Russian empire began its existence in 1721, during the reign of Peter I.
Russia became an Empire after the end of the Northern War, the results of which assigned Russia new lands, access to the Baltic Sea, various economic benefits, and other privileges. The capital of the Russian Empire became the city of St. Petersburg, the creation of Petrovo.
In the period from 1728 to 1730, Moscow was again the capital of Russia. From 1730 to 1917, the main city was again St. Petersburg. The Russian Empire was a large state whose lands were vast.
In world history, it was the third state in terms of area that has ever existed (the Mongolian and British Empires hold the palm in this category).
The Empire was ruled by the EMPEROR, a monarch whose power was unlimited by anything except Christian tenets. In 1905, after the first revolution, a State Duma appeared in the Russian Empire, which limited the power of the monarch.
On the eve of 1917, Russian agriculture was at the peak of its development. Stolypin's land reform had a largely beneficial effect. Between the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the First World War, the grain harvest in Russia doubled.
Russia harvested one-third more grain than Canada, the United States and Argentina combined. For example, the harvest of rye from the fields of the Russian Empire in 1894 yielded a harvest of 2 billion poods of grain, and in the last pre-war year (1913) - 4 billion.
The Russian Empire during the reign of Nicholas II provided all of Europe with agricultural products.Between 1894 and 1911, cotton production in Russia increased by 388%.
During the period 1890-1913, the industry of the Russian Empire quadrupled (!!!) its productivity. The income received by the Russian Empire from industrial enterprises was equal to the treasury's income from such an industry as agriculture.
Goods produced at Russian enterprises covered 4/5 of the domestic market demand for industrial products. Four years before the First World War, the number of established joint stock companies in Russia increased by 132%.
Capital invested in joint stock companies increased fourfold.
The main principle of budget planning in autocratic Russia was the absence of deficits. The ministers also did not forget about the need to accumulate gold reserves. Government revenues in last years life
As a result of the Northern War of 1700-1721, the powerful Swedish army was defeated and the Russian lands captured by Sweden at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries were returned. The city of St. Petersburg is built at the mouth of the Neva, where the capital of Russia is moved in 1712. The Moscow state became the Russian Empire in 1721, headed by the All-Russian Emperor.
Of course, Russia took a long time to create an empire, and not only the victory in the Northern War contributed to this.
Long haul
At the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' consisted of about 15 principalities. However, the natural course of centralization was interrupted by the Mongol invasion (1237-1240). The further unification of Russian lands took place in difficult foreign policy conditions and was dictated primarily by political prerequisites.
In the 14th century, most of the Russian lands were united around Vilna - the capital of the emerging Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. During the XIII-XV centuries, Gorodenskoye, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Turovo-Pinsk, Principality of Kiev, as well as most of the Chernihiv region, Volyn, Podolia, Smolensk region and a number of other Russian lands. Thus, the individual rule of the Rurikovichs and the clan unity of Rus' became a thing of the past. The annexation of lands took place both military and peacefully.
The end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries became a kind of boundary, after which the lands annexed to Russia formed a single whole with it. The process of adding the rest of the inheritance Ancient Rus' lasted for another two centuries, and by this time its own ethnic processes had gained strength.
In 1654, Left Bank Ukraine joined Russia. The lands of Right Bank Ukraine (without Galicia) and Belarus became part of the Russian Empire as a result of the second partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1793.
“The Russian kingdom (both conceptually, ideologically, and institutionally) had two sources: the “kingdom” (Khanate) of the Golden Horde and the Byzantine Orthodox kingdom (empire).”
One of the first to formulate a new idea of the royal power of the Moscow princes was Metropolitan Zosima. In the essay “Exposition of Paschal,” submitted to the Moscow Council in 1492, he emphasized that Moscow became the new Constantinople thanks to Rus'’s loyalty to God. God Himself appointed Ivan III - “the new Tsar Constantine to the new city of Constantine - Moscow and the entire Russian land and many other lands of the sovereign.” Thus, Ivan IV was the first Tsar crowned king. This happened on January 16, 1547.
Under Ivan IV, Russia managed to significantly expand its possessions. As a result of the campaign against Kazan and its capture in 1552, it gained the middle Volga region, and in 1556, with the capture of Astrakhan, the lower Volga region and access to the Caspian Sea, which opened up new trade opportunities with Persia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. At the same time, the ring of hostile Tatar khanates that constrained Rus' was broken, and the road to Siberia was opened.
V. Surikov "Conquest of Siberia by Ermak"
The era of Ivan the Terrible also marked the beginning of the conquest of Siberia. A small detachment of Cossacks Ermak Timofeevich, hired by the Ural industrialists Stroganovs to protect against the attacks of the Siberian Tatars, defeated the army of the Siberian Khan Kuchum and took his capital Kashlyk. Despite the fact that due to the attacks of the Tatars, few of the Cossacks managed to return alive, the collapsed Siberian Khanate was never restored. A few years later, the royal archers of the governor Voeikov suppressed the last resistance. The gradual development of Siberia by Russians began. Over the next decades, forts and trading settlements began to emerge: Tobolsk, Verkhoturye, Mangazeya, Yeniseisk and Bratsk.
Russian empire
P. Zharkov "Portrait of Peter I"
On August 30, 1721, the Peace of Nystadt was concluded between Russia and Sweden, according to which Russia received access to the Baltic Sea, annexed the territory of Ingria, part of Karelia, Estland and Livonia.
Russia became a great European power. Peter I accepted the titles “Great” and “Father of the Fatherland” from the Senate, he was proclaimed emperor, and Russia - an empire.
The formation of the Russian Empire was accompanied by a number of reforms.
Public Administration Reform
Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 boards with a specific scope of activity and powers.
The public administration system has become more advanced. The activities of most government bodies became regulated, and the boards had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory authorities were created.
Regional (provincial) reform
At the first stage of the reform, Peter I divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were controlled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces governed by governors, and they were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. Governors were deprived of administrative power and resolved judicial and military issues.
There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.
Judicial reform
Peter 1 created new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justice Collegium, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was abolished, and the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.
A large number of judicial bodies and persons carrying out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) introduced confusion and confusion into legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created the ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration were established.
Military reforms
The introduction of conscription, the creation of a navy, the establishment of a Military Collegium in charge of all military affairs. Introduction using the Table of Ranks military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.
With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725 and a strong Navy. Units were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, and squadrons in the navy. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although assessed ambiguously by different historians) created a springboard for further successes of Russian weapons.
Church reform
The institution of the patriarchate was virtually eliminated. In 1701, the management of church and monastic lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the court of monastic peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, the members of which were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.
The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The Church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partially lost its authority in society.
Financial reforms
The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of a coin. The kopeck becomes the main coin. Transition to poll tax.
Increase in treasury revenues several times. But! It was achieved due to the impoverishment of the bulk of the population, and most of this income was stolen.
Culture and life
Peter I led the fight against external manifestations of an “outdated” way of life (the most famous is the ban on beards), but no less paid attention to introducing the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular people began to appear educational establishments, the first Russian newspaper was founded, translations of many books into Russian appeared. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education.
N. Nevrev "Peter I"
A number of measures were taken to develop education: on January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, and mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories. In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened. The goals of mass education were to be served by digital schools created by decree of 1714 in provincial cities, designed to “ teach children of all ranks literacy, numbers and geometry" It was planned to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was created for the training of priests in 1721. Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-class primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death, most of the digital schools under his successors were repurposed as estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.
Peter I created new printing houses.
In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the Academy of Sciences, which was opened after his death.
Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the Tsar. He created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, lifestyle, food composition, etc. have changed.
By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people in Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and communicated freely, unlike previous feasts and feasts.
S. Khlebovsky "Assemblies under Peter I"
Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study “art” abroad.
On December 30, 1701, Peter issued a decree that ordered full names to be written in petitions and other documents instead of derogatory half-names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), not to fall on your knees before the Tsar, and in winter, in the cold, to wear a hat in front of the house in which king, don't take it off. He explained the need for these innovations in this way: “Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of the king...”.
Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) he prohibited forced marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least a six-week period between betrothal and wedding, “so that the bride and groom can recognize each other.” If during this time, the decree said, “the groom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist on it, “there will be freedom.”
The transformations of the era of Peter I led to the strengthening of the Russian state, the creation of a modern European army, the development of industry and the spread of education among the upper classes of the population. An absolute monarchy was established, headed by the emperor, to whom the church was also subordinate (through the chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod).
There were many empires in the world that were famous for their wealth, luxurious palaces and temples, conquests and culture. Among the greatest of them are such powerful states as the Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Holy Roman, Ottoman, and British empires.
Russia on the historical world map
The empires of the world collapsed, disintegrated, and in their place separate independent states were formed. The Russian Empire, which existed for 196 years, from 1721 to 1917, did not escape a similar fate.
It all started with the Principality of Moscow, which, thanks to the conquests of princes and kings, grew to include new lands in the west and east. Victorious wars allowed Russia to take possession of important territories that opened the country's path to the Baltic and Black Seas.
Russia became an empire in 1721, when Tsar Peter the Great, by decision of the Senate, adopted imperial title.
Territory and composition of the Russian Empire
In terms of the size and extent of its possessions, Russia ranked second in the world, second only to the British Empire, which owned numerous colonies. At the beginning of the 20th century, the territory of the Russian Empire included:
- 78 provinces + 8 Finnish;
- 21 regions;
- 2 districts.
The provinces consisted of counties, the latter were divided into camps and sections. The empire had the following administrative-territorial administration:
Many lands joined the Russian Empire voluntarily, and some as a result conquests. The territories included in its composition according to at will, were:
- Georgia;
- Armenia;
- Abkhazia;
- Tyva Republic;
- Ossetia;
- Ingushetia;
- Ukraine.
During the foreign colonial policy of Catherine II, the Kuril Islands, Chukotka, Crimea, Kabarda (Kabardino-Balkaria), Belarus and the Baltic states became part of the Russian Empire. Part of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states went to Russia after the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (modern Poland).
Russian Empire Square
The territory of the state stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Black Sea and from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, occupying two continents - Europe and Asia. In 1914, before World War I, the area of the Russian Empire was 69,245 square meters. kilometers, and the length of its borders was as follows:
Let's stop and talk about individual territories of the Russian Empire.
Grand Duchy of Finland
Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809, after a peace treaty was signed with Sweden, according to which it ceded this territory. The capital of the Russian Empire was now covered by new lands, which protected St. Petersburg from the north.
When Finland became part of the Russian Empire, it retained great autonomy, despite Russian absolutism and autocracy. It had its own constitution, according to which power in the principality was divided into executive and legislative. The legislative body was the Sejm. Executive power belonged to the Imperial Finnish Senate, it consisted of eleven people elected by the Diet. Finland had its own currency - Finnish marks, and in 1878 received the right to have a small army.
Finland, as part of the Russian Empire, was famous for the coastal city of Helsingfors, where not only the Russian intelligentsia, but also the reigning house of the Romanovs loved to relax. This city, which is now called Helsinki, was chosen by many Russian people, who happily vacationed at resorts and rented dachas from local residents.
After the strikes of 1917 and thanks to February Revolution Finland's independence was proclaimed and it seceded from Russia.
Annexation of Ukraine to Russia
Right-bank Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II. The Russian empress first destroyed the hetmanate, and then the Zaporozhye Sich. In 1795, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was finally divided, and its lands went to Germany, Austria and Russia. Thus, Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire.
After Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 Catherine the Great annexed the territory of modern Dnepropetrovsk, Kherson, Odessa, Nikolaev, Lugansk and Zaporozhye regions. As for Left Bank Ukraine, it voluntarily became part of Russia in 1654. Ukrainians fled from social and religious repression of the Poles and asked for help from the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. He, together with Bogdan Khmelnitsky, concluded the Pereyaslav Treaty, according to which Left Bank Ukraine became part of the Muscovite kingdom with autonomy rights. Not only Cossacks took part in the Rada, but also ordinary people who made this decision.
Crimea - the pearl of Russia
The Crimean Peninsula was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1783. On July 9, the famous Manifesto was read out at the Ak-Kaya rock, and the Crimean Tatars expressed their consent to become subjects of Russia. First, the noble Murzas, and then ordinary residents of the peninsula, took an oath of allegiance to the Russian Empire. After this, festivities, games and celebrations began. Crimea became part of the Russian Empire after the successful military campaign of Prince Potemkin.
This was preceded by difficult times. The Crimean coast and Kuban were the possessions of the Turks and Crimean Tatars from the end of the 15th century. During the wars with the Russian Empire, the latter gained a certain independence from Turkey. The rulers of Crimea changed quickly, and some occupied the throne two or three times.
Russian soldiers more than once suppressed revolts organized by the Turks. The last Khan of Crimea, Shahin-Girey, dreamed of making a European power out of the peninsula and wanted to carry out military reform, but no one wanted to support his initiatives. Taking advantage of the confusion, Prince Potemkin recommended that Catherine the Great incorporate Crimea into the Russian Empire through a military campaign. The Empress agreed, but on one condition: that the people themselves express their consent to this. Russian troops treated the residents of Crimea peacefully and showed them kindness and care. Shahin-Girey abdicated power, and the Tatars were guaranteed freedom to practice religion and observe local traditions.
The easternmost edge of the empire
Russian exploration of Alaska began in 1648. Semyon Dezhnev, a Cossack and traveler, led an expedition that reached Anadyr in Chukotka. Having learned about this, Peter I sent Bering to check this information, but the famous navigator did not confirm Dezhnev’s facts - the fog hid the coast of Alaska from his team.
It was only in 1732 that the crew of the ship St. Gabriel first landed in Alaska, and in 1741 Bering studied the coast of both it and the Aleutian Islands in detail. Gradually, exploration of the new area began, merchants arrived and formed settlements, built a capital and called it Sitka. Alaska, as part of the Russian Empire, was not yet famous for its gold, but for its fur-bearing animals. The furs of various animals were mined here, which were in demand both in Russia and in Europe.
Under Paul I, the Russian-American Company was organized, which had the following powers:
- she ruled Alaska;
- could organize an armed army and ships;
- have your own flag.
Russian colonialists found mutual language with the local people - the Aleuts. The priests learned their language and translated the Bible. The Aleuts were baptized, girls willingly married Russian men and wore traditional Russian clothes. The Russians never made friends with another tribe, the Koloshi. It was a warlike and very cruel tribe that practiced cannibalism.
Why did they sell Alaska?
These vast territories were sold to the United States for $7.2 million. The agreement was signed in the US capital - Washington. Prerequisites for the sale of Alaska to Lately are called different.
Some say that the reason for the sale was human factor and a reduction in the number of sable and other fur-bearing animals. There were very few Russians living in Alaska, their number was 1000 people. Others hypothesize that Alexander II was afraid of losing the eastern colonies, so, before it was too late, he decided to sell Alaska for the price that was offered.
Most researchers agree that the Russian Empire decided to get rid of Alaska because there were no human resources to cope with the development of such distant lands. The government was thinking about whether to sell the Ussuri region, which was sparsely populated and poorly managed. However, the hotheads cooled down, and Primorye remained part of Russia.
The Russian Empire existed from 1721 to 1917. It occupied a huge territory, almost 36 million square kilometers, from of Eastern Europe and up to Asia (inclusive). The empire had an autocratic type of government and its capital in the city of St. Petersburg. The empire's population was over 170 million people and included over a hundred different ethnic groups. The largest of them are Christians, Muslims and Jews.
The Russian Empire began during the reign of Peter the Great (1694-1725) after Russia won the Great Northern War (1700-1721). In this war, Russia fought against the Swedish and Polish empires.
Most of the population of Russia at that time consisted of serfs. Russian rulers tried to reform the system by abandoning slavery, following the example of Western states. This led to the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The abolition occurred during the reign of Alexander II (1855-1881). The liberation of the peasants did not lead to an improvement in their lives. Disagreements and intrigues in the ruling circles grew and as a result, this led to the fact that Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate the throne on March 15, 1917, during.
Absolute domination over its neighbors in Europe and Asia
Russian offensive in East Prussia and Austria-Hungary was supposed to divert German troops from western front. In the course of implementing this plan, the Russian Empire suffered catastrophic losses and a number of defeats in 1914-1915. The incompetence of the military leadership and serious problems within the country had an impact. The losses incurred during the war caused widespread unrest, especially among the proletariat, peasantry and soldiers.
This led to mass protests in 1916. The split in the government grew, and the opposition Progressive Bloc was formed. Regardless of all the government's attempts to maintain order and the monarchical system, demonstrators in the capital called for the abolition of autocracy. was forced to abdicate on March 15, thereby ending the existence of the Russian Empire. Seven months later, the Bolshevik Revolution began and the Soviet Union emerged.
Russian empire- monarchical class multinational state early XVIII- beginning of the 20th century It developed on the basis of the Russian centralized state, which in 1721 Peter I declared an empire.
The Russian Empire included: from the 18th century. Baltic states, Right Bank Ukraine, Belarus, part of Poland, Bessarabia, North Caucasus; since the 19th century, in addition, Finland, Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, middle Asia and Pamir. By the end of the 19th century. The territory of the Russian Empire was 22,400,000 km².
Population
According to the 1897 census, the population was 128,200,000 people, including European Russia - 93,400,000, Kingdom of Poland - 9,500,000, Grand Duchy of Finland - 2,600,000, Caucasus Territory - 9,300,000, Siberia - 5,800,000, Central Asian regions - 7,700,000. More than 100 peoples and nationalities lived on the territory of the Russian Empire. 57% of the population were non-Russian peoples. Tsarism brutally oppressed non-Russian peoples, pursued a policy of forced Russification, suppression of national culture, and incitement of interethnic hatred. Russian was the official national language, mandatory for all state and public institutions. According to the expression, the Russian Empire was a “prison of nations.”
Administrative division
The territory of the Russian Empire in 1914 was divided into 81 provinces and 20 regions. There were 931 cities. Some provinces and regions were united into governorates-general (Warsaw, Irkutsk, Kiev, Moscow, Amur, Stepnoe, Turkestan and Finland). The official vassals of the Russian Empire were the Khanate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva. In 1914, the Uriankhai Territory (now the Republic of Tyva) was accepted under the protectorate of the Russian Empire.
Autocratic system. Caricature
Structure of power and society
The Russian Empire was a hereditary monarchy headed by an emperor who exercised autocratic power. This provision was enshrined in the “Basic State Laws”. A member of the emperor's family and his relatives constituted the imperial house (see ""). The emperor exercised legislative power through the State Council (since 1810) and (since 1906), and directed the state apparatus through the Senate, Council of Ministers and ministries. The Emperor was the supreme leader armed forces Russian Empire (see Russian Army, Russian Navy). In the Russian Empire, the Christian Church was part of the state; “primary and dominant” was the Orthodox Church, which was ruled by the emperor through the Synod.
The entire population was considered subjects of the Russian Empire, the male population (from 20 years old) was obliged to swear allegiance to the emperor. Subjects were divided into 4 estates (“states”):
- nobility;
- clergy;
- city dwellers ( honorary citizens, guild merchants, townspeople and townspeople, artisans or guilds);
- rural inhabitants (that is, peasants).
The ruling class was the nobility. Political power belonged to him. The local population of Kazakhstan, Siberia and a number of other regions of the empire were separated into an independent “state” and were called foreigners (see “”). This category was managed by .
Extensive legislation was collected in the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire and the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. The Russian Empire had a coat of arms - a double-headed eagle with royal regalia; state flag - a cloth with white, blue and red horizontal stripes; the national anthem, which began with the words: “God save the Tsar.”
Decline and collapse of the empire
In progress historical development Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th century. moved from to , and to late XIX- early 20th century entered the stage. In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. The economic and social prerequisites for a people's revolution have matured. Center revolutionary movement moved from Western Europe in Russia. The revolution of 1905-1907 shook the foundations of the autocracy and brought about “ dress rehearsal"bourgeois and proletarian revolution. overthrew the autocracy
