The Concept of Electrical Current
In the beginning of the 17 th century Sir William Gilbert discovered that many substances could be electrified by friction. Gilbert named this effect "electric" after the world "electron" - the Greek name for amber. In 1756 the great Russian scientist M. V. Lomonosov was the first to make theoretical analysis of electrical phenomena.
At present the nature of electrification is explanted by the electron theory. According to the modern theory all matter is composed of atoms or tiny particles. There are many kinds of atoms. Each atom consists of a nucleus, a small positively charged mass and a number of lighter negatively charged particles called electrons, which revolve around the nucleus. Normally each atom of a substance is electrically neutral, or it has equal amounts of negative and positive charges, i.e. produces no electrical effects. If the number of negative charges is not equal to the number of positive charges, the matter will produce electrical effects.
When an electric charge is at rest it is spoken of as static electricity, but when it is in motion it is referred to as an electric current. In most cases, an electric current is described as a flow of electric charges along a conductor.
Not all substances are good conductors of electricity, as a general rule metals are good conductors of electricity, whereas nonmetals are poor conductors. The poorest of conductors are commonly called insulators or nonconductors. There are a large number of substances that are neither good conductors of electricity nor good insulators. These substances are called semi-conductors. An electric current which flows in the same direction through a conductor or a current which does not change its polarity is called a direct current or a continuous current. Its abbreviation is D. C. An alternating current (A. C.) flows first in one direction and then in the other.
An electric circuit is a path through which an electric current flows. This is a complete path along which electrons can transmit their charges. An electric circuit includes a battery, generator, or magnetic means for producing current flow. Some portion of the circuit is made to do useful work.
The circuit is said to be open when no charges can move due to a break in the path. The circuit is said to be closed when no break exists—when switches are closed and all connections are properly made.
Special symbols are used to show electrical systems. There is a wide range of these symbols. There are some of them which are used when we draw circuits. And now look at the diagram of series and parallel arrangements.
Words to the text
1) insulatorinsulator
2) substance- substance, matter
3) friction- friction, adhesion
4) nucleus-nucleus, cell
5) amount- amount, quantity
7) rest- peace, relaxation
8) motion-motion
9) flow- flow, current
10) circuit- circuit, circuit
11) current-current, current
12) path- way, path, line
13) break- break, interval, fracture
14) Todiscover-open
15) To make-make
16) To explain-explain
17) To consist-consistfrom
18) To revolve-rotate
19) To produce-produce
20) To transmit-transfer
21) To include-include
22) Toexist-exist
23) Touse-use
24) Tiny- small, tiny
25) light- light, light
26) Equal-equal
27) Poor-poor, weak
28) continuous-continuous, constant
29) Wide-wide
30) Alternating-variable
1. Find in the text
a) internationalisms b) false friends of the translator
2. Give brief definitions of the following concepts:
static electricity
electric current
direct current
alternating current
electric circuit
An open circuit
A closed circuit
An electrical phenomenon
An electron theory
positive charges
Negative charges
Conductors of electricity
special symbols
3. Translate on the Russian language . Pay attention to infinitive constructions.
The capacity to absorb heat varies between substances.
Each object in nature has a particular temperature which can be compared with the temperature of other objects.
To make this comparison accurate thermometer is used.
Each atom is known to have a name and symbol.
To know the melting point of the metal in use is necessary.
I consider him to be the best qualified person in the laboratory.
Whenever the speed or velocity of a body changes, the body is said to have acceleration.
Laws and theories are formulated from the results of the experiments and then used to predict the results of new experiments.
Batteries
An Italian scientist Alessandro Volta made a` lot of experiments with electricity. Batteries as sources of electrical energy are the result of his experiments.
Today battery cells are produced in two common forms: dry cells, used in flashlights, portable radios, clocks, cameras and (well) wet cells, used in automobiles, airplanes, boats.
The voltaic cell is composed of three parts: a pair of dissimilar metal plates called electrodes, a dilute acid solution called electrolyte, and a nonconducting container called the cell. In a glass container filled with sulphuric acid there are two plates: one copper and are connected by a copper wire, electricity will flow through it from the copper plate to the zinc plate.
For the voltaic cell the copper plate is the positive electrode and the zinc plate the negative electrode a copper wire will convey electricity and is called an electrical conductor. Copper, aluminum and silver are good conductors. They must be surrounded by protective material which does not conduct electricity. Such materials are called electrical insulators (glass, wood, rubber, some plastics, insulation tape)
Remember that faulty insulation is dangerous and leads to unwanted electrical flow and probably to local overheating.
Words to the text
Source-source
cell-element
flash light- signal fire
plate-plate
acid-acid
Copper-copper
Wire-wire, wire
insulator-insulator
Rubber-rubber, rubber
Tape- tape, braid
To use-use
to compose- compose
to fill-fill
To connect-unite
to flow-flow
To convey- to ferry
to surround-surround
To remember-remember
Common- common, frequent
Portable- portable
Dry-dry
Wet-wet
Dissimilar-dissimilar
Sulfuric-sulfuric
Faulty-faulty
Dangerous-dangerous
2. Insert missing words
A battery is a source of ….
Battery cells are manufactured in ….
The voltaic cell is composed of ….
Cells connected together form ….
The positive electrode is ….
The negative electrode is….
Series connection means ….
Materials which do not conduct electricity are called ….
Electrical, insulators, two common forms, electrical energy, copper plate, Zink plate, three parts, battery, the terminal of one cell is connected to
Electrical Measuring Units and Instruments
Any instrument which measures electrical values is called a meter. An ammeter measures the current in amperes. The unit is named after Andre Marie Ampere, a French scientist. A voltmeter measures the voltage and the potential difference in volts. The volt is named after Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist.
The current in a conductor is determined by two things, the voltage across the conductor. The unit by which resistance is measured is called theohm . The resistance in practice is measured with the ohmmeter, a wattmeter measures electrical power in watts. Very delicate ammeters are often used for measuring very small currents. Whenever an ammeter or voltmeter is connected to a circuit to measure electric current or potential difference the ammeter must be connected in series and the voltmeter in parallel.
Answer the questions
What does an ammeter measure?
Was Andre m. ampere a French or Italian scientist?
How is the current in a conductor determined?
What is the unit called by which resistance is measured?
Does a wattmeter measure electrical power?
How does an ammeter measure electric current?
Find the English equivalents in the text.
Called a counter
Named after…
Conductor current
Conductor resistance
Electric power
Very sensitive
Often used
measure electric current
Potential Difference
Must be connected
The capacitor
A is an a priori The general form of a capacitor is what of two parallel conducting plates.
Such are of relatively large area, close together, and contain between them a non-conducting medium called the dielectric common dielectric are air, glass, oil and waxed paper.
To increase the capacitance of a capacitor the following changes can be made: first, the area of the plates may be increased.
Second, the plates may be put closer together
Third, a more suitable dielectric may be inserted between the plates.
If the plates of a capacitor are small in area and far apart, the capacitance is small. If the area is large and plates close together, the capacitance is large. The unit of capacitance, the farad, named in honor of Michael Faraday scientist a capacitance of 1 farad is very large and for practical purposes is not used. The microfarad is more convenient. Capacitors in common use today are of various kinds, sizes and shapes. Perhaps the most common is the so-called "paper capacitor" used in radios and the ignition system of automobiles another type of capacitor is the variable capacitor commonly used in tuning radios.
Word to text
Capacitor-capacitor
Capacitance-capacity; capacitance
Device-device; device
Quantity-amount
Plate-plate
Air-air
glass-glass
Waxed paperwax paper
Area-square
Purpose-goal
To storeaccumulate
To change-change
To contain-contain
To increase-increase
To insertinsert
To be used-be used
To be called-to be named
General-normal, basic
Common-general
Suitable-suitable
Convenient-convenient
Various-different
Variable-volatile
Relative-relative
Form words with the same root as data. Translate .
Quantity, contain, conduct, measure, differ, vary, insulate, store, attract, electric.
power transmission
A transformer is an electrical device by which the electromotive force of a source of alternating current may be increased or decreased. They are widespread in long distance power transmitters and receivers, television. Nearly all transformers come under one of the two following classes: step-up and step-down transformers. In the transmissions of electrical energy over wires for long distance, transformers are practically indispensable.
At the power house in the distant mountains, electric current is generated by huge alternating generator at the low voltage of several thousand volts. If an attempt was made to transmit this electrical energy, at a voltage of 2,200 volts, over many miles to a distant city, the current would be so large that nearly of the energy would be consumed in heating the power line. To avoid large heat losses, transformers at the power house step the voltage up to some 220000 volts before switching the current onto the power line.
At the city end of the power line, a transformer substation steps the voltage down to its original value of 2200 volts. From there branch lines distribute the power to various section of the city where smaller transformers step it down again to the relatively safe voltage of 110 to 220 volts.
Words to the text
A transformertransformer
A sourcesource
A forceforce
A wirethe wire
Voltage-electrical voltage
Ar attempt-attempt
Losses-losses
Substation-substation
Branch-industry
Line-line
To increase-increase
To decrease-decrease
To step upraise the voltage
To step downstep down the voltage
To generate-produce
To makemake
To consume-spend
To avoid-avoid
To switchinclude
To distribute-distribute
Alternating-variable
Widespread-widecommon
Following-next
Indispensable-absolutely necessary
Distant-far
Huge-huge
Various-different
Relative-relative
Translate the following phrases
Long distance power transmission
Radio transmitters
Alternating current generator-
wire cable-
Heat losses
Power line-
transmission line-
electrical device-
A huge generator
Various sections-
Group synonyms
to step up; part; to step down; to increase; decrease; not far; too; as; since; as well as; section; different; near; various; huge; end; finish; great.
form with help suffixes the words
generate; relate; transmit; transform; receive; distant; consume; voltage; differ.
Determine the tense form of the verb
We have read the text about power transmission.
It is very difficult to translate.
The students are learning the new words.
Au transformers worked well.
An operator will examine this electric device.
Branch lines distribute the power to various cities.
Workers built the new power station some time ago.
It generates the electrical energy.
Test
Option number 1
At present the nature of …is explained by the electron theory.
a) electrification
b) history
c) town
2) Any instrument which measures electrical values is called ....
a) atom
b) a meter
c) a battery
3) An Italian … Volta made many experiments with electricity.
a) musician
b) driver
c) scientist
Exercise 2. Find Russians equivalents .
1) sources of electrical energy
2) a capacitor is an electrical device
3) alternating current
4) positive electrode
5) measuring units and instruments
6) the ignition system of automobiles
Exercise 3. Insert correct form verb .
1) The mechanic (is repairing / was repairing) the engine now.
2) He (measured, will measure) electrical power 2 hours ago.
3) A new power station (is built / will be built) in the nearest future.
4) Now all substances (is, are) good conductors of electricity.
5) Battery cells (have, has) dry cells and wet cells.
Exercise 4. group synonyms
Different, not far, end, great, near, finish, various, huge, step up, increase, section, part, step down, decrease.
Electric current, conductor, voltmeter, resistance, copper wire, capacitor, power transmission, generator.
Test
Option number 2
Task 1. Insert a word that is appropriate in meaning.
A capacitor is used for storing … .
a) petrol
b) electricity
c) meter
2) He ... the electric motor and the first telegraph.
a) invented
b) printed
c) called
Task 2. Find Russian equivalents.
1) electricalcurrent
2) electron theory
3) connected between the plates
4) conduct electricity
5) a container for storing electricity
6) transmission of electrical energy
Exercise 3. Insert correct form verb .
1) The principles of the capacitor (are illustrated, was illustrated)
2) Faraday (carried out, will carry out) series of experiments in 1831.
3) The scientist Volta (faces, faced) the problem how electricity could be produced.
4) Some new instruments (will be made, are made) next month.
5) Newton (have expressed, has expressed) the connection between force and motion.
Exercise 4. group antonyms .
Noise, positive, start, silence, far, finish, theory, negative, near, practice, famous, unknown, rest, motion.
Task 5. Find English equivalents.
Positive electrode, source of electrical energy, conductor, conduct experiments, battery, device, electric current, insulator.
Topic: Electrical Power Industry
Topic: Power industry
Using energy has been a key issue in the process of the development of our human society since the old times when people started to control fire. But one of the most prominent sources that changed the life of the whole world was the discovery of the most efficient energy source – the electricity. In our modern world electricity is used for industry and agriculture, communication and transportation, and for everyday use.
The use of energy has always been a key issue in the development of human society since ancient times, when people learned to control fire. But one of the most significant sources that changed the whole world was the discovery of the most efficient source of energy - electricity. In our modern world, electricity is used in industry and agriculture, communications and transport, as well as in everyday life.
The development of electricity dates back to the late 17th century and the great discovery of the power source of energy was made by William Gilbert. A great number of further important discoveries were made over the next two centuries – among them are a light bulb and electromagnetic induction principle. The start of the electrical industry began in 1881 when the first power station in the world was constructed at Godalming in England. Then in 1882 the great inventor Thomas Edison and his Edison Electric Light Company started their first steam-powered station in New York. That was the beginning of the new era of electricity that changed the way people lived. By 1890 there were thousands of power systems in Europe and the USA.
The development of electricity began in the 17th century, and the discovery of this energy source was made by William Gilbert. A huge number of further important discoveries were made over the next two centuries - among them were the incandescent light bulb and the principle of electromagnetic induction. The beginning of the industrial production of electricity was given in 1881, when the first power plant was built in English Godalming. Then, in 1882, the great inventor Thomas Edison and his company launched a steam power plant in New York. This was the beginning of a new era of electricity that changed the way people lived. By 1890, thousands of power plants were operating in Europe and the United States.
But what is the electricity? From the scientific point of view, the electricity is a particular set of physical phenomena which is characterized by the presence and the distinctive flow of electric charge. It is created when the small particles – electrons move between the atoms. This process creates an electric current. And this current is used to energize different kinds of equipment. Electrical Power Industry can be fair enough called a backbone of the modern industry and everyday life.
But what is electricity? From a scientific point of view, electricity is a certain set of physical phenomena, which is characterized by the presence and a certain flow of an electric charge. Electricity is created when small particles - electrons move between atoms. This process creates an electric current. And this current is used as energy for various kinds of mechanisms. The electric power industry is without a doubt the backbone of modern industry and everyday life.
We use electrical power for heating, cooling and lighting our houses, for cooking food, and for numerous devices and gadgets such TV-sets, computers and smartphones. Electrical power has become the essential necessity for the modern society. But unfortunately not all people in the world have an access to this source of energy. Millions of people in poor countries have to survive without the advantages of electrical power.
We use electrical energy to heat or cool our homes, cook food, and for countless devices and gadgets such as TVs, computers, or smartphones. Electrical energy has become one of the necessary components modern society. But, unfortunately, not all inhabitants of the planet have access to this source of energy. Millions of people in the poorest countries are forced to survive without the benefits of electricity.
Besides the obvious advantages that electrical power brings to our life there is a definite set of threats that this modern technology causes. The process of electricity generation on different kinds of power stations is often not so harmless to the nature. One of the most efficient but dangerous means of electricity generation is a nuclear power station. Though this is one of the most effective ways to generate electricity for the needs of the society, the disastrous catastrophes in Chernobyl and Fukusima showed us how dangerous nuclear power is.
Faculty of Additional Professional Education
TRANSLATION OF THE ARTICLE
CHECKED:
COMPLETED:
Samara 2009
Hydroelectricity
Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a significantly lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) than fossil fuel powered energy plants. Worldwide, hydroelectricity supplied an estimated 715,000 MWe in 2005. This was approximately 19% of the world's electricity (up from 16% in 2003), and accounted for over 63% of electricity from renewable sources.
Electricity generation
Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator. In this case the energy extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head. The amount of potential energy in water is proportional to the head. To obtain a very high head, water for a hydraulic turbine may be run through a large pipe called a penstock.
Pumped storage hydroelectricity produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. Pumped storage schemes currently provide the only commercially important means of large-scale grid energy storage and improve the daily load factor of the generation system. Hydroelectric plants with no reservoir capacity are called run-of-the-river plants. A tidal power plant makes use of the daily rise and fall of water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatch able to generate power during high demand periods.
Less common types of hydro schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot waterwheels.
A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a hydroelectric plant is: P = hrgk, where P is Power in kilowatts, h is height in meters, r is flow rate in cubic meters per second, g is acceleration due to gravity of 9.8 m /s2, and k is a coefficient of efficiency ranging from 0 to 1. Efficiency is often higher with larger and more modern turbines.
Annual electric energy production depends on the available water supply. In some installations the water flow rate can vary by a factor of 10:1 over the course of a year.
industrial hydroelectric plants
While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminum electrolytic plants. In the Scottish Highlands there are examples at Kinlohleven and Lochaber, constructed during the early years of the 20th century. The Grand Coulee Dam, long the world "s largest, switched to support Alcoa aluminum in Bellingham, Washington for America"s World War II airplanes before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminum power) after the war . In Suriname, the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminum industry. New Zealand's Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminum smelter at Tiwai Point.
small-scale hydro-electric plants
Although large hydroelectric installations generate most of the world's hydroelectricity, some situations require small hydro plants. These are defined as plants producing up to 10 megawatts, or projects up to 30 megawatts in North America. A small hydro plant may be connected to a distribution grid or may provide power only to an isolated community. a project for flood control, irrigation or other purposes, providing extra revenue for project costs. operation.Small hydro can be further divided into mini-hydro, units around 1 MW in size, and micro hydro with units as large as 100 kW down to a couple of kW rating.
Small hydro schemes are particularly popular in China, which has over 50% of the world's small hydro capacity.
Small hydro units in the range 1 MW to about 30 MW are often available from multiple manufacturers using standardized "water to wire" packages; a single contractor can provide all the major mechanical and electrical equipment (turbine, generator, controls, switchgear), selecting from several standard designs to fit the site conditions. Micro hydro projects use a diverse range of equipment; in the smaller sizes industrial centrifugal pumps can be used as turbines, with comparatively low purchase cost compared to purpose-built turbines.
Advantages
The major advantage of hydroelectricity is elimination of the cost of fuel. The cost of operating a hydroelectric plant is nearly immune to increases in the cost of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas or coal, and no imports are needed.
Hydroelectric plants also tend to have longer economic lives than fuel-fired generation, with some plants now in service which were built 50 to 100 years ago. Operating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation.
Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric plant may be added with relatively low construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation.
^ related activities
Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often provide facilities for water sports, and become tourist attractions in themselves. Multi-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with a relatively constant water supply. Large hydro dams can control floods, which would otherwise affect people living downstream of the project.
Disadvantages
environmental damage
Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to the surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream of the plant site. For instance, studies have shown that dams along the Atlantic and
Pacific coasts of North America have reduced salmon populations by preventing access to spawning grounds upstream, even though most dams in salmon habitat have fish ladders installed. Salmon spawn are also harmed on their migration to sea when they must pass through turbines. This has led to some areas transporting spawn downstream by barge during parts of the year. In some cases dams have been demolished (for example the Marmot Dam demolished in 2007) because of impact on fish. Turbine and power-plant designs that are easier on aquatic life are an active area of research. Mitigation measures such as fish ladders may be required at new projects or as a condition of re-licensing of existing projects.
Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks. Since turbine gates are often opened intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed. For example, in the Grand Canyon, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by Glen Canyon Dam was found to be contributing to erosion of sand bars. Dissolved oxygen content of the water may change from pre-construction conditions. Depending on the location, water exiting from turbines is typically much warmer than the pre-dam water, which can change aquatic fauna populations, including endangered species, and prevent natural freezing processes from occurring. Some hydroelectric projects also use canals to divert a river at a shallower gradient to increase the head of the scheme. In some cases, the entire river may be diverted leaving a dry riverbed. Examples include the Tekapo and Pukaki Rivers.
^ Population relocation
Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned. In February 2008, it was estimated that 40-80 million people worldwide had been physically displaced as a direct result of dam construction. In many cases, no amount of compensation can replace ancestral and cultural attachments to places that have spiritual value to the displaced population. Additionally, historically and culturally important sites can be flooded and lost. Such problems have arisen at the Three Gorges Dam project in China, the Clyde Dam in New Zealand and the Ilısu Dam in Southeastern Turkey.
^ Dam failures
Failures of large dams, while rare, are potentially serious - the Banqiao Dam failure in Southern China resulted in the deaths of 171,000 people and left millions homeless. Dams may be subject to enemy bombardment during wartime, sabotage and terrorism. Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities are less vulnerable to these threats. The creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters like the one of the Vajont Dam in Italy, where almost 2000 people died, in 1963.
^ Affected by flow shortage
Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Because of global warming, the volume of glaciers has decreased, such as the North Cascades glaciers, which have lost a third of their volume since 1950, resulting in stream flows that have decreased by as much as 34%. The result of diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric power.
Comparison with other methods of power generation
Hydroelectricity eliminates the flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion, including pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, dust, and mercury in the coal. Hydroelectricity also avoids the hazards of coal mining and the indirect health effects of coal emissions. Compared to nuclear power, hydroelectricity generates no nuclear waste, has none of the dangers associated with uranium mining, nor nuclear leaks. Unlike uranium, hydroelectricity is also a renewable energy source.
Compared to wind farms, hydroelectricity power plants have a more predictable load factor. If the project has a storage reservoir, it can be dispatched to generate power when needed. Hydroelectric plants can be easily regulated to follow variations in power demand.
Unlike fossil-fuel combustion turbines, construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessment. Hydrological data up to 50 years or more is usually required to determine the best sites and operating regimes for a large hydroelectric plant. unlike plants operated by fuel, such as fossil or nuclear energy, the number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; in many areas the most cost effective sites have already been exploited. New hydro sites tend to be far from population centers and require extensive transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation depends on rainfall in the watershed, and may be significantly reduced in years of low rainfall or snowmelt. Long-term energy yield may be affected by climate change. Utilities that primarily use hydroelectric power may spend additional capital to build extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low water years.
In parts of Canada (the provinces of British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador) hydroelectricity is used so extensively that the word "hydro" is often used to refer to any electricity delivered by a power utility. The government-run power utilities in these provinces are called BC Hydro, Manitoba Hydro, Hydro One (formerly "Ontario Hydro"), Hydro-Québec and Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro respectively. Hydro-Québec is the world's largest hydroelectric generating company, with a total installed capacity (2007) of 35,647 MW.
Hydropower
Hydroelectricity - electricity created by hydropower, that is, the energy produced as a result of falling or flowing water under the influence of gravitational forces. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy. Once built, a hydroelectric complex creates no waste, and also has a lower level of production of greenhouse gas - carbon monoxide than when burning fossil fuels to generate energy in factories. Worldwide, hydroelectric power generated about 715,000 megawatts of electricity in 2005. This represented approximately 19% of the world's electricity (compared to 16% in 2003), and accounts for over 63% of electricity from renewable sources.
Power generation
Most hydroelectric power is generated from the potential energy of dammed water, which drives a water turbine and generator. In this case, the energy extracted from the water depends on the volume and height difference between the source and the drain. This height difference is called head. The sum of the potential energy of water is proportional to the pressure. To get very high head, the water for the hydraulic turbine can be passed through a large pipe called a sluice.
Pumped storage power plants generate electricity during load peaks by moving water between reservoirs at different heights. During times of low power demand, excess energy is used to pump water into a higher reservoir. When there is a maximum consumption, the water again descends into a lower reservoir through the turbine. Pumped storage schemes currently only supply important commercial large-scale power grids while maintaining the daily load of the generating system. Hydroelectric plants without the ability to store water are called run-of-the-mill hydroelectric plants. A tidal power plant takes advantage of the daily rise and fall of water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit the construction of reservoirs, they can also be used to generate power during demand peaks.
Less common types of hydro circuits use kinetic energy water or undammed sources such as a mill wheel.
There is a simple formula to determine the amount of electricity produced by a hydroelectric power plant: P = hrgk, where P is the power in kilowatts, h is the head in meters, r is the water flow in cubic meters per second, g is the free fall acceleration of 9.8 m/s 2 , and k is an efficiency factor ranging from 0 to 1. Efficiency is often higher with larger and more modern turbines.
The annual electricity production depends on the amount of incoming water. In some systems, the flow rate of water may vary by a factor of 10:1 throughout the year.
Industrial hydroelectric power plants
While many hydroelectric power plants supply electricity to the public grid, some are designed to serve specific industries. Dedicated hydroelectric power plants are often built to provide the reliable electricity needed for aluminum electrolytic plants. In the Scottish Highlands there are examples at Kinlohleven and Lochaber built in the early 20th century. The Grand Coulee Dam is the longest in the world, supplied to Alcoa during World War II
alluminium in Bellingham, Washington, which made American planes after the war, was used to irrigate and power the citizens (in addition to the aluminum load). In Suriname, Brokopondo Reservoir was set up to provide electricity to Alcoa aluminium. New Zealand's Manapouri Power Station was set up to power the aluminum melting furnace at Tiwai Point.
small hydroelectric plants
Although large hydroelectric power plants generate most of the world's hydroelectricity, in some situations small hydroelectric power plants are required. Such stations operate in North America and produce up to 10 or 30 megawatts. A small hydroelectric plant may be connected to a distribution network or may supply power to isolated consumers. Small HPPs usually do not require lengthy economic, engineering and environmental studies with larger projects, and can often be built more quickly. A small hydropower plant can be used in conjunction with a flood control project, for irrigation or other purposes, providing additional income at project cost. Places that used to use waterwheels for mills and other purposes can often be redeveloped for power generation, thus eliminating new negative environmental impacts. Small HPPs can be further divided into mini HPPs, devices around 1 MW in size, and micro HPPs, devices from 100 kW up to several kW.
Small hydropower plants are especially popular in China, which has over 50% of the world's small hydropower plants.
Small HPPs ranging from 1 MW to 30 MW are often available from numerous manufacturers using standard equipment; one contractor can provide all major mechanical and electrical equipment (turbine, generator, controls, switchgear) selected from several standard layouts suitable for the site. Micro HPPs are used for a wide range of equipment; in small industries, industrial centrifugal pumps can be used as turbines, at a relatively low cost compared to specially designed turbines.
Advantages
The main advantage of hydroelectricity is the lack of fuel costs. The cost of operating a hydropower plant is hardly affected by the increase in the cost of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas or coal, and no imports are required.
Hydroelectric power plants also have a longer lifespan than fuel-burning generators, some of the plants currently in operation were built 50 to 100 years ago. Maintenance costs are also usually low, as stations are automated and have few workers during normal operations.
In places where the dam serves several purposes, hydroelectric power can be built at a relatively low cost, provided that the income will offset the cost of the dam. It was estimated that the sale of electricity from Three Gorges Dam would cover construction costs after 5 to 8 years of operation.
Team work
Reservoirs created by hydroelectric power plants often provide favorable conditions for water sports and attract tourists. Multi-purpose dams are used for irrigation, helping agriculture with a relatively constant supply of water. Large water dams can control floods that might affect people living downstream.
disadvantages
Damage environment
Hydroelectric power plants can disturb aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream from the plant site. For example, studies have shown that dams along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts off the coast of North America have reduced salmon populations by preventing them from accessing spawning grounds, even though most dams have installed special fish lifts. Salmon roe is also destroyed during its migration to the sea, when it has to pass through the turbines. This has led to the caviar being carried downstream on barges at certain times of the year. In some cases, dams are destroyed (for example, Marmot Dam was destroyed in 2007) due to the impact on fish. Turbines and power plants are designed in such a way as not to create obstacles for aquatic life. Mitigation measures such as fish lifts are mandatory in all new facilities and are also required when relicensing existing facilities.
Hydroelectric power generation is changing the environment downstream. The water leaving the turbine usually contains a very small amount of sediment, as a result, the bottom and banks of the river can be washed away. Because the turbine gates often open irregularly, there are daily fluctuations in the speed of the river. For example, in the Grand Canyon, the daily cycling of the current caused by the Glen Canyon Dam erodes the sandbars. Oxygen dissolved in water can affect the initial state. Depending on the location, the water leaving the turbine is usually warmer than before it, which can affect and even endanger aquatic life, as well as hindering the natural formation of ice. Some hydroelectric power plants use canals to channel the river into shallow water, thereby increasing the drop. In some cases, an entire river can be diverted, leaving a dry bed behind. For example, the Tekapo and Pukaki rivers.
^ Resettlement of the population
Another disadvantage of hydroelectric power plants is the need to relocate people living in the area of the planned reservoir. In February 2008, it was estimated that 40-80 million people worldwide were displaced directly due to the construction of the dam. In many cases, no amount of compensation can replace the hereditary and cultural attachment to the places from which they were overpowered. In addition, historically and culturally important sites may be flooded and lost. Similar problems arose during the construction of Three Gorges Dam in China, Clyde Dam in New Zealand and Ilısu Dam in Southeast Turkey.
^ collapsed dams
Destruction of large dams is still rare but potentially dangerous - the destruction of the Banqiao Dam in southern China resulted in the death of 171,000 people and the appearance of millions of homeless people. Dams can be subject to wartime bombing, sabotage or terrorist attacks. Small dams and micro HPPs are less vulnerable to such hazards.
news. Building a dam in a geologically inappropriate location can cause disaster, like the Vajont Dam in Italy, where nearly 2,000 people died in 1963.
^ Effect of lack of flow
Changes in the magnitude of the river's flow change the total energy produced by the dam. Due to global warming, glaciers are shrinking, such as the North Cascades glaciers, which have lost a third of their volume since 1950, resulting in a 34% decrease in flow. The result of this reduction was a power shortage in an area heavily dependent on hydroelectric power.
Comparison with other energy production methods
Compared to air farms, hydropower has a more predictable driving force. If a reservoir is built, then energy can be produced when it is needed. HPPs can be easily adjusted to meet changes in required power.
Unlike turbines burning fossil fuels, the construction of a hydroelectric power plant requires a long time for site survey, hydrological study and environmental impact assessment. Hydrological data for large HPPs determine the location and mode of operation up to 50 years or more. Unlike fuel-fired plants such as coal or nuclear fuel, the number of locations where hydroelectric power plants can be constructed is limited; in places with the highest effective cost, they are already in use. New locations for HPPs are remote from populated areas and require extended power lines. Hydroelectricity generation depends on the amount of rainfall in the watershed, and can be significantly reduced in the year due to low rainfall or snowmelt. Long-term energy production may be influenced by climate change. The initial profit from the use of hydroelectric power can be used to construct an additional volume, guaranteeing sufficient capacity in years with low water levels.
In parts of Canada (British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador) hydroelectric power is used so widely that the word "hydro" is often used when referring to any electricity in the public power grid. The government refers to the power systems in these provinces as BC Hydro, Manitoba Hydro, Hydro One (formerly Ontario Hydro), Quebec Hydro, Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro respectively. Hydro-Québec is the world's largest hydroelectric company, with a total installed capacity (2007) of 35,647 MW.
According to research by the British recruiting agency CBSbutler, in 2017 you could earn £54,000. To do this, it was necessary to work as an engineer in the oil and gas industry. To see such numbers on your bank account, you will have to make a lot of effort. One of them is to learn English and become a sought-after specialist in a foreign or Russian company.
Even if you have nothing to do with engineering, we advise you to read the article. For example, the English names of screws and dowels will be useful to you if you assemble furniture according to the instructions on English language or buy exclusive materials on English-language sites.
Brief glossary of technical terms
We have tried to collect the terms that are most often found in the work of an engineer. Of course, we have covered only the basic vocabulary. If you want to learn English in a narrower engineering field, this can be done on our. Whether you are a structural engineer or an electrical engineer, we will select the right materials for your industry.
If you know the basic terminology, scroll to the end of the article: we have collected 33 cows of useful resources for you that will be useful for developing your listening and reading skills. Plus, our list of vlogs, podcasts, series, and courses will help keep learning fun.
General terminology
To begin with, let's analyze the names of engineering industries and the names of some positions.
| Word/Phrase | Translation |
|---|---|
| engineering | engineering |
| mechanical engineering | engineering mechanics, mechanical engineering, design of mechanical systems |
| electrical engineering | electromechanics, technical design of electrical circuits |
| civil engineering | design and construction of civil facilities |
| structural engineering | industrial building design / building design |
| biomedical engineering | biomedical engineering |
| chemical engineering | chemical engineering |
| software engineering | software engineering |
| systems engineering | systems engineering |
| an engineer | engineer, designer |
| an engineering technician | engineering worker |
Design
Let's move on to the basic set of words, which is necessary for drawing up drawings and diagrams.
| Word/Phrase | Translation |
|---|---|
| design information | design information |
| a design solution | design and technical solution |
| an item | detail, product, unit |
| size | the size |
| scale | scale |
| CAD /kæd/ (computer-aided design) | computer-aided design system |
| specifications | specifications |
| technical requirements | specifications, requirements |
| to overdesign | overdesign |
| Blueprints | |
| a drawing (dwg for short) | drawing, diagram |
| a blueprint | blue (copy of drawing) |
| a detail drawing | detailed drawing |
| a general arrangement drawing | general arrangement drawing, general scheme |
| a preliminary drawing | sketch, preliminary drawing |
| a working drawing | draft scheme, working drawing |
| schematics | schematic drawing, plan |
| a drawing board | tablet, drawing board |
| to draw up a drawing | make a drawing |
measurements
The following lexical set will help to carry out measurements, correctly indicating the radius of the circle and the error in English.
| Word/Phrase | Translation |
|---|---|
| a measurement | measurement, calculation, system of measures |
| calculations | calculations, calculations |
| dimensions (abbreviated dims) | dimensions |
| linear dimensions | linear dimensions |
| a direction | direction |
| a tape measure | measuring tape |
| a theodolite | goniometer |
| an angle | injection |
| a degree | degree |
| a grade | metric degree |
| diameter | diameter |
| a radius (plural: radii) | radius |
| circumference | perimeter, circumference |
| a constant | constant |
| a surface | surface |
| a face | front surface |
| a circle | a circle |
| a concentric circle | concentric circle |
| a curved line | curved line |
| extreme | extreme point |
| a span | distance between objects |
| distance | distance |
| length | length |
| height | height |
| width | width |
| thickness | thickness |
| area | square |
| cross-sectional area | cross-sectional area |
| surface area | surface area |
| mass | weight |
| weight | the weight |
| volume | volume |
| density | density |
| external | external |
| internal | interior |
| horizontal | horizontal |
| vertical | vertical |
| flat | flat |
| smooth | smooth, even |
| inclined | inclined, at an angle |
| to measure | to measure |
| to increase | increase |
| to decrease | reduce |
| Accuracy of measurements | |
| dimensional accuracy | accuracy of measurements |
| precision | accuracy |
| a deviation | deviation |
| tolerance | error |
| a rounding error | rounding error |
| performance gap | inequality in performance |
| tight tolerance = close tolerance | small tolerance |
| loose tolerance | wide-range acceptable error |
| negligible | insignificant |
| imprecise/inaccurate | inaccurate |
| permissible | admissible |
| within tolerance | within allowable values |
| outside tolerance | out of bounds |
| approximately | approximately |
| to vary | vary |
| round up or down | round up or down |
| Location | |
| locating | location |
| a centreline | center line, center line |
| an offset | bias |
| centre-to-centre | distance between centers/axes |
| a reference point | reference point, starting point |
| a grid | net |
| a gridline | grid line |
| a diagonal | diagonal |
| perpendicular to | perpendicular to |
| to set out | mark position |
| to locate | locate, locate |
| to run parallel with | parallel |
| to intersect at | intersect at |
Material Technology
When working with wood, concrete or metals, a concise dictionary of materials technology will help.
| Word/Phrase | Translation |
|---|---|
| an element | element |
| a compound | compound |
| chemical composition | chemical composition |
| constituents | constituents |
| a chemical reaction | chemical reaction |
| a mixture | mixture |
| an alloy | admixture |
| a coefficient | coefficient |
| non-metals (carbon, silicon) | non-metals (coal, silicon) |
metals (iron, copper):
| metals (iron, copper):
|
| precious metal | a precious metal |
raw materials:
| raw materials:
|
steel:
| steel:
|
| a composite material | composite material |
| a reinforcing material | reinforcing material |
| a matrix | binder, solution |
| carbon fiber | carbon fiber |
| fibreglass | fiberglass |
| molten | molten, liquid |
| to disintegrate | divide into parts |
| to flow | flow |
| to cover | cover |
| to melt | melt |
| to rust | rust |
| Polymers | |
| a natural polymer | natural polymer |
| a synthetic polymer | synthetic polymer |
thermoplastics:
| thermoplastics:
|
thermosetting plastics = thermosets:
| thermoplastics:
|
| an elastomer | elastomer |
| rubber | rubber |
| latex | rubber |
| Minerals and ceramic materials | |
| a mineral | mineral |
| ceramics | ceramics |
| ore | ore mineral |
| an abrasive material | abrasive |
| clay | clay |
| a kiln | kiln |
glass:
| glass:
|
| organic | organic |
| organic | inorganic |
| to anneal | heat up, burn |
| Concrete | |
| concrete | concrete |
| cement | cement |
| sand | sand |
| gravel | gravel |
| fine aggregate | fine aggregate |
| coarse aggregate | coarse aggregate |
| concrete mix design | selection of the composition of the concrete mix |
| batching | dosing |
| an additive | additive |
| a retarder | setting retarder (concrete) |
| reinforced concrete | reinforced concrete |
| reinforcing bars | fittings |
| formwork = shuttering | formwork |
| to cast concrete | lay concrete mix |
| Wood | |
wood:
| wood:
|
solid wood:
| solid wood:
|
engineered wood:
| composite wood material:
|
| plywood | plywood |
| timber = lumber | lumber |
| a sawmill | sawmill |
| resin | tree resin |
| stress-graded | sorted by strength |
| to saw | to nag |
| Material properties | |
| material properties | material properties |
| thermal properties | thermal properties |
| a thermal insulator | thermal insulation material |
| a coefficient of thermal expansion | coefficient of thermal expansion |
| a coefficient of linear expansion | coefficient of linear thermal expansion |
| tension strength | tensile strength |
| compressive strength | compressive strength |
| deformation | deformation |
| elongation | stretching |
| extension | extension |
| hardening | hardening |
| corrosion | corrosion |
| resistance | resistance |
| elasticity | elasticity, resilience |
| ductility | elasticity, pliability |
| plasticity | plastic |
hardness:
| strength:
|
| durability | service life, wear resistance |
| fatigue | wear |
| fracture toughness | fracture resistance |
| thermal conductivity | thermal conductivity |
| stiff | hard, inelastic |
| brittle | fragile, fragile |
| malleable | malleable |
| ductile | viscous |
| to conduct | pass, skip |
| to fracture | crack, burst |
| to resist wear | be resistant to wear |
Production and assembly
To manufacture and assemble appliances, furniture from parts is a task not only for a talented engineer, but also for everyone who started repairs with their own hands.
| Word/Phrase | Translation |
|---|---|
| manufacturing | production, manufacturing |
| machining | machining, machining |
| computer aided design (CAD) / computer aided manufacturing (CAM) | computer-aided design / computer-aided manufacturing system |
| a workpiece | detail, workpiece |
| a blank | billet |
| blanking | blank cutting |
| drilling | drilling, drilling |
| grinding | grinding, sharpening |
| punching | perforation |
cutting:
| cutting:
|
tools for cutting:
| cutting tools:
|
| swarf = chips | metal shavings, sawdust |
| assembly | assembly |
| a joint | connection, joint |
| an edge | facet |
| a ridge | edge |
| a rebate | groove, groove |
| a helical groove | screw groove, spiral groove |
| a thread | screw thread |
| a tongue-and-groove joint | cleat" |
| a cavity = void | cavity, cavity |
| through hole | through hole |
| a blind hole | blind hole |
| chamfered | oblique |
| pointed | pointed, pointed |
| proud = raised | convex |
| recessed | recessed, flush-mounted |
| toothed | jagged |
| flush with | flush with, flush with |
| to slot into | fasten in a groove |
| to screw into | screw in |
| to taper | constrict, cone |
| to machine | machine, machine |
| to rotate = to spin | rotate |
| Fasteners | |
| a bolt | bolt |
| a nut (here) | screw |
washer:
| washer:
|
screw:
| screw, screw:
|
| a self-tapping screw | self-tapping screw, self-tapping screw |
| a screw anchor | dowel |
a rivet:
| rivet:
|
tools for fastening:
| fastener tools:
|
| to tighten (here) | screw tight, tighten |
| to loosen | loosen |
| to work loose | loosen |
| to screw in | twist, screw |
| Permanent connections | |
welding:
| welding:
|
| brazing | hard soldering |
| soldering | soft soldering |
| Adhesive | adhesive |
| a solvent | solvent |
| to weld | weld, brew |
| to fuse | alloy |
| to waste | evaporate, evaporate |
Energy and temperature
Forms of energy, temperature measurement - in the next collection of terms.
| Word/Phrase | Translation |
|---|---|
| Energy | |
energy:
| energy:
|
| energy efficiency | efficiency factor (COP) |
| energy source | energy source |
| waste energy | wasted energy |
| a joule | joule |
| a watt | watt |
| wattage | power in watts |
| Temperature | |
| temperature | temperature |
| heat | warmly |
| vapor | steam |
| degrees Celsius | degrees Celsius |
| heat capacity | heat capacity |
| heat transfer | heat exchange, heat transfer |
| a heating system | heating system |
| a convector | Radiator |
| endothermic | endothermic |
| exothermic | exothermic |
Water supply
The next section focuses on piping networks and fluid handling.
| Word/Phrase | Translation |
|---|---|
| liquid | liquid |
| water supply | water supply |
| pipe work | pipeline network |
| a main | main pipe |
| a drain | sewer pipe, drainage pipe |
| sewers | sewerage |
| a hose | hose |
| a pump | pump, pump |
| a turbine | turbine |
| a valve | valve |
| pressure | pressure |
| a pressure gauge | pressure gauge, manometer |
| pressure differential | pressure drop |
| fluid dynamics | dynamics of liquids and gases, fluid dynamics |
| to flow | flow |
Mechanisms
Let's move on to engines, motors and gears.
| Word/Phrase | Translation |
|---|---|
anengine:
| engine:
|
| an internal combustion engine | internal combustion engine |
| an electric motor | electric motor |
| thrust | reactive driving force, thrust |
| a fuel injector | fuel injector |
| transmission | transmission, transmission |
a gear = a gear wheel:
| gear, cogwheel:
|
| a gear train | gear set, gear train |
| a chain | chain |
| chain drive | chain drive, chain drive |
| a wire rope | cable |
| a crankshaft | crankshaft, crankshaft |
| a flywheel | flywheel |
| reciprocating motion | reciprocating motion |
| rotary motion | rotary motion |
| to interlock | connect, connect |
| to mesh together | to get hooked, to get hooked |
Electricity
To assemble an electrical circuit and measure the frequency of an alternating current, the last section of our brief technical dictionary will help.
| Word/Phrase | Translation |
|---|---|
current:
| current:
|
| voltage | voltage |
| resistance | resistance |
| an ampere | ampere |
| an electric charge | electric charge |
| a charge carrier | charge carrier, current carrier |
| an electromotive force (EMF) | electromotive force (EMF) |
| a volt | volt |
| an ohm | ohm |
| a device | device |
| an appliance | device |
| an electrical insulator | electrical insulator |
| installation | installation |
| power rating | rated power, maximum allowed power |
| electric shock | electric shock, electric shock |
| technical failure | technical failure, malfunction |
| Power supply | |
| electrical supply | power supply, power supply |
| mains electricity | mains electricity |
| a power grid | power grid, power grid |
| frequency | frequency |
| a hertz (Hz) | hertz |
| AC generation | alternating current generation |
| field coil | electromagnetic coil, inductor |
| electromagnetic induction | electromagnetic induction |
| a power station | power station |
| a power line = a transmission line | power line |
| a generator | generator |
| a rechargeable battery | rechargeable battery, accumulator |
| to charge | charge |
| Electrical circuit | |
| an electrical circuit | electrical circuit |
| a parallel circuit | parallel circuit |
| a series circuit | series circuit |
| a conductor | conductor |
| a semiconductor | semiconductor |
| a switch board | switchboard |
| switchgear | distribution equipment |
| a power socket | power outlet |
| an electric wire | electrical wire, electrical wire |
| a strand | stranded wire |
| extra-high voltage (EHV) | extra high voltage |
| to earth | ground |
| to switch on | include |
| to switch off | turn off |
Useful Resources
The time has come for those same 33 resources that they promised to provide earlier.
I.V. Azhetinova, M.F. MERNOK, E.P. Lutseva, O. N. Getta for the specialty 1004 “Power Subject” (in industries) Federal Agency for Education State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Volgograd State Technical University Kamyshin Technological Institute (BRANCH) OF VOLGOGRAD STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY I. V. Aleshchanova, M. F. Merenok, E. P. Lutseva, O. N. Getta directors of secondary specialized educational institutions of the Volgograd region as a teaching aid for educational institutions secondary vocational education of the Volgograd region RPK "Polytechnic" Volgograd 2006 LBC 81.2 Eng. – 923 i 73 T 38 Reviewers: E. V. Bobyreva, L. A. Shornikova Aleshchanova I. V., Merenok M. F., Lutseva E. P., Getta O. N. / TECHNICAL TRANSLATION FOR SPECIALTY 1004 "POWER SUPPLY" (by industry): / Proc. allowance, VolgGTU, Volgograd. 2006 - 55 p. ISBN 5–230–04726–7 This manual aims to further form and develop the students of the specialty 1004 skills of working with texts in the specialty and the ability to speak in a foreign language on issues related to the future profession. The materials of the manual give an idea of the specifics of the professional activity of the future specialist, expand the knowledge gained by students in the study of the basic textbook of the English language. Bibliography: 5 titles. Published by decision of the editorial and publishing council of the Volgograd State Technical University ISBN 5-230-04726-7 © Volgograd State Technical University, 2006 Irina Vladimirovna Aleshchanova, Maria Fedorovna Merenok, Elena Pavlovna Lutseva, Olga Nikolaevna Getta by industry) Textbook Editor Prosondeev M. I. Templan 2006, pos. No. 34. Signed for publication on June 23, 2006. Format 60×84 1/16. Sheet paper. Headset "Times". Conv. oven l. 3.44. Conv. ed. l. 3.25. Circulation 75 copies. Order No. Volgograd State Technical University 400131 Volgograd, prosp. them. V. I. Lenina, 28. RPK "Polytechnic" Volgograd State Technical University 400131 Volgograd, st. Sovetskaya, 35. FOREWORD The proposed textbook is intended for students of the specialty "Power supply" and developed on the basis of the curriculum of the English language course for electrical technicians. The manual uses modern authentic materials adapted for technical students. The purpose of the manual is to consistently guide students through the sections of special vocabulary, form the skills of working with literature in their specialty and help them master the ability to speak in a foreign language on issues related to their future profession. The manual consists of nineteen sections and an appendix. Special vocabulary is introduced thematically, fixed in a variety of exercises. The sections include the following tasks: to answer questions to the texts, fill in the gaps with appropriate vocabulary, translate phrases and terms, make monologues on the topics proposed for discussion with the obligatory use of the vocabulary of the lesson. The developed exercises are designed to organize an adequate understanding of the content of the texts. Additional texts contained in the appendix can be used both for independent work on improving translation skills, and for conducting tests and preparing abstracts. The materials presented in the manual can be useful in consolidating the skills of studying, introductory, viewing reading obtained by students in the process of studying the basic course of the English language. The compilers of the manual hope that the proposed publication will be useful for all professionals studying the translation of English-language technical texts. CHAPTER I UNIT 1 I. Read the text THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY Practical electricity is produced by small atomic particles known as electrons. It is the movement of these particles which produce the effects of heat and light. The pressure that forces these atomic particles to move, the effects they encounter opposition and how these forces are controlled are some of the principles of electricity. Accepted atomic theory states that all matter is electrical in structure. Any object is largely composed of a combination of positive and negative particles of electricity. Electric current will pass through a wire, a body, or along a stream of water. It can be established in some substances more readily than in others, that all matter is composed of electric particles despite some basic differences in materials. The science of electricity then must begin with a study of the structure of matter. Matter is defined as any substance which has mass (or weight) and occupies space. This definition should be broad enough to cover all physical objects in the universe. Wood, water, iron, and paper are some examples of matter. Energy is closely related to, but not to be confused with, matter. Energy does not have mass, and it does not occupy space. Heat and light are examples of energy. The smallest particle of matter which can be recognized as an original substance was thought to be a unit called the atom. Recently scientists have found particles even smaller than atoms, but our theories are still based on the atom. The atom consists of a nucleus and a cloud of electrons. It is generally agreed that the electrons are small particles of electricity, which are negative in nature. These particles orbit the nucleus in much the same fashion that planets orbit a sun. II. Guess the meaning of the following international words: Electricity, electron, effect, structure, combination, material, mass, energy, atom, orbit III. Give the English equivalents for the words below: 1) produce; 2) particle; 3) heat and light; 4) voltage; 5) strength; 6) substance; 7) positive; 8) negative; 9) electric current; 10) weight; 11) core IV. Translate into Russian the words and expressions from the text: 1) atomic particle; 2) effects of heat and light; 3) encounter opposition; 4) principles of electricity; 5) composed (of); 6) pass through a wire; 7) structure of matter; 8) occupy space; 9) physical objects; 10) a cloud of electrons; 11) in the same fashion. V. Complete the sentences using the text: 1. Electricity is produced by … 2. The effects of heat and light are produced by … 3. According to the accepted atomic theory all matter is … 4. Any object is composed of … 5. Matter is defined as … 6. Energy must not be confused with … 7. The atom consists of … 8. The smallest particle of matter is … 9. Most theories are based on … 10. Electrons are … VI. Answer the questions: 1) What are the principles of electricity? 2) What must the science of electricity begin with? 3) Are there any differences between energy and mat- ter? What are they? 4) What is recognized as an original substance now? VII. Topics for discussion: 1. The nature of electricity; 2. The nature of matter; 3. Contents of atomic theory. UNIT 2 I. Read the text ELECTRIC CURRENT The electric current is a quantity of electrons flowing in a circuit per second of time. The unit of measure for current is ampere. If one coulomb passes a point in a circuit per second then the current strength is 1 ampere. The symbol for current is I. The current which flows along wires consists of moving electrons. The electrons move along the circuit because the e .m. f. drive them. The current is directly proportional to the e. m. f. In addition to traveling through solids, however, the electric current can flow through liquids as well and even through gases. In both cases it produces some most important effects to meet industrial requirements. Some liquids, such as melted metals for example, conduct current without any change to themselves. Others, called electrolytes, are found to change greatly when the current passes through them. When the electrons flow in one direction only, the current is known to be d. c., that is, direct current. The simplest source of power for the direct current is a battery, for a battery pushes the electrons in the same direction all the time (i.e., from the negatively charged terminal to the positively charged terminal). The letters a. c. stand for alternating current. The current under consideration flows first in one direction and then in the opposite one. The a. c. used for power and lighting purposes is assumed to go through 50 cycles in one second. One of the great advantages of a. c. is the ease with which power at low voltage can be changed into an almost similar amount of power at high voltage and vice versa. Hence, on the one hand alternating voltage is increased when it is neces- sary for long-distance transmission and, on the other hand, one can decrease it to meet industrial requirements as well as to operate various devices at home. Although there are numerous cases when d. c. is required, at least 90 per cent of electrical energy to be generated at present is a. c. In fact, it finds wide application for lighting, heating, industrial, and some other purposes. II. Guess the meaning of the following international words: electric, ampere, symbol, proportional, industrial, metal, electrolyte, battery, generate. III. Give the English equivalents for the words and word combinations below: a. 1) flow, flow; 2) circuit, scheme; 3) unit of measure; 4) wire; 5) electromotive force; 6) solid body; 7) liquid; 8) conduct (current); 9) source of energy; 10) direct current; 11) alternating current; 12) tension. IV. Give English equivalents for the following: b. 1) to meet industrial requirements; 2) melted metals; 3) to push in the same direction; 4) negatively (positively) charged terminal; 5) power and lighting purposes; 6) long distance transmission; 7) to operate devices; 8) to find a wide application. V. Say whether these sentences are true or false: 1. The symbol for current is I. 2. The electric current can flow only through liquids. 3. The current can be of two types: direct current and alternating current. 4. The alternating current flows in one direction. 5. A battery is the simplest source of power for the direct current. 6. Direct current finds wider application than alternating current. 7. Electrolytes don't change greatly when current passes through them. 8. One of the great advantages of alternating current is the ease with which voltage can be changed. VI. Fill in the blanks, using the words from the box: direct current, solids, conduct, electric current, liquids, voltage, alternating of moving electrons flowing in a circuit is the a) _______ . A quantity current. The current can flow through b) ________ and c) ________ . Some liquids d) _______ current without any change to themselves. When the electrons flow in one direction only, the current is known to be e) _______ . The current flowing first in one direction and then in the opposite one is f) _______ . Such advantage of alternating current as alternating g) _______ finds wide industrial and household application. VII. State the questions to the underlined words: 1. Melted metals conduct current without any change to themselves. 2. Alternating voltage can be changed to operate various devices at home. 3. A battery pushes the electrons in the same direction. 4. The alternating current is used for power and lightning purposes. 5. Alternating current accounts for 90 per cent of electrical energy generated now. VIII. Say some sentences about the types of electric current and its properties UNIT 3 I. Read the text EFFECTS PRODUCED BY A CURRENT The current flow is detected and measured by any of the effects that it produces. There are three important effects accompanying the motion of electrical charges: the heating, the magnetic, and chemical effects, the latter is manifested under special conditions. The production of heat is perhaps the most familiar among the principal effects of an electric current. The heating effect of the current is found to occur in the electric circuit itself. It is detected owing to an increase in the temperature of the circuit. This effect represents a continual transformation of electric energy into heat. For instance, the current which flows through the filament of an incandescent lamp heats that filament to a high temperature. The heat produced per second depends both upon the resistance of the conductor and upon the amount of current carried through it. The thinner the wire is, the greater the developed heat is. On the contrary, the larger the wire is, the more negligible the heat produced is. Heat is greatly at times but at other times it represents a waste of useful energy. It is this waste that is generally called "heat loss" for it serves no useful purposes and decreases efficiency. The heat developed in the electric circuit is of great practical importance for heating, lighting and other purposes. Owing to it people are provided with a large number of appliances, such as: electric lamps that light our homes, streets and factories, electrical heaters that are widely used to meet industrial requirements, and a hundred and one other necessary and irreplaceable things which have been serving mankind for so many years. The electric current can manifest itself in some other way. It is the motion of the electric charges that produces the magnetic forces. A conductor of any kind carrying an electric current, a magnetic field is set up about that conductor. This effect exists always whenever an electric current flows, although in many cases it is so weak that one neglects it in dealing with the circuit. An electric charge at rest does not manifest any magnetic effect. The use of such a machine as the electric motor has become possible owing to the electromagnetic effect. The last effect to be considered is the chemical one. The chemical effect is known to occur when an electric current flows through a liquid. Thanks to it a metal can be transferred from one part of the liquid to another. It may also effect chemical changes in the part of the circuit comprising the liquid and the two electrodes which are found in this liquid. Any of the above mentioned effects may be used for detecting and measuring current. II. Give the English equivalents for the following words: 1. detect, detect; 6. incandescent lamp; 2. measure; 7. instrument; 3. charge; 8. loss of energy; 4. filament; 9. illuminate; 5. thermal effect; 10. show up, manifest. III. Guess the meaning of the following international words: transformation, temperature, chemical, magnetic, special, practical, motor, electrode. IV. Insert words and expressions: 1. The current flow is (identified and measured) by any of the effects that it produces. 2. There are three important effects accompanying the motion of (electric charges). 3. The current which flows through the (filament of an incandescent lamp) heats that filament to a high temperature. 4. Heat represents (useful energy loss) at times. 5. Electric lamps (illuminate) our homes, streets and factories. 6. The electric current can (show) magnetic effect. V. Choose the correct translation: The heating effect of the current is found to occur in the electric circuit itself. 1. It has been established that the thermal effect of electric current is found in the electric circuit itself. 2. The thermal effect of electric current can appear in the electrical circuit itself. 3. It has been established that the thermal effect of the electric current should be detected in the electric circuit itself. When an electric current appears in any conductor, a magnetic field arises around it.
