On October 14-15, the American city of Portland, Oregon, was gripped by some panic. The concern among its residents was caused by the fact that clouds of ash and smoke were seen above Mount St. Helens, which is an active stratovolcano.
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THIS MYSTERIOUS WORLD Starry sky (northern hemisphere of the sky)…8-9 Solar system. . ............. 12 Sun and planets. ,………………... 13 Starry sky (southern hemisphere of the sky) ..10 11 Space exploration in the USSR.................. 14-15 Space exploration (international cooperation) ..... . 16 17 EARTH ON THE GLOBE AND ON THE MAP Earth is the planet on which we live....... 20 21 Diurnal movement of the Earth. . . ……..22 The movement of the Earth around the Sun…… 23 Globe. Physical map of the hemispheres………………..24 25 Shapes of the earth’s surface………. 26—27 Oceans of the Earth……………………… 28 29 Climate of the Earth………………………. 30 31 Natural zones of the Earth……………. 32 33 THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS Europe. . . …………………………. . 36- 41 Asia............ 42-49 Africa. . ............. . ... 50—57 North America…………………. 58, 60 62 South America.…………………. 59, 63 65 Australia and Oceania ………………… 66- 68 Antarctica …………………………….. 69 Fauna of the oceans ………………….. . 70 71 Contents……………………… ... 72
Under general editorship
V. P. Sitnikova
(M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University)
V. P. Sitnikov, L. V. Kashinskaya, G. P. Shalaeva, E. V. Sitnikova
Executive Editor
V. V. Slavkin (M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University)
© LLC “Philological Society “WORD””, 2010
© LLC "Philological Society "WORD"", design, 2010
Who first discovered the solar system?
The concept of the solar system includes the Sun and all the bodies revolving around it under the influence of its gravity.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), Polish astronomer, creator heliocentric system peace
Copernican model of the solar system. He believed that the planets revolved around the sun
In ancient times, people believed that the center of the Universe was the Earth, and the Sun, Moon and other planets revolved around it. Is it true, simple people- hunters and farmers - knew nothing about other planets. During the day they saw only the Sun, and in the evenings - the Moon and the sky strewn with bright stars. It was easy for them to make mistakes. In the morning, when they got up, the sun was just rising, then it rose higher and higher, and in the evening it set. So they derived their ideas about how the world works from what they saw: the Earth is motionless, and the Sun revolves around it. But astronomers who studied the sky and celestial bodies. They also considered the Earth motionless and flat, although they assumed that it was not the only one in space. There are also other planets that, like the Sun and Moon, revolve around the Earth.
But already in the 4th century BC, the famous ancient Greek scientist Pythagoras suggested that the Earth was not flat, but spherical. Following him, another scientist, Aristarchus, who lived in the 3rd century BC, without denying that the Earth is spherical, developed the Pythagorean theory and suggested that the Earth rotates around its axis and at the same time revolves around the stationary Sun. Some scientists agreed with this theory, others rejected it and continued to prove their own. Another hundred years later, in the 2nd century BC, the ancient Greek scientist Ptolemy wrote a book called “Almagest”. In it, he outlined his idea of the structure of the sky and again returned to the fact that it is not the Earth that revolves around the Sun, but, on the contrary, the Sun revolves around the Earth.
Planetary map of Copernicus
This was a mistake, but it was difficult to understand how things actually happen in space. After all, at that time there were no telescopes or other instruments with which one could observe the movement of celestial bodies.
And only in 1543, when powerful telescopes had already appeared, the Polish scientist Nikolai Copernicus was able to convincingly prove that the Earth rotates around its axis during the day, just like a top rotates, only very slowly, and people do not even notice this rotation.
At the same time, the Earth also slowly rotates around the Sun, making one full revolution during the year.
Copernicus also proved that not only the Earth, but also other planets revolve around the Sun. This is how the correct idea emerged about the existence of an entire solar system, in the center of which is the Sun, which is why this system is called Solar. And all other celestial bodies: planets, asteroids and comets move around the Sun in a certain order and do not fly apart in different directions, because the Sun attracts them with the force of its gravity.
What planets make up the solar system?
solar system make up planets of different sizes. Among them there are large planets and small ones. They are located at different distances from the Sun and move around it at different speeds.
Mercury
The smallest planet in the solar system, Mercury, is located closest to the Sun. Its diameter is 4,640 km - almost the width of the Atlantic Ocean. It is located at a distance of 60 million kilometers from the Sun and revolves around the Sun not in 365 days, like the Earth, but in only 88 Earth days. The planet Mercury faces the Sun on only one side, so it is always light and very hot here. Temperatures reach 400 degrees above zero. And on the other side there is eternal darkness and cold with a temperature of 270 degrees below zero.
The planet Venus is located at a distance of 108 million kilometers from the Sun. It is almost the same size as the Earth. Its diameter is 12,160 km, that is, 500 km less than the diameter of the Earth. Venus revolves around the Sun in 225 days. By the way, such a strange fact is known that Venus rotates in the opposite direction, that is, from east to west.
Venus
Our planet Earth is located at a distance of 149.5 million kilometers from the Sun and, as we already know, revolves around the Sun in 365 days, which is considered an earthly year. Thus, the Earth is the third planet from the Sun.
Surface of Venus
Then comes Mars. Its diameter is 6,720 km, which is slightly more than half the diameter of the Earth. Its distance from the Sun is approximately 228 million kilometers, and the period of revolution of this planet around the Sun is 687 Earth days.
Mars
Behind Mars there is a whole belt of small planets called asteroids. There are tens of thousands of them here, and they vary in size. Some are only 1 kilometer long when measured along a transverse line, others reach 700 kilometers or more. Scientists believe asteroids are debris big planet, which was once located in this place of the solar system and for an unknown reason disintegrated.
The giant planets are located even further from the Sun. The largest planet in the solar system is Jupiter. He is not “floating” in space alone: he is surrounded by 12 more satellites. Jupiter is located at a distance of 780 million kilometers from the Sun and makes a complete revolution around the Sun in 12 Earth years, that is, in 4300 Earth days. Jupiter is the largest of the planets: its diameter is 141,920 km, almost 11 times the diameter of Earth.
Jupiter
The huge planet Saturn, with a diameter almost 9 times larger than Earth’s – 120,160 km, rotates even more slowly around the Sun. It travels its way in 29.5 Earth years, and its distance from the Sun is 1.5 billion kilometers.
Saturn
And very far from the Sun, where its rays barely reach, are the coldest planets of the solar system - Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. They are so far from the Sun that they are not even visible to the naked eye.
Neptune
Thus, scientists have discovered 9 major planets and dozens of small asteroids. But that is not all. The Solar System includes not only large and small planets; a huge number of other celestial bodies - meteorites and comets - are also found in outer space around the Sun.
Is America named correctly?
Many geographical names associated with the names of the discoverers. But for some reason America is named not after the Spanish navigator Christopher Columbus, who was the first European to land on this continent back in 1492, but after the Italian Amerigo Vespucci. Is there a historical mistake here, and if so, what caused it?
Christopher Columbus (1451–1506)
A mistake actually happened: now everyone knows that America was discovered by Christopher Columbus, but it was named after another navigator. And it all happened this way. In 1492, Columbus sailed from Spain in his flotilla, seeking to find a route to India. He sailed for a long time with his sailors across the seas, and finally land appeared on the horizon. Deciding that this was the long-awaited India, Columbus landed on shore and named this land San Salvador. From the local residents (Columbus called them Indians, from the name of India), the sailors learned that nearby there was another rich and beautiful island that conducted a lot of trade. This island turned out to be Cuba, and after some time Columbus sailed there, believing that from India he had reached China, and to the east of it there should be rich Japan. In fact, Columbus ended up on one of the islands of the Bahamas archipelago, then on Cuba and on the island of Haiti, which he named Hispaniola, which means “Spanish Flu” or “Spanish Island”. All this happened due to the fact that in those days no one imagined the existence of a huge unknown continent between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.
Columbus Map
After his discovery, as he believed, of Western India, Columbus returned to Spain, but went on sea expeditions several more times: he discovered Puerto Rico, Jamaica, the island of Trinidad and landed on the coast of South America.
At that time, many sailors were looking for a way to Southeast Asia, China, India and Japan and, following Columbus, ended up on islands located off the coast of the new continent, some of them managed to land on the mainland. Amerigo Vespucci, who served in Portugal and then in Spain, also took part in these expeditions. In 1503 and 1504, he wrote two letters, one of them to the Medici banker, and the other to his childhood friend, the Florentine Soderini, in which he reported that he had managed to discover a new, hitherto unknown continent. After which the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller designated new continent on the map and named it after Amerigo Vespucci - America. Since then, this name has been used by all of humanity!
Why is gold valued?
Gold was considered a precious metal and was highly valued already several centuries BC. This is evidenced by historical documents, and those things that archaeologists obtain during excavations. The most beautiful jewelry, vases, and insignia have long been made from this metal. Coins of the highest denomination were also minted from it. The residences of the rulers and their tombs were decorated with gold. How is gold different from other metals and why is it so highly valued?
Gold buckle. Found in the burial of King Raedwald (c. 625 AD). Great Britain
First of all, gold is not found in nature as often as other metals. Imagine that people would make jewelry and money from iron. What value can such products be if there is a lot of iron on earth and anyone who wants can make anything from it? But the gold still needs to be found, collected bit by bit, washed, and even then it’s good if there are only a few grams of it.
In addition, since gold is a soft metal, it can be easily processed and taken into any shape. Just one gram of gold can be rolled into a plate of size 2 square meters. Moreover, it can be easily bent and does not break. Therefore, jewelry of any shape can be made from gold, and the rounded domes of church temples can be covered with plates. But along with its malleable form, gold is one of the heaviest chemical elements 200 cm 3 of this metal weighs more than 540 kg!
Gold bars
Gold also differs from other metals in that it does not oxidize when exposed to air and does not fade, remaining bright and without losing its luster. In addition, it is almost not corroded by ordinary acids.
Before 1914, almost all the world's currencies were measured in gold. This meant that the money that existed then had a set price in relation to gold. At any time the currency could be exchanged for gold. This system was called the gold standard, and although it is no longer used today, gold still plays a role important role in international trade: it is used as a reserve that provides foreign trade countries.
In addition, gold has applications in other areas of life. It is used by jewelers to make rings, brooches and other jewelry; dentists in dental prosthetics, and since gold conducts electricity well, it is used in certain types of electrical conductors.
Despite the development of technology, a lot of manual labor is still used in gold mining, and this, too, to some extent increases the cost of gold and further increases its value.
How is gold found?
This question has worried humanity since ancient times. It is believed that gold was the first metal known person. Some people, called alchemists, tried to obtain gold artificially, by melting and combining different metals or by trying to make gold from lead. These were not entirely useless activities, although gold was not obtained as a result of these experiments. But they brought others, no less important discoveries. Thus, the alchemist monk Berthold Schwartz accidentally made gunpowder in this way, and another alchemist, Johann Böttger, found a way to make precious porcelain. As for gold, its artificial analogue has never been found, and everything yellow and shiny cannot be confused with real metal even from a distance.
The first traces of gold were discovered in Egypt more than 5,000 years ago. The rulers of Greece and Rome also loved this rare a precious metal. They plundered the countries they conquered and forced slaves to work in gold mines.
Real gold can only be found in the ground, and here it is found in two forms - in the form of nuggets, that is, pure gold without admixtures of other metals, and in ore, where gold is contained in combination with other metals.
Gold nuggets are not found very often, and this is always a great success for miners, and that is what people who mine gold are called. Most often, native gold is found in quartz veins or in layers of iron pyrites. Under the influence of wind and water, quartz and iron ore deposits are gradually destroyed, and gold particles are exposed. Then they are also gradually washed out of the gold-bearing veins and fall to the bottom of rivers and valleys, where they are mixed with sand and gravel. This is the so-called placer gold, in which there are very tiny specks and larger nuggets weighing from several grams to a kilogram and even several kilograms.
Gold mines in Brazil early. XX century
Most often, gold is found in nature in combination with other metals: gold particles are almost always found in silver, in combination with copper, etc. Currently, there are various complex technologies with the help of which gold is freed from impurities of other metals.
What is very curious is that a lot of gold is found in the waters of the World Ocean. Of course, if you measure the amount of gold per liter sea water, then it is almost impossible to detect it there. But scientists have calculated that with as much sea water as exists on the globe, the gold in it is at least 10 billion tons.
How are springs formed?
In many places on Earth there are springs from which clean, clear water flows, which people call spring water, and the springs themselves - springs. This water pleasantly quenches thirst on hot days, and many people consider it healing. Where do the springs come from and why is the water in them so clean?
Deep underground, where solid rocks are located, there are empty areas that are filled with water. These are called the “groundwater zone.” Water comes there from the top layer of the earth from melted snow, ice, and rain. Some of this water remains in the upper layers of the soil, nourishes the roots of plants, and evaporates under the influence of the hot rays of the sun, but most of it penetrates into the underground layer and fills the voids between the rocks.
There are a lot of such voids underground, but enough water from the surface of the earth penetrates there, so there is slightly less water underground than on the surface. In its turn underground water through the holes that exist in the earth's crust, it comes out to the surface of the Earth. This mainly happens in low places: valleys, depressions between mountains, lowlands, because underground water flows only through openings that are located below the groundwater level. After all, you know that water always flows only downwards, it cannot flow up and always falls back under the force of its gravity.
This is how springs are formed when underground water penetrates through holes to the surface of the Earth. Maybe you've heard that there are permanent springs. People surround them with fences, build canopies over them so that the water flowing from them is not polluted, and everyone can drink water from these springs all year round. And other springs appear and disappear. This is explained by the fact that the “groundwater zone” has different levels, that is, different depths, and it is constantly changing. Those springs, where water comes from the very depths of the aquifer, operate constantly, and the water in them never disappears. But those springs that are fed by water from the upper layer can disappear if the water level in it drops, and then appear again when the snow begins to melt or it rains, and there is more water underground. Such springs are called “pulsating”.
Healing spring water is also called healing for a reason. After all, underground water passes through rocks and is enriched with various mineral salts, which are very beneficial for health.
Do mountains have age?
Before answering this question, we need to find out what mountains are and how they are formed. Mountains are the part of the earth's land that rises above the plains. There are isolated mountains, and there are entire mountain ranges. In legends, the appearance of mountains is explained as follows: “The very young Earth was smooth, like a wheel of sheep’s cheese. But time passed, and the Earth began to age, wrinkles appeared on it. They furrowed the face of the Earth with deep folds. And the Earth cried. Her tears flowed in streams and rivers, gathered into lakes, seas and oceans..."
These wrinkles, according to legend, became mountains. However, scientists have their own point of view on this matter. They explain the formation of mountains sudden changes the earth's surface, which occurred many millions of years ago and are occurring now. There are even different types mountains Some of them - folded - appeared where the earth's crust was more mobile and could be folded into folds. This is how the Alps were formed, for example. There are vaulted mountains that rise upward in the form of arches under great pressure from molten lava, which rushes from below to the surface of the Earth. As a result of faults or failures earth's crust entire mountains were formed, when entire mountain ranges rose and fell. The type of volcanic mountains speaks for itself. They were formed from lava, volcanic ash and slag that fell to the surface of the Earth as a result of volcanic eruptions. This is Fujiyama in Japan, Vesuvius in Italy.
But mountains don't last forever. They are undermined by water, sprayed by wind, and particles of rocky soil are washed away by rain. The hot sun heats up the stones, and then they are frozen, causing them to gradually collapse. Over time, even the highest mountains turn into small hills, and sometimes in their place there is nothing left at all except a plain. As you can see, mountains also age and die. But they are replaced by new ones: after all, the process of mountain building does not stop, the earth’s crust also shifts, forming folds, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, subsidence and rise of the soil occur. As a result of all these processes, new, young mountains are born, which include the Pamirs, Himalayas, Andes, and the Caucasus Mountains. And the old mountains in Russia are the Ural Mountains, many of whose peaks no longer rise so steeply above earth's surface, and in some places they even descend into small gentle hills. It also happens, however, that mountains that have almost disappeared from the face of the Earth grow again. This is what happened to the Tien Shan, when unexpectedly its sagging peaks again rose high into the sky.
Alps
The highest mountain in the world is Mount Everest, located on the border between Nepal and China. Its height reaches 8,848 m! And Elbrus is considered the highest in Europe with a height of 5,633 m.
What is in the depths of the Earth?
Our Earth is called a planet, and it differs from stars in that it is a dense mass, while stars consist of hot gases and glow.
Scientists already know a lot about what planet Earth is. And the fact that it has the shape of a ball and rotates around its own axis, making a full revolution in a day, that is, in 24 hours, and the fact that at the same time it slowly rotates around the Sun, completely turning around in 365 days, which is an earthly year . We measured the distance from the Sun and found out which planets are located next to the Earth. But no less a mystery for scientists has always been what lies deep in the Earth itself. It's very difficult to know. Instruments have not yet been invented with the help of which one could get into the very depths of the Earth and see what is there. That is why scientists are so interested in volcanic eruptions, which make it possible to study the rocks that are ejected onto the surface of the Earth from its depths. Since volcanoes emit hot gases and molten rocks, from these signs scientists have determined that the temperature inside the Earth is very high. In addition, earthquakes are also studied very carefully: after all, they originate somewhere in the depths of the Earth and waves from tremors disperse both over the surface of the Earth and inside it.
Using precision instruments - seismographs - scientists determine how these waves travel and record their speed. This method also tells them what rocks are inside the Earth. After all, seismic waves travel faster through loose rocks than through solid rocks. The speed also changes if seismic waves pass through molten metals.
Thus, scientists were able to determine that in the very depths of the Earth, in the center of the ball, there is a solid metal core, the diameter of which is about 2,560 kilometers. This core is surrounded by a liquid shell with a radius of about 3,360 kilometers, consisting of molten iron and nickel. On top of this hot, molten mass is the mantle. This is a layer of hard rock 2,880 kilometers thick. The mantle separates the hot liquid shell of the Earth's core from the earth's crust and thus protects the earth's crust from high temperature. And the very last, top layer is the earth’s crust. It also consists of hard rocks, but in some places they loosened and soil formed there - what we call earth, clay, sand, while in other places it remains hard and rocky. There are gray lifeless rocks without a single green tree. But soil and mountains are only the upper part of the earth's crust. Solid rocks extend deep into the Earth and reach the mantle. True, the depth of the earth's crust is not the same everywhere. Under the continents it is 48 kilometers, and under the oceans it is much less - only 5 kilometers.
There are a huge number of interesting and beautiful natural phenomena in nature, some of them can be dangerous for humans, but this does not prevent them from being beautiful.
Perhaps one of the most unusual and spectacular phenomena on our planet is Polar Lights. This phenomenon occurs due to the fact that the Earth has a magnetosphere. When sunny wind meets the upper atmosphere...
In Russia today more than 1.3 are officially registered
A million people with disabilities suffering from mental illnesses, meddaily.ru refers to the words of Professor of the State Scientific Center for Social and Forensic Psychiatry named after V.P. Serbsky, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences Yuri Aleksandrovsky.
The number of mentally ill people continues to increase
Statistics testify. Behind last years their number increased by 13%. A little more than half of the diseases are neuroses...
Each soul goes through its own path of development. It depends on the purpose of the soul itself, its color wave, skills and much more. There is an alternation of active lives, including difficult events, with calmer subsequent incarnations. Thus, the soul is given the opportunity to calm down a little and assimilate the previously gained experience. Men's and women's lives do not alternate sequentially. Some souls more often like to come in male bodies, others - in female ones. However, this does not mean at all...
And you are part of it. You are part of a perfect system. Why perfect? Because every moment the world remains what it is. Just the way he is. Of course, you can argue that the world is not perfect and needs to be improved.
We need to get rid of wars, epidemics, murders, violence and robbery. However, the world at this moment will still remain as it is. And no other. And you will remain, at this moment, a person who has decided to rid society of “diseases”. And no one else...
Information around us, inside us, and we ourselves (I’ll tell you the main secret) are information objects.
Our consciousness constantly receives, processes and assimilates a huge flow of information. Words, thoughts, feelings, people, memories, dreams of the future, ideas, lived events - they all represent information structures.
Just like a swallowed sandwich, incoming information (from the outside and from the inside) is processed and assimilated.
If stream transmission...
I don't believe that you can change the world for the better. I believe that you can try not to make it worse.
Some people don't know how to go crazy - they have terribly boring lives. Most of the so-called brave people are unimaginative.
They cannot imagine what will happen if something suddenly goes wrong. Real courage suppresses the imagination and makes people do what they have to do.
We live constantly falling into traps. No one can escape the trap. The main thing is to understand, I got caught...
Matter dissolves, becomes more and more transparent, and the energetic, subtle world becomes closer. Charges accelerate. Everything happens very clearly and quickly. The cosmos, which permeates everything and everywhere, enters our world more powerfully and fills our lives, because the light of the world opens more widely to it.
The planet began to live in another dimension, and if we look closely, in ourselves and in everyday life around us we can feel, see and recognize this amazing voice of eternity, the music of the Cosmos that guides the planet...
Part I. The Battle for the Substrate
In biology, “substrate” refers to the nutrients that a given species needs to maintain life and reproduce. Substrate is a building material for bodies. Accordingly, by “battle for the substrate” we mean the competitive struggle of various individuals, colonies and species that need a given substance, a group of substances or their entire complex, i.e. in the substrate, for the possibility of its consumption.
Most often, the concept of “battle for substrate” is used in microbiology...
