Emperor Peter I, modeled after the French and Prussian courts. Regardless of the Go-su-da-re-va yard, not-in-the-middle-of-the-ven-but studying in public administration, The Imperial Court ensured that they were not fulfilled their representative functions, as well as the organ-ga-ni-zo- you lived the whole day-to-day life of the members of the im-pera-tor fa-milia.
The imperial court consisted of persons who had special court ranks (ranks). Their number and names changed in the 18th - early 19th centuries. Initially, they were introduced by a separate system of Peter I, for the first time a system of special court officials -ta-nov-le-na to them in the Ta-be-li about the ranks of 1722 (in practice, many of the court ranks were not used). The first staff of the Imperial Court, which determined the number and functions of the courtiers, was approved by Emperor Peter II in 1727, it co-sto- yal from gof-mei-ste-ra, gof-mar-sha-la and shtal-mei-ste-ra, as well as 8 ka-mer-ge-rov and 7 ka-mer-yun-ke-rov ( Then, until the beginning of the 19th century, there were 12 chambers and chamber-mer-jun-kers. Since the beginning of the 19th century, the number of persons included in the Imperial Court began to grow rapidly. Under Emperor Nico-lai I, the structure of the Imperial Court assumed a final appearance.
The staff of the Imperial Court included the so-called court officials - persons who had a court rank, co-authorized 9 -2nd (5th-2nd since 1809) class Ta-be-about the ranks (they formed the highest stratum of the Imperial court), as well as at the court - servants, who are not in the middle-st-ven-but serve the household of the Imperial court and provide -whether the pro-ve-de-tion of court ceremonies and celebrations (individual from the court officials who had quarters) -ry in the imperial palaces, in part in the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg lived up to 3 thousand court servants live and members of their families at the same time). The court ranks, in turn, were divided into the first and second ranks of the court, the court ka-va-lers, the women's rank - court staff. The first ranks of the court - chief-goff-mar-shal, chief-ka-mer-ger, chief-goff-me-ster, chief-stahl-me-ster, chief-schenk, chief-jaeger- me-ster, ober-forsh-ney-der (school-re-zh-den in 1856) - with-from-vet-st-vo-va-li 2nd class Ta-be-li o ran -gah. Second ranks of the court - gof-me-ster, shtal-me-ster, jäger-me-ster, ober-tse-re-mo-niy-mey-ster, gof-mar-shal - so- from-vet-st-vo-va-li 3rd grade. The ka-te-go-riu at the court ka-va-le-ditch includes ka-mer-ge-ry (rank of co-vet-st-vo-val 6th grade su) and ka-mer-yun-ke-ry (9th grade); in 1809, these ranks became even and ceased to be associated with the op-re-divided class -mi Ta-be-li about ranks. The female court staff of the Imperial Court consisted of Ober-Gof-mei-ste-ri-ny im-per-ra-ri-tsy (the head of the female staff of the Imperial court), gof-mei-ste-rin, state ladies (yes, we, but all three ranks, were equal in the court hierarchy to sup-ru-gam of persons of the 2nd class) and fre-lin, de-zhu-riv-shih at im-pe-rat-ri-tse.
The court servants were also divided into higher and lower ones. Higher - ka-mer-fur-e-ry, gof-fur-e-ry, ka-mer-di-ne-ry, mund-shen-ki, ko-fe-shen-ki, ta-fel -de-ke-ry, kon-di-te-ry and meter-do-te-li - had ranks of 12-6th grade according to the Ta-be-li about ranks; the lower ones - ka-mer-la-keys, ka-mer-ka-za-ki, sko-ro-ho-dy, top-ni-ki and others - were not in the class ranks nah. It was regretted that the court ranks were promoted to the court officials according to the order of the im-per-ra-to-ra, and the chi-but- about-from-the-water-st-vo at-the-court servants op-re-de-la-elk behind-the-co-y-tel-st-vom, while teaching-you you've been a servant for years.
A separate ca-te-go-ry in the staff of the Imperial Court was created by court medical officials: life-medic, life-chirurg, life-obstetrician, life-death -pe-di-atr and others (these positions are for-no-ma-li, in part, N.F. Arendt, L.L. Blu-men-trost, S.P. Bot-kin, J.V. Willie, R.R. Vre-den, I.I. Les-tok, D.O.
Initially, each court rank had a direct link to a specific sphere at court. no life: gof-mar-shal (then chief-gof-mar-shal) ru-co-wo-did at the court household, shtal-me-ster (ober- shtal-mey-ster) - the imperial stable, jäger-mey-ster (ober-jäger-mey-ster) - the imperial hunt, ober-shenk - whose na-pit-kov at the tse-re -mo-nial-dinners, ober-for-schnee-der - or-ga-ni-for-qi-e pa-happy-dinners, ce-re-mo-niy-me-ster ( ober-tse-re-mo-ni-me-ster) - pro-ve-de-ni-em at court ceremonies. In the 19th century, the ranks (chi-nov) of courtiers ceased to be conditional, but you don’t specify them specifically. new functions. The main duty of the court is to participate in the most important events and court ceremonies during weddings -ko-so-che-ta-niya, christening and funeral of them-per-ra-to-drov and members of the imperial family and so on, as well as co-pro -in the travel of im-per-ra-to-ra and its foreign guests. The court rank of trans-for-mi-ro-va-los in the form of encouragement of civil officials, served as a sign of respect -niya of the mo-nar-ha to the “ro-d and for-the-services of the ancestors” of the person, but this is the title (that’s why in the court -nah was presented mainly by Russian ti-tu-lo-van-naya ari-sto-kra-tiya). Court ranks but many government officials, including N.P. Ru-myan-tsev (Ober-Gof-me-ster), F.V. Ros-top-chin (ober-ka-mer-ger), P.A. Vyazemsky (Ober-Shenk), P.A. Sto-ly-pin (goff-me-ster), P.A. Va-lu-ev, M.S. Vo-ron-tsov, A.M. Gor-cha-kov, A.S. Stro-ga-nov, N.B. Yusu-pov (all are ka-mer-ge-ry). The titles of Gof-mei-ste-rin and maid of honor but-si-li most of the wives and daughters of Russian top statesmen and military leaders Nik-kov, these titles were also considered as one of the forms of encouragement for husbands or fathers of court ladies. Only a small part of the ladies-in-waiting lasted until the beginning of the 20th century without regular de-jour-sts at the im-per-rat-ri-tse.
By the beginning of 1898, the Imperial Court consisted of 16 first and 147 second court officials, 25 ce-re-mo-niy-mei-sters, 176 ka -mer-ge-rov and 252 ka-mer-yun-ke-ra, 229 court ladies; 29 people had court medical titles. Persons who were at the court chi-na-mi, including the court ladies, had special court mun-di -ry and dresses. The Russian Imperial Court was one of the most magnificent in Europe in terms of its number and the size of the court. ce-re-mo-niy, pro-ho-div-shih in the luxurious in-ter-e-rah of the imperial residences.
According to the members of the Imperial Court, there were ranks of the Retinue of His Im-per-ra-tor-Ve-li-che-st -va (ge-ne-ral-ad-yu-tan-you, ge-ne-ral-may-o-ry and counter-ad-mi-ra-ly Sv-you, fly-gel-ad-yu- tan-you), not included in the Imperial Court They are in turn, but de-zhu-ri-li with them-per-ra-to-re, with-no-ma-li pro-she-niy on your-name, you-are-not-different-in-ru-che-niya im-per-ra-to-ra, at- da-st-vo-va-li with him during all military ceremonies.
In the 18th - early 20th centuries, next to the Imperial Court (You-so-chay-shim, or “Big-shim”) there were “small” courtyards - the courtyards of the great princes - the successor to the throne, and from the beginning of the 19th century, other members of the imperial family. They were headed by gof-mei-ste-ra-mi and did not have many staff.
In the 18th - 1st third of the 19th centuries, the affairs of the Imperial Court, as well as the “small” courtyards, were carried out by the Court Office and a number of others at - courtyard departments. In 1826, they all settled in the Mi-ni-ster-st-vo im-per-ra-tor-skogo yard and estates. After the February Revolution of 1917, its establishment and property were transferred to the subordination of various ministries -sterstvo (some of these institutions were pro-su-sche-st-vo-va-li until July 1918). All court ranks are decreed by the Council of People's Commissars of December 10 (23), 1917.
Historical sources:
Kri-ven-ko V.S. In the Mi-ni-ster-st-ve yard: Vos-po-mi-na-niya. St. Petersburg, 2006.
Illustrations:
Thor-gesture reception at the Winter Palace. In the center is the Minister of the Imperial Court and the Supreme Court, Prince P.M. Vol-kon-sky. Fragment of the picture “White ha-le-reya (Her-bo-hall) of the Winter Palace” by A.I. La-dur-ne-ra. 1838. Er-mitage (St. Petersburg). BRE Archive;
Para-rad uniform of the first ranks of the im-pera-tor-skogo yard. 1834. BRT archive.
Eunuchs at the helm of power in China
Place of the Taijians in the Imperial Court
The son of Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty, Chengzu moved his capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and many remarkable architectural structures were created during his reign. New boundaries of the city were determined, the city walls were rebuilt, construction of the famous imperial palace of Gugun began, the Temple of Heaven was built, and the construction of the ensemble of Minsk burials began. Chengzu's own tomb was the first of 13 tombs of Ming emperors near Beijing.
In the center of the Chinese capital was the Purple or Forbidden City, now the Gugong Museum, the residence of the Chinese emperors, where most of the eunuchs served.
The entire palace ensemble has the shape of a rectangle, the northern and southern sides of which are 760 meters long, and the western and eastern sides are 960, the total area is 72.9 hectares (for comparison, the Moscow Kremlin occupies only 28 hectares), on which there are 9999 large and small premises with a total area of 150 thousand square meters. m. Gugun is still considered one of the largest imperial palaces in the world. It was not for nothing that its territory was called the Forbidden City; only a select few could get here. For five hundred s extra years The Forbidden City served as the residence of 24 Chinese emperors (Ming and Qing dynasties). Behind the fortress wall, the palace is surrounded by a deep moat filled with water; at the corners rise intricate towers built entirely of wood (9 beams and 18 pillars), according to the traditional canons of ancient Chinese architecture; and in the space enclosed by a wall, majestic palace pavilions, as well as deep courtyards hidden from prying eyes, were located in strict order. All buildings are covered with golden or green glazed tiles, and the walls are painted dark red. The wide grand staircases made of marble, richly decorated with carved ornaments, are very beautiful; Along the balustrades there are white marble columns, also decorated with intricate bas-reliefs.
The entrance to the Forbidden City is the front gate of Tiananmen (Gate of Heavenly Peace). Previously, they were called the State Gate (Guomen). If the emperor went on a campaign, sacrifices were held in front of the Tiananmen Gate with a prayer service for a victorious return. And when the new emperor ascended the throne, the highest decrees were invariably announced from the Tiananmen rostrum. Moreover, the ceremony of familiarizing the people with the decrees of the Son of Heaven was quite complex. At first, all the imperial decrees, written on golden silk, descended from the top platform of the gate in the beak wooden phoenix and fell into the hands of senior officials of the Chamber of Ceremonies, copied in many copies on yellow imperial paper, and only then sent out and announced throughout the Celestial Empire. From the gates of Tiananmen on December 15, 1911 it was lowered and the last Emperor Chinese decree - on the abdication of the throne of the young Pu Yi.
It is known that men, except for the Son of Heaven and eunuchs, were forbidden to stay overnight within the walls of the imperial palace (which is why it was called the Forbidden City), which turned into a kind of “women’s world.”
“In the past, in the Forbidden City, every day at a certain hour, everyone - from princes and dignitaries to servants - had to leave the palace,” recalled the last emperor Pu Yi. “In addition to the guards and men from the imperial family standing near the Qianqing Gong Palace, there was not a single person left in the palace a real man."
Acting as overseers, eunuchs were simultaneously servants, spies, and pimps. Some of them, having become proxies of the rulers and senior dignitaries of the state, influenced political life countries. The emperor made them with his “ears, fangs and teeth.”
“Every day, as soon as twilight enveloped the Forbidden City and the last visitor hid behind the gates, the silence was broken only by commands coming from the Qianqing Gong Palace: “Lower the bolts!” Lock the locks! Be careful with the flashlights!” And along with the last phrase, the monotonous voices of the eunuchs on duty were heard in all corners of the Forbidden City, transmitting the command down the chain. This ceremony was introduced by the Kangxi Emperor in order to maintain the vigilance of eunuchs (in the Ming era, the night guard in the Forbidden City was forced to be carried out by eunuchs who had committed a fine. - V.U.). She filled the Forbidden City with some kind of mystery,” Pu Yi recalled about his years of life in the imperial palace in Beijing.
Eunuchs, “by mistake not locking the gates of the Imperial City when they should have been locked,” according to the “Laws of the Great Ming Dynasty,” were sent as soldiers to the army on the borders of the Celestial Empire.
When visiting the imperial palace, everyone had the impression that eunuchs were everywhere there. They washed floors, walked with fly swatters, served the emperor and his family, sang, played in the theater, cooked and served food.
This is how the imperial meal went.
“The time for eating was not determined, everything depended on the decision of the emperor himself,” recalled Pu Yi. “As soon as I said: “Bring food,” the junior eunuch immediately reported this to the senior eunuch in the Yansindian chamber. He, in turn, conveyed the order to the eunuch standing outside the doors of the chamber. And already this eunuch hurried with my order to the eunuch in the imperial kitchen in Xichangtse. Immediately a procession emerged from it, similar to that which happens at weddings. Several dozen neatly dressed eunuchs carried seven tables of various sizes and dozens of red lacquered boxes with golden dragons painted on them. The procession quickly headed towards the Yangxindian Chamber. The eunuchs handed over the food they brought to the young eunuchs in white oversleeves, who placed the food in the eastern hall. Usually two tables with main courses were set; the third table, with a Chinese samovar, was placed in winter. In addition, there were three tables with baked goods, rice and cereals. Salted vegetables were served on a separate table. The dishes were made of yellow porcelain, painted with dragons, and with the inscription: “Ten thousand years.” In winter they used silver utensils, which were placed in porcelain cups with hot water. On each saucer or in each cup there was a silver plate, with the help of which it was checked whether the food was poisoned. For the same purpose, before serving any dish, a eunuch first tasted it. This was called a “sample of food.” Then the dishes were placed on the tables, and the younger eunuch, before I sat down at the table, exclaimed: “Remove the lids!” Four or five junior eunuchs immediately removed the silver covers with which the dishes were covered, put them in large boxes and carried them away. It was my turn to “take the food.”
The functions of the eunuchs included guarding the emperor and his palace, so they were always present during ceremonies and trips, visits to the palace by foreign guests, guarded the entrances and property in the Forbidden City, and stored military equipment, weapons and ammunition.
The responsibilities of the emperor's personal security and secret investigation previously lay with two palace services - Jinyiwee And Dongguan(or Dongxinguan).
Jinyiwei (a branch of guards or security troops), created in the Ming era, performed both of these functions. It was, firstly, a military unit that guarded the courtyard. Secondly, this body had at its disposal a network of secret police, investigative agencies and even a special prison. According to the sources, “senior and junior officers daily collected information about secret writings, tricks and slander.” In addition, the duties of this service included ensuring that “the imperial instructions were widely disseminated throughout the country,” that is, the strict execution of all orders of the court.
Dongguan was created in 1420. Its prototype was the Dongchang Investigation Department, which existed since February 1410. Dongguan, which was engaged in surveillance, arrest, investigation and imprisonment of officials suspected of disloyalty, was located near the imperial palace, north of the Dongguanmen Gate. The head of the secret service became one of the most influential figures in the hierarchy of court eunuchs and even received the right to personal protection. The motives behind the creation of the detective department were the distrust of the imperial court towards the dignitaries of the civil administration, the fear of discontent in the army and the concern of the central government about the execution of its orders locally.
Unlike Jinyiwei, which consisted of military officials, Dongguan was formed of palace eunuchs. According to some historians, Dongguan was no less powerful than Jinyiwei, and both of these bodies collaborated, mutually complementing each other, which is why they were considered among the people a single organism, assigning a common name - Guan-wei.
Both secret departments had no direct analogues in the system of non-palace administration. Although the palace guard system existed before, eunuchs also played an important role there.
For example, the Tang eunuch Gao Lishi, who was called the “dragon eunuch,” was placed by Emperor Xuanzong in charge of an elite corps of palace guards. The Emperor commissioned a "dragon eunuch" to launch a punitive campaign against hundreds of Buddhist monks and nuns who had angered him. At that time, Buddhism was flourishing in the court of the Son of Heaven, and the emperor relied entirely on the predictions and advice of Buddhists. But in 695, the Mingtang Temple burned to the ground, and the emperor took this as a sign of Heaven's displeasure. He believed that the monks should have helped him avoid such troubles; now, having won the approval of the Confucians, who were temporarily out of favor during this period, Xuanzong ordered Gao Lishi to torture and behead all representatives of the affected Buddhist community.
The “dragon eunuch” began his actions by ordering the monks to be castrated, and then their genitals to be boiled and fed to the nuns. Then, according to historical chronicles, the breasts of the fat nuns were cut off and boiled in order to feed them to those of the monks who survived castration. They were then subjected to torture known as "clear eyes" (bags of quicklime were placed over the eyes), "finger crush" (sticks were inserted between the fingers and then tied tightly with a cord), and "hot water snake" (naked bodies were wrapped in metal tubes in the shape of snakes, and then boiling water was poured into the wide-open mouths of these “metal snakes”). At the conclusion of the operation to combat the Buddhists, Gao Lishi ordered the surviving defendants to be driven into a narrow gorge, where they were untied, after which he ordered the horse guards of the palace guard to trample them to death with horses.
The system of torture in China has developed since ancient times, has been refined and complicated over the centuries, and has become famous for its sophisticated torment. The torture system was based on the principle of matching the punishment to the crime. In addition to methods of immediate physical influence (thieves caught at the scene of a crime had their hands cut off, fugitives hiding from the authorities had their hamstrings cut with a sword), torture was supposed to make the victim realize the depravity of his actions and publicly declare it. Public humiliation was an important part of the general punishment; It is known how the Chinese were afraid of “losing face,” which in itself caused considerable suffering to the victims. An example that clearly illustrates the thoughtfulness of torture, which was supposed to force the criminal to suffer both physically and mentally, is wearing a kanga (a neck block, a type of collar made of two boards with semicircular cutouts for the neck; these boards are fastened together with bolts or chains. The length of the boards is from 60 to 80 cm, and the thickness is approximately two fingers). The period of wearing a kanga lasted from one to three months. “In itself, this punishment would not be so terrible, despite the weight of the kanga, which weighed from fifteen to twenty kilograms,” Hesse wrote, “if the criminal was not doomed to wear this block, without removing it day or night; a person cannot lie down in a kanga, and he is forced to sleep standing or sitting; he is unable to put his hands to his mouth, and if he does not die of hunger, it is only thanks to the compassion of friends and passers-by who feed him. The pieces of paper stuck on the kangs indicate the name of the criminal, the type of his offense and the terms of punishment.” Kangs were worn on embezzlers, habitual gamblers, insolvent debtors and other offenders; Most often men were subjected to such punishment, but it happened that it was also applied to women. Such criminals were not sent to prison; they were allowed to return to normal life or were ordered to stand in a crowded place for so many hours a day.
The eunuchs carried out torture with truly diabolical energy and sophistication. This especially concerned floggings and beatings, which were usually carried out in front of a large crowd of people. A person could be subjected to public execution only by the verdict of a court official, but palace eunuchs, as well as jailers and minor officials, often staged such public spectacles in the market squares at their own discretion, without fear of punishment for exceeding their authority.
Tortures such as pinching hands and feet in a vice, or making the accused kneel on iron chains or broken glass mixed with salt were quite widely practiced in China.
It is known that since ancient times in the Celestial Empire there were several traditional types of death penalty, and the role of executioners, as a rule, was performed by eunuchs. The longest, cruelest and most sophisticated was “cutting into small pieces.” It started from the top of the head, then followed by the eyebrows, cheeks, neck, arms and chest, and the cuts were made in such a way that there were strips of flesh hanging down on the victim’s body. When the condemned man was on the verge of losing consciousness, the executioner plunged the sword into his stomach, and then, grabbing him by the hair, cut off his head. This method of execution was recommended for use against women “guilty of desecrating their bodies through adultery.” The least cruel execution was simple beheading with a two-handed sword, which, however, was considered very shameful, since it meant burying the body without the head (which was usually left on public display) or with the head separated from the body. In this case, the victim could not count on the usual funeral ceremony and, naturally, on reunification with his glorious ancestors, because then “the body would not reach the next world in the form in which it appeared on this one” (remember how the eunuchs according to this they kept their “precious” for the same reason). The least shameful form of public execution was strangulation. The condemned person was tied to the vertical post of the cross and a rope was passed through the hole in the cross. A noose was made from a rope, which was used to tie the victim’s throat; then the executioner, standing behind the cross, pulled the rope down by the ends. The next type of execution, considered a manifestation of favor towards the victim and even showing her honor, was that the condemned person received a silk cord from the Son of Heaven, which meant the command to become his own executioner.
One of the lightest punishments used for many offenses was beating with sticks. One day, Emperor Wuzong (1506-1521) intended to take a pleasure trip to Southern China. 107 courtiers tried to convince him not to go, he was unhappy with this and sentenced them to five days of kneeling in front of the South Gate of the palace, and then to 30 strokes of the cane. Those who remained unconvinced after that received another 40-50 blows. In total, 146 people were punished with “court batogs”, 11 of them died.
Shizong (1522-1566), who was an appanage prince before ascending the throne, wished that during his lifetime his father would be given the same honors as the ancestors of the emperors. He ordered those who dissuaded him from this to be punished with “court batogs”; 19 of them died.
In using the detective service, Emperor Chengzu followed the rich traditions accumulated during the time of Zhu Yuanzhang. Some researchers, not without reason, associate the strengthening of the role of eunuchs at court during the reign of Chengzu with the support that eunuchs provided to the new emperor during the war of 1399-1402. One of characteristic features The reign of Chengzu was that it was under this emperor that the widespread use of palace eunuchs in “non-palace” service, so noticeable throughout the subsequent history of the Ming dynasty, began. They gained wide access to many important areas of internal and foreign policy. Skoptsy began to receive posts of military governors in various provinces of the country, they were used as special representatives of the court when carrying out assignments locally, etc., etc.
It should not be forgotten that at the same time, eunuchs continued to be the main service personnel in the Forbidden City, in charge of the treasury, ceremonial and regalia, state seals, palace warehouses, kitchen and supplies, etc.
It was during the Ming era that the institution of eunuch bodyguards was created, which actually replaced the palace guards. The guards, who previously guarded the palace and the emperor and his family, were generally taken outside the palace in those years, or were placed under the command of eunuchs. Guard officers, on orders from eunuchs, made arrests and detained officials suspected of disloyalty.
Based on Chinese sources, the American sinologist C. O. Hacker explained the emperors' predilection for eunuchs:
1. Eunuchs were not burdened with personal affairs, since they could not have heirs;
2. Eunuchs were not proteges of the nobility and were entirely dependent on the will of the emperor;
3. Due to their position, they were little bound by generally accepted moral and ethical restrictions;
4. Depending on the will of the emperor, they could not resist him;
5. Unlike other dignitaries, eunuchs had access to the emperor at any time and were therefore best suited for carrying out urgent matters and mediation assignments.
Eunuchs had such a great influence on the future Sons of Heaven also because one or another emperor was taken from his mother in infancy and was raised by eunuchs. The eunuchs taught him to walk, talk, perform certain ceremonies, they fed him, took care of his toilet and education, they knew all the weak points of the future emperor, his character, views and thoughts, and finally, the eunuchs often corrupted the future emperor. Eunuchs could also influence the emperor through his wife, concubines, etc.
Women's ranks and positions at the imperial court
As is known, female court ranks were introduced by Peter I in the “Table of Ranks” on January 24, 1722. From that time on, a hierarchy of female court ranks gradually began to take shape at the imperial court, such as chief chamberlain, lady-in-waiting, state lady and maid of honor. All of them are indicated not in the main part of the “Table of Ranks”, but in one of the explanatory paragraphs to it. The eldest in the hierarchy was the title of Chief Chamberlain - “has rank above all the ladies.” Then came the actual state ladies, their rank followed “the wives of the actual Privy Councilors"(II grade). Actual chambermaids were equal in rank to the wives of the presidents of the colleges (IV class). And finally, gofdams, who were equal in rank to the wives of brigadiers (V class), gofdams, who were equal in rank to the wives of colonels (VI class), and chambermaids. However, in practice already in the second quarter of the 18th century. A slightly expanded and modified nomenclature of ladies' court ranks was used: chief chamberlain, chamberlain, lady of state, lady-in-waiting and maid of honor. The hierarchy of female court ranks finally became stable under Paul I.
Competition to fill vacant salaried positions was very tough, so the expected vacancies there was an unspoken queue. There were a total of five levels of full-time female positions in the imperial court.
Firstly, the position of chief chamberlain, which was the pinnacle of a woman’s aristocratic career at court. Typically, this title was given to court ladies who held positions of the same name, who were in charge of the female court staff and the office of empresses or grand duchesses.
Secondly, the position of chamberlain, introduced into the court hierarchy of ranks in 1748. As a rule, they were promoted to chamberlain after several years of work in the rank of lady of state. This title was considered very honorable, moreover, it implied the daily solution of many current problems in the female half of the imperial residences. So, one of the duties was to introduce the ladies who came to the audience to the empress. As a rule, to acquire this title, it was important not only to belong to the cream of the Russian aristocracy, but also to be close to the monarchs for many years and work at the imperial court. For example, the chamberlain, Countess Yulia Fedorovna Baranova, was not only a friend of Nicholas I’s childhood games, but also a long-term teacher of his children and grandchildren. And the mother of the Decembrist Volkonsky, after the suppression of the uprising on December 14, 1825, not only retained the position of chamberlain, but also continued to impeccably fulfill her court duties 352.
The practice of appointments to the positions of chief chamberlain and chamberlain ceased during the reign of Alexander III. It should be noted that the emperor was extremely sparing in giving any court positions. Therefore, since the 1880s. No one received the titles of Chief Chamberlain and Chamberlain, the corresponding positions were filled by persons from among the ladies of state, and ladies who did not have court titles at all served at the courts of the Grand Duchesses.
Thirdly, the position of state ladies, who constituted the second largest group of court ladies. As a rule, this title was given to spouses of major civil, military and court officials. Most of them belonged to noble families, and many were ladies of the cavalry, that is, they had the ladies' order of St. Catherine. When appointed to the position of a lady of state, as a rule, a portrait of the empress with a crown decorated with diamonds was requested to be worn on her chest.
Another visible evidence of the high status of the ladies of state was that during the baptism of the imperial children they were the ones who carried the royal babies on special pillows. Under Catherine I there were four ladies of state, under Elizabeth - 18, under Empress Alexandra Feodorovna (wife of Nicholas I) - 38, under Empress Alexandra Feodorovna (wife of Nicholas II in 1898) - 17. In total for the imperial period, that is, for 200 years ago, the title of lady of state was awarded to more than 170 women. At the same time, the same surnames are often found in the list: 18 state ladies were representatives of the family of princes Golitsyn, 11 - Naryshkins, 8 - Dolgorukovs, 6 - Trubetskoys, etc. In some cases, this high court rank was complained to the mothers of major dignitaries, persons who occupied an exceptional position at court.
It should be emphasized that not all “portrait” ladies of state received salaries according to their rank. Most of them were on vacation and appeared at court only on special occasions. It should also be borne in mind that only married or widowed ladies could receive the titles of Chief Chamberlain, Chamberlain and State Lady 353.
Fourthly, the position of maid of honor, a senior rank for girls, which appeared in the court hierarchy in 1730. The first four listed positions were during the 18th century. had only 82 persons, in 1881 - 14, and in 1914 - 18. It is noteworthy that in the court staff of 1796 there were no maids of honor. In the regulations on the court department, they were mentioned again only in 1834. As a rule, ladies-in-waiting were girls who had spent too much time in the maids of honor, who had never married, but at the same time, as a rule, the most trusted and experienced, who were engaged in serving the various personal needs of the empresses. Their number was not constant, but usually did not exceed four people.
Another option for obtaining a full-time position as a maid of honor was the practice of “accompanying brides.” A German bride who came to Russia brought with her a very limited staff of women, especially proxies who lived literally until death “with their girls” - empresses. The daughter of Nicholas I mentioned that “Mama was especially killed by the death of her chamberlain, Frau Klügel; the latter was given to her along with her dowry from Berlin; In our house, it was generally a tradition to honor old servants, but Mom? was especially cordial" 354.
Since ladies-in-waiting were expelled only on the basis of marriage or petition, some of the unmarried ladies-in-waiting reached a very advanced age by palace standards. Thus, the maid of honor of Empress Maria Alexandrovna, Countess Antonina Dmitrievna Bludova, was promoted to maid of honor at the age of 50, Ekaterina Petrovna Valueva - at 52, Alexandra Gavrilovna Divova - at 54, Princess Varvara Mikhailovna Volkonskaya - at 60, Anna Alekseevna Okulova - at 62 years old, and Ekaterina Petrovna Ermolova is 70 years old. The age and merits of some of the ladies-in-waiting made it quite possible to equate them with ladies of state.
Fifthly, the position of maid of honor, a junior court rank for girls. This court rank began to be used in 1744, from the time of Elizabeth Petrovna. Maids of honor constituted the largest category of female palace servants. Thus, in 1881, out of 203 ladies who had court ranks, 189 were ladies-in-waiting. At the beginning of the reign of Nicholas II, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna's list of ladies-in-waiting numbered 190 people 355 , and by 1914 their number had grown to 261. About a third of them belonged to titled families: Golitsyns, Gagarins, Shcherbatovs, Trubetskoys, Obolenskys, Dolgorukovs, Volkonskys , Baryatinsky, Khilkov and others, and about half were daughters of persons who had court ranks and titles.
The title of maid of honor was the most common in the court world, since it “attached” and gave a “start” in life to many recognized beauties. As a rule, very young girls became maids of honor. In the 18th century There are frequent references to 11-12 year old girls taken to court “for the merits” of their fathers. In the 19th century an unspoken age limit was established, aimed at 15–18 years, that is, the age when girls came out of closed doors “into life” educational institutions. However, even in the middle of the 19th century. There are known cases of awarding the title of maid of honor to young girls.
If the ladies-in-waiting did not get married, then they gradually turned into old maids, among whom were very extraordinary personalities - for example, the famous memoirists Anna Tyutcheva and Antonina Bludova.
IMPERIAL COURT in Russia, the court staff of the emperors. It was formed instead of the Sovereign Court by Emperor Peter I on the model of the French and Prussian courts. Unlike the Sovereign's court, which was directly involved in public administration, the imperial court ensured that the emperor performed representative functions, and also organized the daily life members of the imperial family.
The imperial court consisted of persons who had special court titles (ranks). Their number and names changed in the 18th - early 19th centuries. Initially, they were introduced by separate orders of Peter I; for the first time, he established a system of special court ranks in the Table of Ranks of 1722 (in practice, many of the court ranks were not used). The first staff of the imperial court, which determined the number and functions of the courtiers, was approved by Emperor Peter II in 1727, it consisted of a chamberlain, a chamberlain and a master of horse, as well as 8 chamberlains and 7 chamberlains (then, until the beginning of the 19th century, there were both chamberlains and chamberlains to 12). From the beginning of the 19th century, the number of persons who were part of the imperial court began to grow rapidly. Under Emperor Nicholas I, the structure of the imperial court took on a complete form.
The staff of the imperial court included the so-called court ranks - persons who had a court rank corresponding to the 9-2nd (5-2nd from 1809) classes of the Table of Ranks (they constituted upper layer imperial court), as well as court servants who directly served the household of the imperial court and ensured the conduct of court ceremonies and celebrations (unlike court officials, they had apartments in the imperial palaces; in particular, up to 3 thousand court servants lived in the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg and their family members at the same time). The court ranks, in turn, were divided into the first and second ranks of the court, court gentlemen, and female court staff. The first ranks of the court - Chief Marshal, Chief Chamberlain, Chief Chamberlain, Chief Eternal Master, Chief Schenk, Chief Jägermeister, Chief Forschneider (established in 1856) - corresponded to the 2nd class of the Table of Ranks. The second ranks of the court - chamberlain, equestrian master, jägermeister, chief master of ceremonies, chamberlain marshal - corresponded to the 3rd class. The category of court cavaliers included chamberlains (the rank corresponded to the 6th class) and chamber cadets (the 9th class); in 1809, these titles became honorary and ceased to correlate with certain classes of the Table of Ranks. The female court staff of the imperial court consisted of the chief chamberlain of the empress (the head of the female staff of the imperial court), chamberlains, ladies of state (ladies who bore all three titles were equated in the court hierarchy with the spouses of persons of the 2nd class) and ladies-in-waiting who were on duty with the empress .
Court servants were also divided into higher and lower. The highest - chamber-fouriers, gouffuriers, valets, mundschens, coffee-makers, tafeldekers, confectioners and head waiters - had the ranks of 12-6 classes according to the Table of Ranks; the lower ones - chamberlains, chamberlains-Cossacks, walkers, tops, etc. - were not in the class ranks. Awards to court ranks were made at the discretion of the emperor, and the ranks of court servants were determined by law, taking into account length of service.
A separate category in the staff of the imperial court was made up of court medical ranks: life physician, life surgeon, life obstetrician, life pediatrician, etc. (these positions were held, in particular, by N. F. Arendt, L. L. Blumentrost, S. P. Botkin, J. V. Willie, R. R. Vreden, I. I. Lestok, D. O. Ott, K. A. Rauchfus).
Initially, each court rank was directly related to a certain area of court life: the knight marshal (then the chief marshal) was in charge of the court household, the horseman (chief horseman) was in charge of the imperial stables, the jägermeister (chief jägermeister) was in charge of the imperial hunt, and the chief shalmeister was in charge of serving drinks. at ceremonial dinners, Ober-Forschneider - by organizing ceremonial dinners, master of ceremonies (Ober-Ceremonial Master) - by conducting court ceremonies. In the 19th century, the presence of titles (ranks) among courtiers ceased to be determined by their performance of specific functions. The main duty of the courtiers was participation in the Highest exits and court ceremonies during marriages, christenings and funerals of emperors and members of the imperial family, etc., as well as accompanying the emperor and his foreign guests on trips. The court title was transformed into a form of encouragement for civil officials and served as a sign of the monarch’s respect for the “family and merits of the ancestors” of the person who bore this title (therefore, mainly the Russian titled aristocracy was represented in the court ranks). Many statesmen held court titles, including N. P. Rumyantsev (chief chamberlain), F. V. Rostopchin (chief chamberlain), P. A. Vyazemsky (chief chamberlain), P. A. Stolypin (chief chamberlain ), P. A. Valuev, M. S. Vorontsov, A. M. Gorchakov, A. S. Stroganov, N. B. Yusupov (all chamberlains). The titles of chamberlain and maid of honor were held by the majority of wives and daughters of Russian senior statesmen and military leaders; these titles were also considered as a form of encouragement for husbands or fathers of the court ladies. Only a small part of the ladies-in-waiting continued to perform regular duties under the empress until the beginning of the 20th century.
By the beginning of 1898, the imperial court included 16 first and 147 second court ranks, 25 masters of ceremonies, 176 chamberlains and 252 chamber cadets, 229 court ladies; 29 people had court medical titles. Persons with court ranks, including court ladies, had special court uniforms and dresses. The Russian imperial court was one of the most magnificent in Europe in terms of its numbers and the splendor of court ceremonies, which took place in the luxurious interiors of the imperial residences.
In addition to the members of the imperial court, the emperor had ranks of His Imperial Majesty's Retinue (adjutant generals, major generals and rear admirals of the retinue, aide-de-camp), who were not part of the imperial court. They took turns on duty with the emperor, accepted petitions for the Highest Name, carried out various assignments of the emperor, and were present with him during all military ceremonies.
In the 18th - early 20th centuries, along with the imperial court (the Highest, or “Big”) there were “small” courts - the courts of the grand duchesses - heirs to the throne, and from the beginning of the 19th century, other members of the imperial family. They were headed by chamberlains and had a small staff.
In the 18th - 1st third of the 19th century, the affairs of the imperial court, as well as “small” courts, were in charge of the Court Office and a number of other court departments. In 1826, they were all united into the Ministry of the Imperial Court and Appanages. After February Revolution 1917 its establishment and property transferred to the subordination of various ministries (some of these institutions existed until July 1918). All court ranks were abolished by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of December 10 (23), 1917.
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