© G. S. Abramova, 2018
© Prometheus Publishing House, 2018
* * *
I dedicate with love and gratitude of blessed memory my parents – Nina Mikhailovna Abramova and Sergei Vladimirovich Abramov
It so happened that the book I wrote for myself became a textbook. A lot of time has passed since the day I wrote its first pages. Today this time is measured in years. Everything has changed - the country in which I live, my Family status, my age and even the way I write these lines. The only thing that has remained unchanged for me is my love for people and the desire to share what I have seen and experienced. Developmental psychology and age psychology are very living areas of knowledge; they are daily updated with new data about the lives of people in different cultures. Theories and hypotheses are born and die, but people’s thirst for knowledge of their own purpose, mechanisms and patterns of their own development remains. This thirst creates different types knowledge, one of them is scientific. The reader will form his own opinion about it and based on my work, and I can only hope for the possibility of feedback.
Denmark: spring – summer 2008, spring – summer 2017
Preface
A person’s interest in himself is natural and justified. Interest in other people often has completely different reasons, and their diversity is as great as the diversity of human destinies. Science tries to analyze people's lives, organizing people's direct, lively interest in each other with the help of theories, categories, concepts and other means and ways of thinking that people of science possess. The results of their work make it possible to see in a single stream of human lives those unique facts, laws and patterns that reproduce the life of a person as a person, to see and understand that each person reproduces the human in his destiny and creates with his life his own, expanding, clarifying, complementary idea, knowledge about what a person is.
Life is arranged in such a way that sooner or later any of us faces life situation, which forces us to discuss, pose, formulate questions: “What is happening to me? Why is this happening to me? This is how a person encounters the need for new knowledge about himself. This is where science comes to the rescue, offering generalized knowledge in which one can (I think it is necessary) to find the answer to questions about what is happening to me.
The answers may be very different, but they will all be related to the period of life that a person is experiencing, and there are different periods: critical, sensitive, stable. Each period has its own origin and, in a certain sense, can be predicted even by the person himself, if he knows how (learned, wanted to learn) to analyze his life.
This opportunity to analyze your own and other people’s lives is provided by developmental psychology and age psychology, one of the most complex and interesting fields modern psychology. Without knowledge about the periods of a person’s life, it is impossible for a teacher to work in a school, an educator in kindergarten, a doctor in a hospital, a lawyer in court, a psychotherapist in a clinic. Without this knowledge, it is difficult to be a mother, father, grandfather, grandmother and... even a child (especially an adult child).
The listeners and students to whom I taught courses on developmental and developmental psychology, special courses on specific problems, always treated the factual material with interest and had great difficulty accepting the theory of psychology. However, years passed, and, meeting with matured students - now teachers, psychologists, mothers and fathers, I heard them say that “some general knowledge about life” is important.
Probably, I was once looking for similar knowledge myself. For me it became a kind of reading assignment. That's what I tried to do in this book.
I am eternally grateful to all the readers of my books who found the strength and time to talk with me about them.
Once again I express my endless love to my family for their help and support in my work.
Belarus, January 1999 Denmark, May 2017
Chapter 1
What is developmental psychology and age psychology?
The scientist has ready-made concepts and will try to explain “facts” using these concepts, so he will approach with a bias, will look through certain glasses and, who knows, whether these glasses will explain or distort the picture?
The mother knows her child intimately, but for the most part this knowledge is limited this moment. If psychology equips her with certain points of view that make the main features of development clear, she will be better able to monitor her child.
“There are a lot of psychologists, but they are of no use.”
(From a conversation).
Keywords: science, subject of science, pattern, “I” of the researcher, mental reality, age, picture of the world.
As a result of studying this chapter, students should:
know peculiarities scientific knowledge;
be able to distinguish between everyday and scientific knowledge;
own the concept of psychic reality.
I could continue the epigraph with quotes from other authors, but let me cite only one - the one that is most often found in conversations with adults about children. This is a question - rhetorical, emotionally charged, more often alarming than optimistic - What will happen to him next?
Age-related psychology- this is science. Serious academic science, consisting of several sections - branches, each of which studies a certain age - from infancy to senility (child psychology, preschool psychology, gerontopsychology (this is about old people).
Like any science, it discusses the question of its subject, methods, techniques, criteria of truth, and argues about the presence of this truth in one theory or another. Like any science, it strives to describe its subject in special terms - scientific concepts, to separate it from the subjects of other sciences, even related ones, for example, from general psychology, psychophysiology, which also study age: those large biological clocks that begin their course from the moment of birth person. Everyone knows the direction of movement of this clock - from birth to death. Their course is inexorable, it is determined by nature itself, and, obviously, every person obeys this course. But this is more of a lyrical digression than a description of the subject of developmental psychology.
Developmental psychology tries to study the patterns of mental development of a person, a normal person. Thus, it raises the most important questions about the existence of the laws themselves, about the degree of their universality, that is, their obligatory nature for everyone. At the same time, the question arises (and a very specific one) about what mental development is and who can determine it. In addition, the eternal philosophical question arises about what kind of person is considered normally developing.
If you take these questions to yourself in this form, for example, you will feel how important they can be for your destiny:
– Am I a normal person?
– Am I a developed person?
– Does my development correspond to my age?
– What will change (and whether it will change at all) in my inner world with age?
– Will I be able to change myself?
These same questions can be asked of any person. The accuracy of the answer to them can significantly affect a person’s fate - on his own decisions and the decisions of other people, on whom his important personal events may depend.
Developmental psychology studies not only what is happening to a person today, it has data about what can happen in a person’s life in general, since it tries to study his entire life. Naturally, some ages are given more attention, and some less. This happens, as E. Fromm wrote, partly because “a scientist engaged in the study of man is more susceptible than all other researchers to the influence of the social climate. This happens because not only he himself, his way of thinking, his interests and the questions he poses are determined by society (as happens in natural sciences), but the subject of research itself – man – is also determined by society. Every time a psychologist talks about a person, people from his immediate environment serve as a model for him - and above all, himself. In modern industrial society, people are guided by reason, their feelings are poor, emotions seem to them to be unnecessary ballast, and this is the case both for the psychologist himself and for the objects of his research.”
It's hard to disagree with this. In this regard, I recall the words of D. B. Elkonin, spoken at one of the lectures on child psychology: “I became a real psychologist only when my grandson was born.”
The “I” of the researcher comes into contact with the “I” of the subject with those facets that each of them has. The miracle of developmental psychology is that it allows the researcher to experience many events in his own life that are associated with a renewed understanding of the lives of others. The development and renewal of vision can be observed in the texts of S. Freud and J. Piaget, L. S. Vygotsky and D. B. Elkonin, in the works of E. Erikson and E. Fromm. This is a fascinating and, in my opinion, little-researched page in the history of developmental psychology.
So, developmental psychology as a science begins from the moment when two people meet who have different goals: the first person is an adult who aims to obtain true, accurate knowledge about the laws of mental development, and the second person can be a child, the same age as an adult or someone older than him in age - a person whom the psychologist will call a test subject, being studied.
The very possible difference in physical age creates a problem of understanding. This problem becomes much more complicated when we're talking about about studying a child. How to do this to get accurate data?
I leaf through old and new books, reading sophisticated titles: experimental genetic method, clinical observation, longitudinal study, step-by-step formation method, participant observation, laboratory experiment, etc. similar. Let's leave detailed description these procedures to special publications, in this book I will try to highlight the main thing in all methods(naturally, the main thing from my point of view): they dismember, divide the continuous flow of a person’s life into separate situations that are natural from the point of view of the researcher, experimenter. Strict recording of these situations in the materials of scientific protocols allows us to analyze precisely these situations, and not the vision of the scientist himself. Although, if the protocol is not formalized (there is no standard form), then, naturally, the situation under study will be seen and understood differently by all its participants and persons who try to repeat it.
A researcher in developmental psychology deals with a protocol-recorded situation. For him it is a subject of analysis and explanation - interpretation.
There is one type of research that seems to overcome this fragmentation and situationality in human understanding: diaries. Diaries of people themselves, written in the first person, and diaries telling about the life of someone - the famous diaries of a mother, for example, describing the development of a child.
Since its inception, psychology as a science has had difficulty identifying and maintaining its subject of research. One of the reasons for this is the decline in the professionalism of psychologists and the fact that each person has an illusory confidence that he will always be able to understand, research, and manage another person, because he himself is also a person.
The imagination of a researcher, experimenter, scientist complements the system of life facts to a theory, to a generalization that allows it to be used in the future to understand other facts.
Scientists use such concepts to describe their experimental and theoretical work: practical and theoretical relevance, subject, tasks, methods and hypotheses of the study. This is very important points organizations scientific work, since it is they who allow us to clarify the connection between their individual work and what their colleagues, domestic and foreign, are doing in this direction.
Practical relevance is a description of those persons or areas of activity where the acquired knowledge can be used in practice.
Theoretical relevance presupposes the formulation of a problem (or problems) from the point of view of science itself, the laws of its development as a special phenomenon in the life of society, as a special phenomenon in the life of the scientist himself.
At the moment of realizing the theoretical relevance of his work, a scientist necessarily turns to his feelings about the value and truth of the knowledge he receives, which can strain his relationships with colleagues, even with the entire scientific community.
The concept of a problem and theoretical relevance allows a scientist to realize his philosophical position in understanding human life and concretize it in the form of his own theory that clarifies the laws of human life. The history of science and our time provide many examples of the personal scientific courage of scientists who were able to declare the existence of their own theoretical position in understanding man.
Almost any author of any theory - S. Freud, C. Jung, L. S. Vygotsky, J. Piaget and other famous and not so famous researchers - experienced a moment of intellectual and emotional stress associated with presenting their position to the scientific community, saying: “ I think differently” or “I think so.” In this regard, it is enough to recall a fact from the biography of S. Freud, when for eight years he was practically deprived of communication with the scientific community, since he expressed his point of view.
In developmental psychology, problems can be considered several questions that are constantly present in the activities of a scientist who studies the patterns of development of mental reality.
The eternal problems of the science of developmental psychology could, I think, be formulated as follows:
– What is psychic reality?
– How does it develop?
– How can you predict its development and influence it?
Naturally, these eternal questions are connected with the question of what a person is, that is, with the eternal philosophical, or, as they say, methodological question.
The opportunity for scientists to work on these issues is often associated with solving transient problems, that is, determined by a specific historical time, or, as they say, a social order.
Hypotheses (or hypothesis) provide the basis for constructing a pattern, correlating it with others already known; Thus, hypotheses allow us to see not only the present time of a fact, but also its possible past and future. A hypothesis deprives a fact of its static, limited, fleeting nature. Through a hypothesis, fact(s) become material for constructing a system of thinking that organizes a person’s understanding of human life.
The scientist is aware of his hypothesis, understands its incompleteness and limitations. People in everyday life tend to attach universal significance to hypotheses, without even paying attention to the fact that the connection they establish between facts or their properties may be of a random, temporary, situational nature, for example, the connection between the fact of a child appropriating someone else’s thing and theft - a fact of criminal life adults.
For a scientist studying developmental psychology, the hypothesis(es) about the connection between these facts may be completely absent, since he includes them in the context of different tasks of his research.
The tasks of studying psychic reality are associated for a scientist with strictly defined goals, reflecting the logic of his own work with the properties of psychic reality. Thus, the purpose of the research may be to analyze the literature on the problem, or test a specific technique, or conduct a trial (pilot) study, etc.
As tasks are solved, they expand the information field professional activity psychologist, help clarify hypotheses, improve theory, and, if necessary, lead to a reorganization of the scientist’s entire style of professional thinking.
So, a scientist working professionally in the field of developmental psychology deals with its problems and solves his problems in the context of contemporary social life. At the same time, the structure of science, that is, its relative stability as a sociocultural entity, allows it to support research methods specific to it.
The research method is a conscious answer to the question of how specific knowledge was obtained and how true it is. The awareness of research methods as ways of obtaining facts, in my opinion, is most clearly manifested in the content of the verbs “see” and “look”, “listen” and “hear”. It is known that one can look and not see, that is, not notice, not realize the very process of looking, which is impossible for vision. Vision is based on an active, organized relationship both to the object at which it is directed and to the seer’s own efforts.
The research method is an organized vision, which involves looking only as a moment of spontaneity of life itself.
A researcher can realize and convey to other people how his vision is organized, but it can be very difficult, almost impossible, to realize how looking occurs.
The vision of a research scientist studying the facts of human life is active and organized not only with the help of his own reflection (his own efforts aimed at acts of his own attitude to the facts of life), but also with the help of techniques.
Methods are means of obtaining facts that characterize the patterns of human life. These tools can be either created by the researcher himself or borrowed from colleagues who live or lived in different historical times with him. So, today we can work with the problems of J. Piaget, which were formulated by him many decades ago, etc.
The technique may externally look different: verbal questioning, drawing, action, movement, and the like. Its main difference from similar products of human activity is that, firstly, it (the methodology) is included in the context of the decision scientific problems; secondly, it involves correlating the resulting fact with a system of hypotheses, that is, with a scientific theory; thirdly, it always exists in the light of the specific tasks of a particular author and reflects his theoretical position; fourthly, the content of the methodology recognizes the limitations in constructing hypotheses based on the facts obtained using this methodology.
In other words, the research scientist, using a methodology to obtain facts, is aware of the role and place of these facts both in his own thinking about them and in the life of the person being studied.
We have already said that developmental psychology deals with problems of mental development. Without understanding what the psychic is, what psychic reality is, to this global problem It's almost impossible to get close.
Psychologists have to rely on philosophical ideas about the essence of man, in order to formulate, at the level of a theoretical hypothesis, one’s own idea of the subject of one’s own scientific research.
From this point of view, what is important is how the researcher sees his own role in the facts he receives and analyzes, more detached and, as far as is appropriate for science, reverent.
There may be countless options for the manifestation of the researcher’s philosophical position, but the main line of difference between them, it seems, passes through the awareness of the dependence of the fact of someone else’s life being studied on one’s own life.
I ask the interested reader to focus their attention on the phenomena of transference and countertransference that are present in psychotherapeutic practice. The individual nature of the relationship that arises between the researcher and the subject (the doctor and the patient too) calls into question the possibility of studying them using experimental methods that require reproduction and repetition of the fact.
Thus, in the history of the study of man by man, a special problem arose - the problem of interaction, the essence of which could be briefly formulated as follows: the subject and the researcher change each other in their joint action (feeling, movement).
The situation with formative experiment, its role and place in obtaining psychological facts becomes especially complex. It is known that a formative experiment occurs with the following scheme for organizing scientific research:
– ascertaining experiment – obtaining a system of facts;
– formative experiment – organized controlled influence on a system of facts;
– control experiment – recording changes in the system of facts being studied.
The difficulty in analyzing the results of an intervention lies in the fact that the experimenter himself is the most important source of possible changes. In turn, any possible changes on the part of the subject will largely be determined by his attitude towards the experimenter and towards himself. It is appropriate to assume that, for example, most problems in teaching children to read are related to the child’s attitude towards the person teaching him and towards himself.
The problem of a formative experiment associated with the possible influence of one person on another, it seems, not only sharpens attention to the content of the facts with which developmental psychology operates, but also makes it necessary to understand the context of the life of the researcher who addresses these facts. In this context, the content of his philosophy of life, his ability to embody his own essence in relationships with other people are one of the most important components of the theory he built, the methodology he developed, or simply a working hypothesis.
I will refer once again to E. Fromm: “...The world has for him (man. - G. A.) a certain meaning, and the coincidence of his own picture of the world with the ideas of the people around him is for him personally a criterion of truth, … He considers his own position logical.”
Comparing one’s position with the position of another person, highlighting, and understanding its content distinguishes the work of a research scientist in the field of developmental psychology from the reactions of people of different ages to each other.
The manifestation of the content of a position requires means to maintain it. Concepts become such means in scientific use.
In modern developmental psychology, more and more theoretical and research work, where the researcher takes a phenomenological position.
In line with these works, much attention began to be paid to the narrative research method, the essence of which is that a person talks about the events of his life, and the researcher records and analyzes his story. This is one of the methods for studying products human activity, which has become most interesting in the light of changing values in scientific knowledge itself.
It is interesting that in developmental psychology the difference in the positions of the authors is most clearly manifested as a difference in the languages of description. Thus, J. Piaget uses the language of mathematics and biology (“grouping”, “operation”, “assimilation”, “adaptation” and the like) , and Z. Freud widely uses the language of medicine and philosophy (“unconscious”, “consciousness”, “suffering self” and the like).
Examples of the use of non-specific language for developmental psychology in other areas of scientific knowledge to formulate and solve specific and common problems a lot could be cited. So these labels exist in different versions: J. Piaget - “stages of intelligence”, Z. Freud - “Oedipus complex”, C. Jung - “archetypes”, E. Fromm - “escape from freedom”, D. Stern - “ selfhood”, V.V. Davydov – “theoretical thinking”, L.S. Vygotsky – “cultural-historical theory”, etc. It is a great honor for a scientist and recognition of his place in science when his position is fixed and defined. Thus, it can relate to other positions in the historical time of science.
The position of any person (not just a scientist) in relation to these facts and patterns is manifested in his reasoning about people in general, about a person’s age, about his possibilities of change, and the like.
For a scientist, there is a problem of retaining the subject of his study, so as not to fall into the “bad” infinity of the relationship of all factors with all, which endlessly complicates the construction of a system of scientific knowledge. For people of other professions and occupations, the use of facts occurs at the level of reaction through their own changes or changes of another person.
The ability to see these changes and feel them is a condition for adequate perception of another person and oneself. Rigidity, focus on a stereotype, a phantom, and not on living reality, destroy interaction, making it a unidirectional influence that deforms its participants.
The subject of developmental psychology that interests us can be manifested in the position of a scientist or any other person as an orientation towards the facts and patterns of mental development of healthy people.
Thus, in each of us, developmental psychology begins there and then, when in our lives (and a scientist in his professional activities, and this can last for decades) we become immersed in problems of inequality between people. This inequality is fixed strictly and demandingly in any language (colloquial and scientific) as the age relationship between people: older - younger, and then there are options: same age, peers, people of the same generation, people of the first half of the 20th century, people of the past, as well as people future.
It is interesting that, despite all the unambiguousness of this relationship in the 20th and 21st centuries. There is an amazing phenomenon that did not exist in past centuries - a person’s age is not an unambiguous indicator of his awareness and competence. This situation becomes even more complicated when it comes to the possession of specific skills - general cultural and professional.
Today, seniority (by age) is not necessarily an indicator of a person’s maturity and development. This, in particular, leads to the need for a theory that would provide grounds for understanding at the everyday (and even more so at the scientific) level the patterns and mechanisms of human development. This issue arises especially acutely in conditions of unemployment and competition for jobs. Who can and should be given priority if there is a vacancy? Despite all the specificity, this question is far from rhetorical and involves the use of knowledge about the patterns of development of personality traits.
The construction of such a theory can (and should) be the task of scientific work - a special professional activity, but any person in his own way personal experience, from the experience of his experiences, meetings with other people, from the experience of understanding himself, he builds such a theory. She enters his picture of the world.
A scientist developing such a theory is trying to master a conscious picture of the world. Considering the importance for each of us of a special theory - the theory of understanding another person - let us dwell on this issue in a little more detail.
So, any person (scientist and layman) builds his own picture of the world, that is, he tries to understand it, explain it, systematize it. The constructed picture of the world becomes, in a certain sense, an artificial, virtual reality. The eternal question of what really is, the question of the essence of another person (in relation to our topic) remains in its entirety. I think this is wonderful, since eternal questions are a guarantor of the search for truth, and therefore a guarantor of the existence of science itself and generalized theoretical knowledge.
The existence of a picture of the world, the very process of its formation show that man is fighting for a position that would give a measure to everything that exists and could prescribe a norm. This position of his is expressed as a worldview in which the representation of himself and other people is structured and organized in the content of the Self-concept and the concept of the Other Person.
These concepts themselves, in my opinion, play the role of a stretcher in the picture of the world, which holds the painting canvas in a relatively constant state. Often a person expresses both of these concepts in one word, which stretches tightly or even breaks the canvas of the world picture, for example, “I am bad person”, “All people are bastards”, or “I am an extra person”, “All people interfere with my life”, or “I am a genius”, “All people are mediocrities”, or... I think that every reader can easily restore possible emotional states that can permeate each of the statements given here.
Scheme. The structure of psychic reality
Isolating it specifically allows us to talk about the essential nature of the laws of development. What are the most important properties of psychic reality? How to distinguish it from other types of realities - physical, chemical, logical and others?
I think that this question is no less difficult to answer than the question of the difference between living and nonliving things. We feel, feel, understand this difference rather than we can realize, that is, express it in words. This is as difficult as finding synonyms for the words “life” and “death.”
Questions and tasks for self-test
1. What scientific psychological knowledge do you think you already use in your life?
2. How can one identify the difference between everyday and scientific psychological knowledge?
3. Find any psychological test, which allows you to explore the qualities of psychic reality. Show its capabilities for obtaining scientific knowledge.
4. Find a scientific article on developmental psychology. Analyze its structure. How, in your opinion, does a scientific text differ from other types of texts? Why does this difference exist?
5. Draw up several schemes for possible experimental research in developmental psychology. Describe the features of experiment as a research method.
Note 1
Modern education characterized by the introduction of the Federal State Educational Standard at all levels of education, while the content component of textbooks was revised and teaching aids, used in universities and colleges. The changes also affected textbooks on developmental psychology.
Let's imagine short review textbooks and teaching aids created in last years.
Textbook of developmental psychology by A.K. Belousova
The textbook was created for university students in accordance with second generation standards, published in 2012. The textbook systematizes modern ideas about the ontogenesis of the human psyche, presents modern periodizations of mental development; a complex of methods of developmental psychology, the historical aspect of the development of developmental psychology as a science are considered, issues of implementation of professional self-determination and deviant behavior are considered in a special way. The main difference between this textbook and a number of other textbooks and teaching aids on developmental psychology is the use of the latest achievements in the field of developmental psychology; the methodological apparatus of modern developmental psychology is defined.
Course of lectures on developmental psychology by M.E. Khilko
This textbook is intended for higher education students educational institutions, structurally consists of 14 topics. Topic 1 is devoted to the consideration of developmental psychology as a science; the subject, tasks, and methods of developmental psychology are presented in sufficient detail. In topic 2, the author covers the main theories of mental development; students will be interested in a description of biogenetic and sociogenetic concepts, psychoanalytic theory child development, social learning theory, cognitive development theory, cultural-historical concept and a number of others. Topic 3 examines psychological problems personality development, in particular, such issues as: features of the development process, driving forces, conditions and sources of personality development, patterns of mental development, etc. A separate chapter (topic 4) presents the periodization of mental development, examines different approaches to periodization, and gives the concept of age, sensitivity, critical and crisis periods. Topics 5-14 discuss the main features of the mental development of children and adults at different stages of development, in particular, the authors consider the period of newborns, early childhood, preschool childhood, the period of primary school age, features of adolescence, youth, and the psychology of an adult. Each age period is characterized by a social developmental situation, changes in mental activity, crisis manifestations, and neoplasms. At the end of the textbook there is a list of references that can help university students master developmental psychology.
Textbook of developmental psychology by L.F. Obukhova.
The textbook was published in 2016, intended for students of higher educational institutions, structurally presented in ten chapters, which reveal childhood as a subject of psychological science, and present in detail the basic concepts of child development. The textbook contains two appendices - the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Declaration of the Rights of the Child. Important hallmark of this textbook is the presence after each chapter of questions for self-control, as well as a list of additional literature on the educational material being studied.
Textbook on developmental and developmental psychology O.V. Khukhlaeva
This textbook was published in 2013 and fully complies with the Federal State Educational Standard higher education, intended for students of higher educational institutions. The textbook presents the main aspects of human development at different age stages - from birth to old age. When presenting educational material The author uses the principle of implementing a practice-oriented orientation; the main new formations and lines of development at different age stages are presented in a meaningful way. At the end of each chapter, questions are given to monitor students' knowledge.
(Developmental and developmental psychology.)
M.: Gardariki, 2005 - 349 p.
The textbook "Developmental Psychology" is a comprehensive course in the discipline "Developmental Psychology and Developmental Psychology" developed in accordance with the State educational standard of higher professional education.
The book implements a periodization approach to the analysis of age-related development, the methodological principles of which were laid down by L.S. Vygotsky and D.B. Elkonin.
The proposed textbook can be used in training specialists in a number of specialties - “Psychology”, “Sociology”, “Social pedagogy”, “ Social work"and others.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Section one. SUBJECT, TASKS AND METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY OF BREACH AND AGE PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter I. The subject of developmental psychology. Theoretical and practical tasks of developmental psychology
§ 1. Characteristics of developmental psychology, developmental psychology as a science
§ 2. The problem of determining mental development
§ 3. Basic concepts of developmental psychology
Chapter II. Organization and research methods in developmental and developmental psychology
§ 1. Observation and experiment as the main research methods in developmental psychology
§ 2. Method of observation
§ 3. Experiment as a method of empirical research
§ 5. Auxiliary research methods
§ 6. Scheme of organization of empirical research
Section two. HISTORICAL FORMATION OF AGE PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter III. The emergence of developmental psychology as an independent field of psychological science
§ 1. The formation of developmental (children’s) psychology as an independent field of psychological science
§ 2. The beginning of a systematic study of child development
§ 3. From the history of the formation and development of Russian developmental psychology in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Chapter IV. Theories of child development in the first third of the 20th century: formulation of the problem of mental development factors
§ 1. Posing questions, defining the range of tasks, clarifying the subject of child psychology
§ 2. Mental development of a child and the biological factor of maturation of the body
§ 3. Mental development of a child: biological and social factors
§ 4. Mental development of a child: influence of the environment
Section three. BASIC CONCEPTS OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS IN FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter V. Mental development as personality development: a psychoanalytic approach
§ 1. Mental development from the standpoint of classical psychoanalysis 3. Freud
§ 2. Psychoanalysis of childhood
§ 3. Modern psychoanalysts on the development and upbringing of children
Chapter VI. Mental development as personality development: E. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial personality development
§ 1. Ego - psychology of E. Erikson
§ 2. Research methods in the works of E. Erikson
§ 3. Basic concepts of Erikson's theory
§ 4. Psychosocial stages of personality development
Chapter VII. Mental development of a child as a problem of teaching correct behavior: behaviorism about the patterns of child development
§ 1. Classical behaviorism as a science of behavior
§ 2. Behaviorist theory of J. Watson
§ 3. Operant conditioning
§ 4. Radical behaviorism of B. Skinner
Chapter VIII. Mental development of a child as a problem of socialization: theories of social learning
§ 1. Socialization as the central problem of the concepts of social learning
§ 2. Evolution of social learning theory
§ 3. The phenomenon of learning through observation, through imitation
§ 4. Dyadic principle of studying child development
§ 5. Changing ideas about the psychological nature of the child
Chapter IX. Mental development as the development of intelligence: the concept of J. Piaget
§ 1. Main directions of research into the intellectual development of a child by J. Piaget
§ 2. Early stage scientific creativity
§ 3. Operational concept of intelligence by J. Piaget
§ 4. Criticism of the main provisions of the theory of J. Piaget
Section four. BASIC REGULARITIES OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS IN RUSSIAN PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter X. Cultural-historical approach to understanding mental development: L.S. Vygotsky and his school
§ 1. Origin and development of higher mental functions
§ 2. The problem of the specifics of human mental development
§ 3. The problem of an adequate method for studying human mental development
§ 4. The problem of “training and development”
§ 5. Two paradigms in the study of mental development
Chapter XI. Stages of human mental development: the problem of periodization of development in ontogenesis
§ 1. The problem of the historical origin of age periods. Childhood as a cultural and historical phenomenon
§ 2. The category “psychological age” and the problem of periodization of child development in the works of L.S. Vygotsky
§ 3. Ideas about age dynamics and periodization of development D.B. Elkonina
§ 4. Modern trends in solving the problem of periodization of mental development
Section five. ONTOGENETIC MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN: AGE STAGES
Chapter XII. Infancy
§ 1. Newborn (0-2 months) as a crisis period
§ 2. Infancy as a period of stable development
§ 3. Development of communication and speech
§ 4. Development of perception and intelligence
§ 5. Development of motor functions and actions with objects of life
§ 7. Psychological neoplasms of infancy. Crisis of one year
Chapter XIII. Early childhood
§ 1. Social situation of child development at an early age and communication with adults
§ 2. Development of substantive activity
§ 3. The emergence of new types of activities
§ 4. Cognitive development of the child
§ 5. Speech development
§ 6. New directions of leadership mental development in early childhood
§ 7. Personality development in early childhood. Crisis of three years
Chapter XI V. Preschool childhood
§ 1. Social situation of development in preschool age
§ 2. Game as a leading activity preschool age
§ 3. Other types of activities (productive, labor, educational)
§ 4. Cognitive development
§ 5. Communication with adults and peers
§ 6. Basic psychological neoplasms. Personal development
§ 7. Characteristics of the crisis of preschool childhood
Chapter XV. Jr school age
§ 1. Social situation of development and psychological readiness to schooling
§ 2. Adaptation to school
§ 3. Leading activities of a junior schoolchild
§ 4. Basic psychological neoplasms of a primary school student
§ 5. Crisis of adolescence (pre-teenage)
Chapter XVI. Adolescence (adolescence)
§ 1. Social situation of development
§ 2. Leading activities in adolescence
§ 3. Specific features of the psyche and behavior of adolescents
§ 4. Features of communication with adults
§ 5. Psychological neoplasms of adolescence
§ 6. Personal development and the crisis of transition to adolescence
Chapter XVII. Youth
§ 1. Youth as psychological age
§ 2. Social situation of development
§ 3. Leading activities in adolescence
§ 4. Intellectual development in youth
§ 5. Personal development
§ 6. Communication in youth
Chapter XVIII. Adulthood: youth and maturity
§ 1. Adulthood as psychological period
§ 2. The problem of periodization of adulthood
§ 3. Social situation of development and leading activities in the period of maturity
§ 4. Personal development during adulthood. Normative crises of adulthood
§ 5. Psychophysiological and cognitive development during adulthood
Chapter XIX. Adulthood: Aging and old age
§ 1. Old age as a biosociopsychological phenomenon
§ 2. Relevance of the study of gerontopsychological problems
§ 3. Theories of aging and old age
§ 4. The problem of age limits of old age
§ 5. Age-related psychological tasks and personal crises in old age
§ 6. Social situation of development and leading activities in old age
§ 7. Personal characteristics in old age
§ 8. Cognitive sphere during aging
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