red icons. Here the smallest shack is decorated with the most ingenious carvings. Do not refuse me my request..be. She sat down at her desk. The next day.. I saw Zinaida only with a piece of chalk.. The racers started early in the morning. I don’t tolerate servility, don’t lie, don’t humiliate yourself!
§ 7. Use of ь to denote grammatical forms
In some cases, the letter ь serves to indicate the grammatical form of words.
Use after sizzling
After hissing ь it is used:
a) in nouns female singular, for example: speech, silence, rye (cf. noun. male: ball, hut, watchman)",
b) in the imperative mood of verbs: appoint, cut, eat, appoint, cut,
c) in indefinite form verbs: take care, cut, take care, cut your hair;
d) in the 2nd person singular of verbs of the present and future tense, for example: you carry, you carry, you throw, you rush, you rush, you fiddle;
e) in adverbs (except for unbearable, already, married), for example: unbearable, completely;
e) in particles you see, you know, only, you see.
Note. In the middle of a word ь is sometimes used as separator, for example: rye.
Use ь in some case and verb forms
The letter ь is used: a) in the instrumental case of the plural of some nouns and numerals (for example: children, people, four), as well as in other cases of the numeral eight: eight (gen., dat., prepositional fall.), eight and eight (creative fall);
b) in an indefinite form: to carry - to tinker, to shave - to shave;
c) in the imperative mood: prepare, prepare, get ready.
№6 Change the given words according to the examples. Rewrite. Place it where necessary.
Nights - night, breams, wastelands, alkalis, bricks, trumpeters, little things, drawings, dugouts, things, reeds, swords, speeches.
They glue - you glue, they saw, they blow, they burn, they lay, they melt; they fight, whisper, hope, line up, splash, worry, practice.
№7
In these phrases, replace imperfective verbs in the imperative mood with perfective verbs in the same mood.
Get ready to hike - get ready to hike; set a meeting, throw a ball, meet you at the station, get up on time, correct mistakes, notify you of your arrival, be comforted as soon as possible, do not be offended by a remark, take textbooks, do not forget about consultation, sit at the table, cut bread, lie down to rest.
§ 8. Spelling of unstressed vowels of the root word
In accordance with the morphological principle of Russian spelling, unstressed vowels of the root are written as they are pronounced under stress. Consequently, to check the spelling of unstressed vowels, you need to change the word or select a related word where the root vowel being tested is under stress, for example: reduce - reduces, reconciliation - peace, measurement - measure, unification - united.
The spelling of an unstressed vowel cannot, however, be checked using imperfective verbs with the suffixes -yat, -iv, since in these verbs there is often a instead of the root o. For example, the word throw away should be checked with the word throw away, not throw away.
The spelling of many words with unstressed vowels cannot be checked by stress: dog, ham, vinaigrette, carriage, etc. The spelling of such words should be memorized, and it is enough to know the spelling of one word in order to correctly write the roots in related words: carriage, carriage, trolley, carriage driver; boot, boot, shoemaker, cobbler, shoemaker.
In a number of cases, there is an alternation of vowels in the roots, the replacement of one vowel with another: collect - collect, sunbathe - tan, etc.
The spelling of roots with alternating vowels will be discussed below.
№8
Make up phrases with these words. Indicate how you can check the spelling of highlighted vowels.
Develop - flutter, caress - rinse, enlightenment - dedication, valley - distant, diminish - beg, fade - see, reconciliation - measurement, prick - heat up.
№9
Read it. Rewrite, indicating next to each word in which letters are missing, a test; indicate the emphasis.
Measure the area, settle the quarreling guys, thin the carrots in the garden, load the gun, pile firewood, pour iron, weed the ridge, pour the goose, to dedicate a lantern, to dedicate a poem to a friend, to go down into the depths, to be in the distance, to ask for help, to praise someone’s merits, to close successes, to close. .sing with your teeth in pain, pay off your debt, rally...together in the name of a common cause. To be a housekeeper (i.e. to live in a certain area for a long time), to build a vegetable garden, to wear fast collars, fast horses, to meet mowing deadlines, to pay money on a bill , kill cows, cover up a grudge.
№10
For each phrase with an imperfect verb, select the same phrase with a perfect verb and rewrite it.
Ask (what to do?) a question - ask (what to do?) a question. Realize guilt - ... . Dressing up my younger brother - ... . Put on a suit - ... . Sing ditties loudly - ... . Swallow down the medicine with water - ... . Warm up the kettle - ... . To defeat the enemy - ... . Publish books - ... . Create an abundance of products - ... . Recognize merit - ... . Get up early - ... . Parting with friends - ... .
§ 9. Alternation of vowels in the roots of words
The spelling of words with alternating unstressed vowels in the roots of words (e - i, o -a) is based on a number of special rules.
Alternating i - e
In roots with alternating vowels e - and (ber- - bir, per - pir, mer - world, stel - steel, der - dir, etc.) the letter And it is written only when the root is followed by the suffix -a-, for example: choose - will choose, lock - lock up, die - die, spread - spread out, tear apart - tear apart, shine - shine.
The same rule is based on the spelling of roots in which -a- (-я-) alternates with -im- or -in-, for example: squeeze - squeeze, crush - crush, start - start, remove - remove; -im- or -in- are written in these roots when they are followed by the suffix -a-. But: combine, combination.
Alternating a - o
In the roots lag - lodge and kas - kos letter A it is written if the root is followed by the suffix -a-: to believe - to put (exception: canopy), to touch - to touch.
In the roots there is a letter pilaf A written in all cases, except for the words swimmer, swimmer, for example: fin, floating. The word quicksand is written with the letter s.
The root mak- is written when they talk about immersing something in a liquid: dip (bread in milk), dip (pen in an inkwell); the root mok- is written in words with the meaning “to let liquid through”, “to become wet”: boots get wet, waterproof raincoat, blotting paper.
№11
Rewrite, insert the missing letters.
to expound, to expound, to assume, to suppose...to live, to touch, to touch, to dream, assumption, supposed, to touch, to impose, ul..sing, adjective, disparate ...shaking, spreading out; pl..vtsy, float..wok, melt..pour, pl..vka, pl..wuch, pl..pour; the shoes get wet, dip the brush in paint, a good wash, a waterproof coat, wash it out in the rain.
№12
Our affairs worked out brilliantly. This book is given as an appendix. A fine is imposed for violating traffic rules. They stole her and she fell asleep. The horse barely touched the ground. The stove is so hot that you can’t touch... sleep. Cast iron is smelted continuously. Both the feeder and the swimmer died. The pouring rain washed me down to the last thread. Oblomov took the pen, dipped it into the inkwell, but there was no ink. The floor is lined with colored tiles. The theater season is expected to end by June 15. I can rely on you... Early winter night covered the village with a dark floor...
^
CONTINUATION “Alternating vowels in roots”
In the roots clan-clone: bow, bow, inclination, creature, creativity, creation.
Exception: utensils.
In the root gar-gor in an unstressed position there is also usually o (under the stress - a), for example: sunbathe - sunbathe, tanned, tan.
Exception: fumes.
At the root zar - zor in an unstressed position it is written a (under stress there is both a and o), for example: dawn, lightning, illuminated, but: dawn, glow.
In the root skak-skoch in an unstressed position, the letter a is usually written before k, and the letter o - before h, for example: jump - jump, jump - jump, upstart. But: jump, jump (1st unit), jump (imperative mood).
The root equal is predominantly written in words that are related in meaning to “equal” (“identical”), for example: uniform, equivalent, compare, all the same, also in the words equal, equal, equal, equal, plain; the root rovn - is mainly written in words related in meaning to “even” (“smooth”, “straight”), for example: level (paths), level (pit), level (flower beds), level, level.
At the root, the vowel a is written without stress only before the consonants st and sh; before s without a subsequent t it is written about, for example: age, growth, but: grew.
Exceptions: industry, rostok, usurer, Rostov, Rostislav, as well as derivatives from them, for example: industry, rostok, usurious, etc.
№13
Rewrite and explain the spelling.
Keep level in the rows, make an even...regular movement, level out the beds, compare two numbers, incomparable values, trim the lilac bushes, raise the level of production, reach six hundred meters , solve the level ... opinion, successful comparison ... take the ditch, magnificent plain; violent pores, grow in breadth and depth, improper fusion of bones, grow..become grass, swamp pores...layered with moss, a new branch of industry, build up strength, disgusting loan shark.
^
INDEPENDENT WORK
Rewrite, adding missing punctuation marks. Do parsing five sentences.
When he [Pushkin] entered the audience with Uvarov, it was as if the sun was shining on the audience for me. At that time I was in awe of his poetry; I fed on her like mother’s milk; his verse made me tremble and...storga. The verses of his creations fell on me like beneficial rain. I and all the young men of that time who were interested in poetry owe his genius a direct influence on our aesthetic education.
Davydov, professor of the history of Russian literature, gave a lecture. “Here is the theory of art,” Uvarov said, addressing us students and pointing to Davydov, “and here is art itself,” he added, pointing to Pushkin. He effectively responded with this phrase, obviously prepared in advance. We all greedily stared at Pushkin. Kachenovsky was also waiting for his turn to give a lecture. Unintentionally, a conversation started between them about the Tale of Igor's Campaign, which little by little turned into a heated argument. Come closer, gentlemen, this is interesting for you. Uvarov invited us and we surrounded Pushkin Uvarov and both professors with a close crowd like a wall. I can’t express how great our pleasure was to see and hear our idol.
I don’t remember all the details of the competition, I just remember that Pushkin passionately defended authenticity ancient Russian epic. (I. A. Goncharov “Memories”)
Spelling- this is a set of rules establishing: 1) uniform spelling of significant parts of a word: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings; 2) separate and continuous spelling of words and their parts; 3) use of capital letters; 4) rules for word hyphenation.
I. The rules establishing the writing of significant parts of a word are based mainly on the morphological principle: significant parts of a word are written uniformly, regardless of changes in the pronunciation of vowels and consonants in speech. In this case, vowels are written as they are pronounced under stress, and consonants as they are pronounced before vowels or l, m, n, r, for example: 1) pain- sick, disease(root pain- spelled the same, although pronounced differently); 2) at the bottom- down, low, inferior(root bottom- spelled the same, although pronounced differently).
In many cases, spellings that do or do not match the pronunciation are unverifiable. However, they are also conveyed in writing uniformly, for example: 1) dog- dog, Sobakevich; 2) adventure- adventurer, adventurous; 3) ladle- ladle, oil- oil.
Unverifiable spellings are called traditional. They need to be memorized.
In some cases, there are deviations from the morphological principle, when the uniform spelling of significant parts of a word is violated. Such deviations are associated primarily with the preservation of ancient alternations of sounds in writing, for example: believe- put it down, dawn- dawn, unlock- unlock.
The morphological principle is convenient: uniform transmission of significant parts makes it easier to remember the outline -
learning the word, speeds up the process of reading and understanding what is written.
In our orthography there are also significant parts of words based on the phonetic principle of writing, reflecting changes in the pronunciation of sounds, for example:
1) cure- eradicate, silent- disenfranchised;
2) sledges(sled) - camber; 3) Name- nameless; 4) climb- stairs, shine- shine. There are few such spellings, most of them refer to the designation of prefixes on h.
The error-free application in practice of many spelling rules is directly related to the writer’s ability to quickly navigate the composition of a word.
II- Separate writing of words is based on the principle: write all words of the Russian language, independent and functional, separately, for example: Victor did not know that his friend’s father and mother were sick.
During the life of a language, prepositions and particles sometimes merge with the words they refer to, forming new words, for example: at first, hard-boiled, bad etc. Spelling often lags behind the processes occurring in the language, for example, combinations skin-tight And by oneself are written separately, although they are adverbs (cf. one by one).
They are used in Russian spelling and spellings with a hyphen (dash) - primarily in adverbs and complex words, for example: read in French, don't hope in vain, raincoat, scientific and technical.
III. The use of capital letters is associated with the emphasis of proper names, for example: Nikolai Alekseevich Ivanov was vacationing on the Black Sea coast near Yalta.
IV. The rules of hyphenation are based on dividing words into syllables, taking into account the composition of the word: teacher, honor, endless, pain.
If you are in doubt about the correct spelling of words, you should turn to spelling dictionaries, the most complete of which is the “Spelling Dictionary” of the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences (all editions since 1974).
For many years, the “Spelling Dictionary” by D. N. Ushakov and S. E. Kryuchkov has been published especially for students. Published in 1995, “School spelling
Graphic Dictionary of the Russian Language" M. T. Baranova answers two questions: how the word is spelled and why it is spelled that way.
The “School Grammar and Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language” by B. T. Panov and A. V. Tekuchev (the second edition of the dictionary was published in 1985) indicates not only the spelling of words, but in many cases their division into morphemes, lexical meaning, pronunciation features.
102. Read and indicate: a) verifiable morphological
writing prefixes and roots; b) unverifiable morphological
Chinese (traditional) spellings of roots; c) writing prefixes
and roots that deviate from the morphological principle. Words by
Write out the last two (“b” and “c”) groups in two columns.
I. Planted, ran, low, river, steppe, confess, gatehouse, dog, ram, asbestos, apparatus, station, stick up, break, exclaim, painting, receipt, tan, tanned, tangent, touch, request.
P. Mediocre, helpless, smell, clayey, patronage, cabin, crimson, jump, bend, slippery, asphalt, grow, thicket, collect, will collect, corridor, gallery, collective.
103. Write it off. Explain (orally) what the separation is based on
or spelling words together.
Shelter from the rain under (worth) weight, value (worth) weight in gold; rush (into) the distance, peer (into) the distance of the steppe; move (in) deep into the desert, move (in) deep; return home (on) time, get sick (during) the holidays; enter (in) a dense mass of clouds, approach (in) close to the shore; pour coffee (in) a hand mill, process parts (in) manually.
104. Write it off. Explain (orally) what the usage is based on.
capital letters.
I. Observe the (N, c) northern night on the coast of (N, northern sea; cross the (K, k) Caucasian mountains, lush (K, Caucasian vegetation; send a spaceship from (3, h) earth to its satellite - (L , l)una, admire the light of (L, l)una, fight for peace on (3, h) earth; go down the marble (D, d) palace stairs, visit St. Petersburg on (D, d) palace square; sell ( K, k) tanned goods, live in (K, k) tanned lane.
P. The exploits of (I, i)lya (M, m)uromets, the fearlessness of the Gorky (S, s)okol, the aphorisms of (K, k)ozma (P, p)rutkov, the nobility of the (Ch, ch)atskys, good-heartedness (M, m)anilovs, high-society (L, l)ovellas, take on the role of (M, m)mentor, the whims of (M, m) philanthropists.
105. Read and indicate which letters are missing. Check it in a spelling dictionary and copy it down.
Id..al, embodiment, liberal, charming, reflection, perspective, authentic, denounce, proclamation, propagandist, witness, tradition, citadel.
§ 17. USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
The use of capital letters is associated with syntactic and semantic conditions, highlighting proper names, as well as stylistic grounds.
I. The first word of each sentence that begins the text or comes after a period, ellipsis, question mark or exclamation mark is written with a capital letter.
Note. The first word of each line is written with a capital letter poetic speech, For example:
...Onegin, my good friend,
Born on the banks of the Neva,
Where might you have been born?
Or shone, my reader...(P.)
P. The following are written with a capital letter:
1) first names, patronymics, last names of people, pseudonyms, animal names, for example: Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy, Antosha Chekhonte.
Note. The names and surnames of people that are used in a common noun, but retain a connection with the bearer of their own name, are also written with a capital letter, for example: Under certain conditions, the Bazarovs develop into great historical figures.(D.P.) (i.e., from people like the main character of I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”). However, when a proper name completely transforms into a common noun, a lowercase letter is written, for example: By the face of this Hercules(i.e. strongman) complacency, timidity, embarrassment spreads(Zlatovratsky);
2) geographical and administrative names, for example: Volga, Lake Ladoga, Atlantic Ocean, Ural Mountains, Kostroma city, Vologda Region, Russian Federation, France, Nevsky Prospect, Victory Square;
3) names of periodicals, literary works, factories, factories, etc., and these names are enclosed in quotation marks, for example: newspaper “Izvestia”, magazine “New World”, poem “At the top of my voice”, joint venture “Zarya”;
4) possessive adjectives with suffixes -oe-, -ev-, -in-, For example: Ivanovo childhood, Flooring doll, Further dictionary.
In phraseological combinations in which the direct connection of the possessive adjective with the proper noun from which it is derived is lost, a lowercase letter is used, for example: Aesopian language(allegorical expression of thoughts).
Note. Possessive adjectives with suffix -sk-, formed from proper names are written with a lowercase letter, for example: Lermontov's prose, Levitan's landscapes. Such adjectives are written with a capital letter only when they are part of names that have the meaning of “the name, memory of someone,” for example: Lomonosov readings, Nobel Prize;
5) all words, except official words, in the names of the highest legislative and governmental institutions of the country, for example: Federation Council, Federal Assembly, Security Council Russian Federation, and Constitution of the Russian Federation, Armed Forces of the Russian Federation;
6) all words except words order And degree in the full names of the orders, for example: Order of Glory III degree.
Note. In the names of insignia highlighted in quotation marks, the first word and the proper names included in the name are capitalized, for example: medal "In memory of the 850th anniversary of Moscow"(But: Order "Badge of Honor");
7) all words in the names of officials and honorary
titles, for example: President of Russian Federation,
Chairman of the State Duma of the Russian Federation
tion, Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, Hero of Russia;
8) the first word in the names of holidays and significant dates, major historical events, for example: New Year, International Women's Day, Knowledge Day, Peter's era;
9) the first word in the names of educational institutions, cultural institutions, enterprises and organizations, for example: Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, State Public Historical Library, Park of Culture and Leisure, Drama Theater on Malaya Bronnaya, First Moscow Watch Factory.
III. Abbreviated names are written in capital letters, consisting of the first letters of those words that are included in the names of states, state associations, government bodies, parties, movements, institutions, enterprises and other organizations, for example: CIS, USA, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Internal Affairs, Moscow State University, ZIL, UN. There are no periods between capital letters.
106. Read and explain the use of capital letters.
Griboedov's comedy "Woe from Wit", constellation Ursa Major, Kostroma region, Nizhny Novgorod, St. Petersburg - the city on the Neva, battle of Borodino, participants of the Great Patriotic War, Teacher's Day, Museum fine arts named after A.S. Pushkin.
107. Copy by inserting missing capitals or lowercases
letters. Explain their use.
1) We lived in perfect harmony. I didn’t want another (M, m)mentor. (P.) 2) Are the representatives of Russian society all (F, f) Amusovs, (M, m) Olchalins, (3, h) Agorets, (X, h) Lestakovs, (T, t) Ugoukhovskys and the like? (White)
3) The folded (K, k) Crimean ridge stretches along the (South, southern) coast of the peninsula in three ridges. (Mic.)
4) I dreamed of writing a book about creative work(M, Moscow (X, art theater. (Stanisl.)
108. Expand the brackets, replacing lowercase letters where necessary
you are in capitals; use quotation marks if necessary.
(k) red (p) square, (f) Senin’s lyrics, (d) Alev dictionary, (d) Alev dictionary, (w) osse (e) nthuziastov, (p) square
(c) uprising, (b) Abiy (i)r, dahlia (c) Vetlana, (p) prospect (v) Ernadsky, (b) Rodinskaya (p) anorama, (m) Alakhov (k) ur-gan, ( d) civil war, (d) day of (p) printing, (k) Ulikovskaya battle, (k) urgan of (s) lava, order of (h)nak (p) account, (p) Ermsky (d) dramatic (t) theater, (m)Oskovsky (t)theater of the (u)nogo (z)teller, (p)board of the (m)Oskovsky (o)branch of the (in)Serossian (t)theatrical (o)society, the night before (r)Christmas.
§ 18. USE b TO DESIGNATE THE SOFTNESS OF CONSONANTS IN WRITING
1. There is a letter at the end of the word b written after any soft consonant, except sibilants, for example: horse (cf.: horse), frost (cf.: frost), lantern("cf.: hit).
2. There is a letter in the middle of the word b is written:
a) after soft l, coming before any vowel
(hard or soft), for example: sick, herring,
flatter, boy, sawyer;
b) after a soft consonant preceding a hard one
consonant, for example: Kuzma, less, fight;
c) between two soft consonants only in that case
tea, if when the word changes, the second consonant becomes
hard, and the first remains soft (compare with item “b”), for example:
in a request (request), Kuzmich (Kuzma), for a fight (struggle).
3. Letter b not written inside combinations chk, chn, nch, nsch, rsch, rch: river, river, nurse, mason, lamplighter, spoiled.
4. Letter b can't pee between two soft ones l: illusion.
109. Write it off. Explain (orally) the spelling of ь.
1) The happy(?) but boring(?) time was approaching, November(?) was already in the yard. (P.) 2) Nyan(?)ka Var(?)ka, a girl(?) about thirteen years old, rocks the cradle(?). (Ch.) 3) He spends his time nanny(?) with little kids. (Dal) 4) The rain(?) came in gusts, turning now into shower(?), then into drizzle(?). (Are.) 5) Hoarfrost(?) - snow-like sediment similar to frost. (T.S.) 6) The state(?)ti laugh, and the brand(?) glasses chat. (L.) 7) As a reward for anyone, you carry (?) a horse. (P.) 8) On the table lay a map of the Volga, all covered with blue and red symbols. (Versh.) 9) Here is the smallest (?) shack
ka is decorated with the most cunning cut(?) combat. (Prishv.) 10) Do not refuse me my request(?)be. (P.) 11) She sat down at the desk. (P.) 12) The next day(?) I saw Zinaida only with a chalk(?) lump. (T.) 13) The racers(?) started early(?) in the morning. (Gas.) 14) I don’t tolerate servility, don’t lie (?), don’t humiliate yourself! (N.)
110. Change the words according to the patterns. Emphasize those nearby
soft consonants in the words you formed. With words each
In each group, make two sentences.
I. 1) Twig- branch, tassel, bone, news, cane. 2) pestle- pestle, bow, umbrella, bridge, screw.
3) Get sick- disease, live, execute, flatter, be sad.
P. Worms-worm, nails, milk mushrooms, areas, shipyards, by
news, honors, news, thickets, songs, fables, lazy people.
111. Write it off. Explain (orally) the spelling of ь.
1) The vet(?)vi lilacs closed the weight(?) house. 2) Clusters of white flowers stood out against the dark greenery. 3) At the meeting they talked about controlling (?) pests in gardens and vegetable gardens.
4) Fulfill my request(?)bu: carry(?)mi pis(?)ma and put them in
Mailbox. 5) They were in a match(?) box(?)
fishing hooks. 6) The boys (?) were digging worms (?)
for fishing. 7) Sel(?)d(?) walked in shoals. 8) Master
taught the student how to cut(?)by braid(?)ti. 9) The plant requires ra
workers of various specialties(?)noses(?): cut(?)boxes, be-
tone(?) workers, mason(?) workers, electric welders(?) workers, stove(?) none-
ki, tin(?) boxes. 10) On the desk(?) stood
convenient table(?) lamp. 11) The women(?) were singing
dog(?)nu.
§ 19. USE b TO NOTE GRAMMATICAL FORMS
In some cases the letter b serves to indicate grammatical form words
Use after sizzling
After the sizzling b used:
a) in feminine singular nouns, for example: speech, silence, rye(cf. masculine noun: ball, hut, watchman);
b) in the imperative mood of verbs: appoint, from
cut, eat, appoint, cut, eat;
c) in the indefinite form of verbs: take care, cut, be
talk, cut hair;
d) in the 2nd person singular verbs are present
th and future tense, for example: carry, throw, into
you rush, you rush, you rush, you fiddle;
e) in adverbs (except can't stand it, get married) for example
measures: unbearably, completely;
e) in particles you see, you see, just, you see.
Note. In the middle of a word b sometimes used as a separator, for example: rye.
Usebin some cases And verb forms
The letter ь is used:
a) in the instrumental case plural neko
some nouns and numerals (for example, children
mi, people, four), as well as in other cases of number
literary eight: eight(genus, dat., etc.), eight And
eight(tv.p.);
b) in an indefinite form: carry- mess around,
shave- to shave;
c) in the imperative mood: prepare, prepare
those, get ready.
112. Change these words according to the patterns. Write it off.
1. Nights- night, breams, alkalis, bricks, trumpeters, little things, drawings, dugouts, things, reeds, swords, speeches.
2. They glue- you glue, sawing, blowing, burning, spreading, melting; they fight, whisper, hope, line up, splash, worry, practice.
113. In these phrases the verbs are imperfect,
in the imperative mood, replace the verb
mi perfective in the form of the same mood. Write it off.
Schedule a collection- schedule a collection; throw the ball, meet you at the station, get up on time, correct mistakes, notify about your arrival, be consoled quickly, don’t be offended by a remark, take textbooks, don’t forget about consultation, sit down at the table, cut bread, lie down to rest.
114. Write down these phrases. Explain the spelling orally b.
Get carried away(?)by playing with children(?)mi, make a breach(?) in the enemy defense, come late at night(?)th, talk with intelligent people(?)mi, feel the fal(?)sh(?), open door(?) wide open(?), return just(?) at dawn, time after midnight(?), blush like red(?), attract(?) everyone's attention.
§ 20. COMPOSITION OF THE WORD. USE OF SINGLE-ROOT WORDS
The composition of the words in the Russian language is different. Most Russian words in phrases and sentences change, that is, they are declined or conjugated. When declension and conjugation of a word, the stem and ending are distinguished first of all, for example:
1) Glubok\aya\river\a] -t deep\uy\river\u] - deep^ysch^ekshch]
2) Cyl\it\ log[o] -drank)rrevn[a].
3) Tell[y] comrade[y] - tell\eat\comrade[y] - tell\ut\comrade\am\.
The basis reflects the lexical meaning of the word. The ending, forming word forms, serves to connect words and expresses their grammatical meanings (for example, number, case, person).
Sometimes the ending is not expressed by sounds (in writing - by letters). Such endings are called zero, for example: Tsrud\ | deep)| . At the words pond And deep endings are zero. They are revealed when compared with other forms of these words, for example: ponds\, deep th]. Wed. Also: Let's go to pond[y]. River deep[A\. Lake deep].
Unchangeable words (for example, adverbs) consist of one stem and do not have an ending, for example:
1) Comfortable. located (conveniently- adverb). Wed: room comfortable](comfortable- a short adjective in the singular form of the neuter gender).
2) I'm going down (down)- adverb). Wed: I'll put my backpack away ,bottom,\ | cabinet (bottom- a noun with a preposition, in the singular accusative case).
The stem of a word can consist only of a root (for example, rects a], npyd\Z\* but may also include a prefix, suffix, several prefixes and suffixes (see the table for examples).
Words that contain the same root are called related or cognate.
