What allowed scientists to become famous. The most famous scientists in the world. From student to philologist

A virtual review of the literature on the history of scientific and technical inventions of mankind in the 18th and 19th centuries. on the pages of publications from the fund of rare and valuable books.

It is obvious to people of our time that science and technology play modern society very important, decisive role. However, this was not always the case. The ancient Greeks, for example, looked at the craft of mechanics as an occupation of commoners, not worthy of a true scientist. The world religions that emerged later initially rejected science altogether. One of the fathers of the Christian church, Tertullian, argued that after the Gospel there is no need for any other knowledge. Muslims reasoned in a similar way. When the Arabs captured Alexandria, they burned the famous Library of Alexandria - Caliph Omar declared that since there was a Koran, there was no need for other books. This dogma prevailed until the beginning of the New Age. Dissidents were persecuted by the Inquisition, threatening to be burned at the stake. Inventors of new mechanisms were persecuted. For example, in 1579, a mechanic who created a ribbon loom was executed in Danzig. The reason for the reprisal was the municipality's fear that this invention would cause unemployment among weavers. Understanding of the role of science came only during the Enlightenment, in the 17th century, when the first Academies in Europe were created. The first achievement of the new science was the discovery of the laws of mechanics - including the law universal gravity. These discoveries caused delight in society. Industrial Revolution dramatically changed people's lives; the traditional way of rural life was replaced by a new, industrial society. Amazing discoveries and inventions followed one after another, the world was rapidly changing before the eyes of one generation.

Yakov Vasilyevich Abramov talks about two inventors - Stephenson and Fulton, whose great creations forever changed the way of life of mankind.

Stephenson and Fulton: (inventors of the steam locomotive and steamship): their lives and scientific and practical activity: biographical sketches with portraits of Stephenson and Fulton, engraved in Leipzig by Gedan / Y. V. Abramov. - St. Petersburg: Typo-lithography and phototype by V. I. Stein, 1893. - 78 p., 2 sheets. portrait ; 18 cm - (Life of remarkable people: (ZhZL). Biographical library of F. Pavlenkov). (6(09I) A16 34977M-RF)

George Stephenson is undoubtedly one of the heroic men of strong will. In the preface to the book, the author writes about him: “A worker by origin, without receiving any school education, and even being illiterate until adulthood, Stephenson not only managed to overcome all the unfavorable conditions of his life, acquire significant diverse knowledge, achieve a high social position, but and became one of the outstanding geniuses of mankind.” The inventor and mechanical engineer gained worldwide fame thanks to the steam locomotive he designed. Stephenson is also considered one of the "fathers" of railroads. The gauge of the rail track he chose was called Stephenson gauge and is still the standard in many countries around the world. The author notes that there are few other biographies that can arouse the same interest as the biography of George Stephenson.

George (George) Stephenson was born in a small poor coal mining village near the city of Newcastle. Four families were crowded into the house where the Stephensons lived. From the age of 6, George sorted coal at the mine, then helped his father, a fireman. At the age of 17, young George Stephenson, who had thoroughly studied the structure of the steam engine operating in the mine and was able to fix any malfunction, was appointed its driver. George was one of those people who, having set themselves a goal, stubbornly strive to achieve it. At the age of 18, despite the ridicule of his comrades, he learned to read and write. Through persistent self-education, Stephenson acquired the specialty of a steam engine mechanic.

Over the next years he studied steam engines. The first steam locomotive designed by Stephenson was intended to pull coal cars. This locomotive did no more than a kilometer per hour and after a month of operation it shook so much that it stopped working. His second locomotive seemed like a real miracle back then. He could drive a train with a total weight of up to 30 tons. The car was named "Blücher" in honor of the Prussian field marshal, famous for his victory in the battle with Napoleon.

Over the next five years, Stephenson built 16 more cars.

George founded the world's first steam locomotive works in Newcastle, where in September 1825 he built the Active locomotive, later renamed Locomotive. Stephenson himself drove a train loaded with 80 tons of coal and flour, which in some sections accelerated to 39 km/h. In addition to the cargo, the train included an open passenger carriage called “Experiment”. This was the first case in world practice of using a steam-powered railway to transport passengers.

In 1829, competitions of several locomotives took place, which went down in history as the “Reinhill Trials”. Stephenson entered his steam locomotive "Rocket" into the competition. He had 4 opponents. Stephenson's locomotive was the only one to successfully complete all tests. Its maximum speed reached 48 km/h. The brilliant victory of the “Rocket” made it perhaps the most famous mechanism in the history of technology.

Gradually, Stephenson practically retired, focusing only on the construction of tunnels for the railway and the development of new coal seams. His son Robert also became a talented engineer and helped his father in everything. Steam locomotives began to be built in other countries based on George Stephenson's designs. He belonged to those lucky inventors who had the opportunity to see their ideas realized during their lifetime.

The second character in the book, whose name is also associated with steam engines, is the no less famous inventor Robert Fulton. Robert was born in Pennsylvania, USA. His parents, bankrupt farmers, were forced to emigrate to America. The family had five children. His father was engaged mainly in hard day labor and died when Robert was only three years old. The family finally found itself in dire straits. Fulton always remembered with reverence his mother, who managed not only to raise her children, but also to give them the opportunity to get at least elementary education at a local school and pay for their education. WITH early years Robert discovered a penchant for two pursuits: painting and mechanics. While studying mathematics and theoretical mechanics, Robert Fulton became interested in the idea of ​​using steam in shipping. He constantly had to find funds for his inventions and periodically fail. He began experimenting with torpedoes and even presented Napoleon with a practical model of the Nautilus submarine. Fulton submitted plans for the construction of the steamship to the governments of the United States and Great Britain, but, despite all his efforts, could not find funds for their implementation. At that time he was already 31 years old.

At the request of US Ambassador Robert Livingston, Fulton began experimenting with steam engines. In 1803, a steam ship 20 m long and 2.4 m wide was tested on the Seine River. But, despite the successful experience, there was not a single capitalist who would invest money in the implementation and operation of the invention.

Robert goes to America, where he was given a twenty-year privilege to sail on steamships on the Hudson, on the condition that within two years he would build a steamship capable of sailing against the current at a speed of at least 6 knots per hour. Encouraged by his success, Fulton ordered a new, more powerful steam engine and got to work.

In 1807, Fulton's steamboat set sail. The length of the vessel was 45 m, its engine had one cylinder, and oak and pine wood was used as fuel. When tested, it swam a distance of 240 km at an average speed of 4.7 mph, while Monopoly required only 4 mph. After installing cabins on the ship, Robert Fulton began commercial voyages, carrying passengers and light cargo. He patented his steamboat and built several more steam ships in subsequent years. In 1814, construction began on the 44-gun warship Demologos for the US Navy, but this project was completed after his death.

“The Republic of Scientists is not a monastery with one charter: it consists of individuals who have in common only an interest in science and extraordinary talents,” writes the author of the next book, starting a story about the outstanding European scientists of the 18th century - Laplace and Euler.

Laplace and Euler: their lives and scientific activity: biographical sketches: with portraits of Laplace and Euler, engraved in Leipzig by Gedan / E. F. Litvinova. - St. Petersburg: Printing house of the Partnership for Public Benefit", 1892. - 79 pp., 2 sheets of portrait. (51(09I) L64 27165M-RF).

Elizaveta Fedorovna believes that the main feature scientific works Pierre Simon Laplace is their greater accessibility to non-specialists. For example, his essay “The World System” can be read by every educated person, because it is distinguished by its simplicity and clarity. French mathematician and astronomer, known for his work in the field differential equations, one of the creators of the theory of probability, Laplace was the chairman of the Chamber of Weights and Measures and headed the Bureau of Longitudes. The Paris Academy published his treatises on probability theory in 13 volumes. But greatest number Pierre Laplace's research relates to celestial mechanics, which he studied throughout his life. Laplace worked on the five-volume work “Treatise on Celestial Mechanics” for 26 years. He compiled more accurate tables of the Moon, which was important in determining longitudes at sea and, therefore, played a large role in navigation. The ancients despairingly called the phenomenon of ebb and flow the grave of human curiosity. Laplace was the first to recognize with confidence the connection between these phenomena and the attractive power of the Moon and the Sun. Undoubtedly, Pierre Laplace was a great scientist and a widely educated person: he knew languages, history, chemistry and biology, and loved poetry, music, and painting. He had an excellent memory and until a very old age he recited entire pages from the French poet and playwright Jean Racine by heart. There were many talented young scientists around him, whom he patronized.

During his life, Pierre Laplace was a member of six academies of sciences and royal societies. His name is included in the list of the greatest scientists of France, placed on the first floor of the Eiffel Tower. A crater on the Moon, an asteroid, and numerous concepts and theorems in mathematics are named after Laplace.

The hero of the second essay by E. F. Litvinova is Leonhard Euler, an outstanding German scientist who made a significant contribution to the development of mechanics, physics, astronomy and a number of applied sciences. Euler is recognized as the most productive mathematician in history. He spent almost half his life in Russia, was an academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, knew the Russian language well, and published some of his works (especially textbooks) in Russian.

At this time, the St. Petersburg Academy was one of the main centers of mathematics in the world. Here were the most favorable conditions for the flowering of the genius of Leonhard Euler. One day the Academy needed to do a very difficult job of calculating the trajectory of a comet. According to academics, this required several months of work. L. Euler undertook to complete this in three days and completed the work, but due to overexertion he became seriously ill with inflammation of his right eye, which he subsequently lost. Soon two volumes of his analytical mechanics appeared, then two parts of an introduction to arithmetic on German and new music theory. For his essay on the ebb and flow of the seas, Leonhard Euler received the French Academy Prize.

Enviable health and easy character helped Euler “withstand the blows of fate that befell him. Always an even mood, cheerfulness, good-natured mockery and the ability to tell funny stories made conversation with him pleasant and desirable...” Euler was constantly surrounded by numerous grandchildren, often a child sat in his arms, and a cat lay on his neck. He himself taught mathematics to the children. And all this did not stop him from working. During his life, Leonhard Euler wrote about 900 scientific papers.

Thomas Edison said: “Discontent is the first condition of progress.” The degree of “dissatisfaction” of the great scientist is evidenced by his 1093 patents for inventions. To make the world more convenient, he invented the phonograph, built the world's first public power station, improved the telegraph and telephone, and the incandescent lamp.

Edison and Morse: their lives and scientific and practical activities: two biographical sketches / A. V. Kamensky. - St. Petersburg: Printing house Yu. N. Erlikh, 1891. - 80 p., front. (portrait) ; 19 cm - (Life of remarkable people: (ZhZL). Biographical library of F. Pavlenkov). (6(09I) K18 35638M-RF)

Thomas Edison registered his first patent at the age of 22. Later, he was so productive that he created on average one minor invention every 10 days and one major invention every six months. Under what circumstances were these technical achievements of the American engineer made, says the author of his biography A.V. Kamensky.

When Thomas was 7 years old, his father went bankrupt, and the future inventor, not wanting to accept the fall of his family, plunged headlong into his studies. True, I soon had to say goodbye to the school. His mother, a former school teacher, continued his education at home. At the age of 10, Thomas plunged into chemical experiments and created his first laboratory in the basement of his house. Money was needed to conduct experiments, and at the age of 12 Edison began working. He sold newspapers, fruits and candy on trains. In order not to waste time, he moved the chemical laboratory to the baggage car at his disposal, where one day he almost started a fire. At the age of 15, using the money he saved, Thomas purchased a printing press and began publishing his own newspaper right in the baggage car of the train in which he worked, and selling it to passengers.

Edison was attracted by everything innovative, so he soon exchanged the railroad for the telegraph. From the very first days of working as a telegraph operator, he thought about improving the telegraph apparatus. Edison invents an electrical recorder of the number of votes, but there were no buyers for this patent. Then Thomas decided for himself that he would only work on inventions with guaranteed demand. Subsequently, he expanded the capabilities of the telegraph apparatus: now it could transmit not only SOS signals, but also information about stock exchange rates. Edison earned 40 thousand dollars from this invention and soon organized a workshop where he manufactured automatic telegraph devices and other electrical equipment.

In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, which he would consider his favorite creation for the rest of his life. The press called the phonograph “the greatest discovery of the century,” and Edison himself proposed many ways to use it: dictating letters and documents without the help of a stenographer, playing music, recording conversations. Edison's new invention, which shocked the world, was a device for displaying sequential photographs - a kinescope. In April 1896, Edison held the first public screening of a film in New York, and in 1913 he demonstrated a film with synchronized sound.

Until the end of his life, Thomas Edison was engaged in improving this world. At the age of 85, dying, he told his wife: “If there is anything after death, it is good. If not, that's fine too. I lived my life and did the best I could...”

The next hero, Samuel Finley Morse, is known throughout the world as the inventor of the electromagnetic writing telegraph - the “Morse apparatus” and the transmission code - “Morse code”.

Samuel (Samuel) Morse was born in Massachusetts into a wealthy American family and graduated from Yale College. He was indifferent to science, although he was attracted by lectures on electricity. Samuel also loved to draw miniature portraits of acquaintances. He was so fascinated by painting that his parents sent him to England to study art at the Royal Academy of Arts. In 1813, Morse presented his painting “The Dying Hercules” to the Royal Academy of Arts in London, for which he received a gold medal.

After returning home, he lived the life of a traveling painter for ten years, painting portraits. It must be said that Samuel was very sociable and charming, he was eagerly received in noble houses. Even US President Lincoln was among his friends. In New York he creates some very interesting portraits and founded the National Academy of Design. During his second trip to Europe, S. Morse met the famous scientist L. Daguerre and became interested in the latest discoveries in the field of electricity. And after at the university he was shown a description of the model of an electromagnetic telegraph proposed by the German physicist W. Weber, he completely devoted himself to invention. The scientist knew that electric current runs almost instantly along the longest wire and that when an obstacle is encountered, a spark appears. Why can’t this spark represent a word, a letter, a number? Why not come up with an alphabet for transmitting words by electricity? This thought haunted Morse. It took years of work and study to get his telegraph working. In 1837, he developed a system of representing letters with dots and dashes, which became known throughout the world as Morse code. However, he did not find support for introducing the idea either at home, or in England, or in France, or in Russia, meeting with refusal everywhere. From a trip to Europe, Samuel returned home with dashed hopes and almost in poverty.

In another attempt to interest the US Congress in the creation of telegraph lines, he brought in a congressman as a partner, and in 1843 Morse received a subsidy of $30,000 for the construction of the first telegraph line from Baltimore to Washington. Having received the necessary funds, Morse immediately began constructing a trial telegraph line, which was completed a little over a year later, although the public was still outraged for a long time that Congress was wasting public money on such an insane enterprise. A few years later, the telegraph spread to America, and then to Europe and was recognized as one of the most amazing discoveries of our century. Newspapers, railways and banks quickly found a use for it. Telegraph lines instantly intertwined the whole world, Morse's fortune and fame increased. A man who often had to go hungry now did not know how to get rid of the lavish dinners and celebrations held in his honor. Representatives of ten European governments at a special congress jointly decided to give Morse 400,000 francs. In 1858, he bought an estate near New York, and spent the rest of his life there with a large family of children and grandchildren. In his old age, Morse became a philanthropist. He patronized schools, universities, churches, missionaries and poor artists.

After his death, Morse's fame as an inventor began to fade, as the telegraph was replaced by telephone, radio and television. But, oddly enough, his reputation as an artist grew. He did not consider himself a portrait painter, but many people know his paintings of Lafayette and other prominent people. His 1837 telegraph is kept in the US National Museum, and his country house is recognized as a historical monument.

Throughout the history of mankind, no less interest than the conquest of the water ocean has been caused by the conquest of the air ocean. The idea of ​​rising into the sky has excited human minds since ancient times. The first mentions of attempts of this kind date back to the 4th-5th centuries BC. The book “Conquest of the Air” is just about this. The authors of the articles included in this collection are German writers, scientists, engineers and aeronauts: G. Dominic, F. M. Feldgauz, O. Neischler, A. Stolberg, O. Steffens, N. Stern.

Conquest of the air: a reference book on aeronautics and flying technology: compiled on the basis of the latest discoveries and inventions: with 162 fig. in the text / trans. with him. M. Kadish; auto preface gr. Zeppelin. - Moscow: publishing house "Titan": Printing house of the trading house M. V. Baldin and Co., . - , 400 s. : ill. (6T5(09I) Z-13 27861 - RF)

It contains materials on the first experiences of flight: from folk tales and legends to the appearance of hot air balloons and controlled balloons, as well as on the use of air vehicles for scientific, sports and cultural purposes.

The first chapters of the book, authored by F. M. Feldgauz, describe many flying attempts of the past - sometimes curious, sometimes funny and curious. In addition to wings, which were attached to the arms or body, there were also various types of flying machines and ships.

A sad page in the history of aeronautics is the expedition led by the Swedish engineer-naturalist Salomon Andre, carried out in 1897 with the goal of reaching the North Pole in a hot air balloon, during which all three of its participants died. This is how Dr. A. Stolberg describes this expedition: Salomon Andre, the first Swedish balloonist, proposed organizing an expedition in a hydrogen-filled balloon from Spitsbergen to Russia or Canada, and its path would, if lucky, go straight through North Pole. The patriotic masses greeted this idea with enthusiasm. Unfortunately, Andre ignored the potential dangers. There was a lot of evidence that the technology he invented to control the ball using fastening ropes turned out to be ineffective, but he still jeopardized the fate of the expedition. To make matters worse, the Eagle balloon was delivered directly to Svalbard by its manufacturer in Paris and was not pre-inspected. When measurements showed that there were more hydrogen leaks than expected, Andre did not consider this a serious problem. Most contemporary scientists, seeing Andre's optimism, were also dismissive of the forces of nature, which in fact led to the death of Salomon Andre and his two young associates, Nils Strindberg and Ernst Frenkel. After launching from Spitsbergen in July 1897, the balloon very quickly lost hydrogen and crashed in the ice within two days. The researchers were not injured during its fall, but died during a grueling journey south through the drifting polar ice. Lacking sufficiently warm clothing, equipment and training, and overwhelmed by the difficulty of traversing the terrain, they had little chance of a successful outcome. When the Arctic winter closed their further path in October, the group found itself sandwiched on the deserted White Island in the Spitsbergen archipelago and died there. True, in 1909 they did not yet know about this. The author of the essay assumed that the heroes of the expedition died immediately as soon as the balloon finally lost air somewhere over the ocean. He writes: “...probably all three drowned immediately; in any case, this would be a better fate...” For 33 years, the fate of Andre's expedition remained one of the mysteries of the Arctic. The accidental discovery of the expedition's last camp in 1930 created a sensation.

The book describes many more stories about successful and not so successful attempts to conquer airspace. It contains descriptions of various types of aircraft: gliders, airplanes, monoplanes, airships... Many drawings and photographs that depict fantastic and real designs of air vehicles and their creators will help you clearly understand and appreciate the structural features of each.

The history of the invention and use of flying devices in Russia contains many interesting, sometimes funny moments. It is known that rulers at all times loved to patronize the inventors of flying cars. Alexander I also favored aeronautics.

A very interesting and little-known story is told by Alexander Alekseevich Rodnykh, a Russian popularizer and historian of science, a specialist in the history of aeronautics, a science journalist, and a science fiction writer. One of the first propagandists of the ideas of K. Tsiolkovsky, a graduate of the Faculty of Mathematics of St. Petersburg University.

Secret preparation for the destruction of Napoleon's army in the twelfth year with the help of aeronautics: from the "History of Aeronautics and Flying in Russia": with 19 photographs from ancient drawings / A. Rodnykh. - [St. Petersburg]: [Type. T-va Literacy], . - 61, 124 p. : ill. (9(C)15 R60 36628-RF)

In his book, he talks about a very special event in the history of aeronautics and flying in Russia. It turns out that in the spring of 1812, at the behest of Alexander I, preparations were made in complete secrecy for the destruction of Napoleon’s army with the help of the “flying machine” of the German inventor Leppich. Leppich volunteered to build a controlled machine capable of rising into the air and dropping huge quantities of explosive shells to exterminate Napoleon's army. A. Rodnykh says that Leppich’s air enterprise cost the Russian treasury, not counting the timber for the construction of the premises, heating, dressing of the skins and others, a total of about 185,000 rubles. ABOUT appearance machines can be judged from a surviving drawing, which indicates that the idea of ​​a controlled airship Leppich was associated with ideas about fishing, that is, with the help of fins and a tail. Despite repeated design changes, experiments and attempts by the inventor to make the device fly, the enterprise was not successful. The author writes that Leppich’s failure is difficult to determine because, without technical data on the building itself, it is impossible to understand whether the error lies in the idea itself or in its execution. There are different data regarding the end of the unfortunate designer’s stay in Russia: according to some, he was deported abroad in 1814, according to others, he fled on his own. A. Rodnykh describes in detail the history of this entertaining, adventurous, sometimes full of drama enterprise. Considering that the facts and information from the history of Russian aeronautics presented in the book are little known, this work definitely deserves attention.

We have already said that many things that are for modern man something ordinary, at one time they made a serious revolution in the history of mankind, forcing it to take a huge step towards progress. The work of the English researcher and publicist Frederick Morel Holmes (Holmes) “Great Men and Their Great Works” is a kind of generalization, an artistic and historical study of the most famous inventions and technical achievements of mankind of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

Great people and their great works: stories about the buildings of famous engineers / F. M. Holms; lane from English M. A. Zhebeleva. - 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house O. N. Popova: Typo-lithography by I. Usmanov, 1903. - VIII, 272 p. : ill. (30G G63 488195-RF)

The book tells about such inventions as the steam locomotive and the steamship, whose appearance changed the world economy beyond recognition; a lighthouse that can withstand waves and send signals to ships around the clock; artificial canals that often run above sea level; a lathe, with the invention of which it became possible to produce parts with precisely specified dimensions.

This is how the author of the book describes the construction of Marc Brunel’s tunnel under the Thames: “If at that time you had been on the Rothergate Shoal near the Thames, you would have been very surprised to see that instead of digging a well, they began to erect a tower there... The masons began laying a round tower with walls 3 feet thick and 42 feet high... The soil was dug out and lifted up by a machine... And as the hole got deeper, this pipe of masonry sank into it... 65 feet high. Little by little, it all sank into the ground.”

And when building a bridge across the Menai Strait, new ideas were needed, since the width from one bank to the other is more than 335 meters. The bridge had to be strong enough to carry heavy trains at high speed and high enough above the water so as not to interfere with shipping. The task was very difficult, but the famous engineer Robert Stephenson, the son of George Stephenson, the inventor of the steam locomotive, which was already discussed above, took on its implementation. How exactly, using what technologies, was the first tubular bridge “Britannia” built, and why was the construction of a tower necessary when digging a tunnel? Who is Marc Isambard Brunel? The author of the book gives answers to all these questions.

F. M. Holmes introduces readers to realistic images of great inventors, the difficult fate of them and their creations, many of which still serve humanity. It helps to see the surrounding reality through the prism of objects used in everyday life and technical means, revealing the secret of their birth. A special advantage of the book is a special section devoted to the history of technical innovations in our country.

This concludes our excursion into the history of scientific and technical inventions of mankind on the pages of publications of the 19th and early 20th centuries. We hope that our virtual exhibition will arouse interest among all lovers of popular science literature.

Science is a hard and not always rewarding endeavor. Many years of experimentation may not lead to tangible results, potentially important research often does not receive the necessary funding, and history forgets the names of people who had a hand in great discoveries. Look At Me brought together eight scientists who helped work on important discoveries- and sometimes they committed them alone - but were forgotten.

Rosalind Franklin

helped discover the structure of the DNA molecule

If you know anything about natural sciences, you have most likely heard the names of Francis Crick and James Watson - scientists who received the Nobel Prize for discovering the structure of the DNA molecule. In fact, their story is not so simple: perhaps Crick and Watson simply used the research of their colleague Rosalind Franklin and took credit for her achievements. When Franklin was 33, she came to the conclusion that DNA consists of two strands and a phosphate backbone. Franklin confirmed her discovery with x-rays. It is believed that Franklin's colleague showed her research and photographs to Crick and Watson, who used her findings for their own work. Moreover, Watson persuaded Franklin to publish her research, but after he published his. Her work no longer looked like a discovery, but a confirmation of what Watson and Crick had written. Scientists received the Nobel Prize, and the name Franklin was forgotten.

Alfred Russell Wallace

helped create the theory of evolution

The theory of evolution is primarily associated with the name of Charles Darwin and his book “The Origin of Species.” But there is another scientist who played no less than important role. Alfred Russell Wallace was a British explorer who, independently of Darwin, came up with the theories of evolution and natural selection. Having made a number of observations on a Malaysian expedition in the mid-19th century, Wallace wrote them down and sent them to Darwin for his opinion. Wallace's work inspired Darwin's new ideas about evolution, and they published a joint paper, followed by Darwin's own in 1858. Wallace experienced financial difficulties almost his entire life. He traveled a lot (for example, in the Amazon region and on Far East) and financed his expeditions by selling the animals, insects and plants he collected. After losing most of his money in failed ventures, Wallace made money only through scientific publications.

Cecilia Payne-Gaposhkina

discovered the composition of stars and the Sun

Cecilia Payne is a female scientist whose discoveries were discredited by her superiors. In her youth, Payne received a scholarship and studied botany, physics and chemistry at Cambridge University. Unfortunately, Payne's education yielded little: Cambridge did not grant degrees to women at that time. Payne became interested in astronomy and eventually moved to the Radcliffe Institute, where she became the first woman to receive a doctorate in astronomy.

Payne's greatest contribution to astronomy was her understanding of the elements that make up stars. Her male colleagues did not take her research seriously. Astronomer Henry Norris Russell, who reviewed Payne's work, convinced her not to publish her study. Russell's argument was that Payne's work was contrary to the knowledge of the time - and therefore would not have been accepted by the scientific community. Four years later, Russell changed his mind: he published his own article in which he described what the Sun is made of. Russell's findings were very similar to Payne's - and he received credit for all the work she did. In a cruel irony, Payne even received the Henry Norris Russell Award in 1976 for her achievements in astronomy.

Peter Bergmann

helped in the development of a unified field theory

The greatest physicist of the 20th century, Albert Einstein, in the last years of his life trusted all his calculations to younger scientists, his assistants. Einstein's assistants met with him every morning, got his opinions on various issues, and then spent the rest of the day doing research. The next day, Einstein looked at their calculations, evaluated them, gave advice - and the work continued. Einstein's most famous assistant was the physicist Peter Bergmann. Bergmann was born in 1915, the same year that Einstein completed his work on the theory of relativity. Bergmann was interested in science from childhood, and in the late 1930s he became Einstein's protégé. The physicist helped Einstein develop a unified field theory.

When Einstein created a new theory of gravity in 1915 (and the theory of relativity explained gravity in a new way), he realized that the properties of space-time cannot be separated from the gravitational field. He tried to combine the physics existing at that time with the physics of the gravitational field. Despite the fact that he never succeeded, the calculations of Einstein and Bergmann turned out to be very important for physics of the 20th century. We now know that there are other forces that are equally important for the behavior of particles, and their properties are not only electromagnetic and gravitational. One way or another, most of the calculations were done by Bergmann. He published several books on the theory of relativity, and after Einstein's death he continued to study gravity.

Milton Humason

helped create Hubble's Law

Milton Humason was an assistant to Edwin Hubble, the astronomer for whom the world's most famous space telescope is named. Humason dropped out of school and took a job as a loader. He carried materials for the construction of the Mount Wilson Observatory in California. After construction was completed, Humason went to work as a cleaner at the observatory. At the same time, Humason worked part-time at night, helping astronomers. He was finally hired on in 1919. By pure chance, Humason was not the man who discovered Pluto. 11 years before Clyde Tombaugh, considered the discoverer of Pluto, Humason took a series of photographs that showed Pluto for the first time. It is believed that he did not notice the dwarf planet because it was obscured by a defect in the photographs. Humason has been called a "forgotten hero" who helped create Hubble's Law, which describes the movement of galaxies in the Universe.

Howard Florey and Ernst Chain

discovered the medical properties of penicillin

Alexander Fleming is considered the scientist who discovered penicillin. In fact, Fleming simply discovered the substance - but did not know what to do with it. Fleming discovered penicillin almost by accident in 1928. The culture containing penicillin was too unstable, the antibiotic could not be isolated in its pure form, and Fleming and his colleagues abandoned the study.

The people who made penicillin into a drug that changed medicine were Howard Florey and Ernst Chain. In 1939, they conducted a series of experiments on culture (in other words, mold) Fleming and were able to make her medicinal product. Scientists chose penicillin for experiments for two reasons: Cheyne was attracted by the instability of the substance, and Flory was interested in the fact that it was the only substance that could overcome staphylococcus. In fairness, although Fleming’s name is well known, Florey and Chain are also not forgotten by history: the three of them, together with Fleming, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 “for the discovery of penicillin and its healing effects in various infectious diseases.”

Nettie Stevens

discovered the difference between female and male sets of chromosomes

By the beginning of the 20th century, biologists and philosophers had proposed many theories about how a person's sex is determined. Some said that this was influenced by external factors during pregnancy, others that it was hereditary. We now know that a person's sex depends on the 23rd pair of chromosomes, X and Y. Most textbooks say that Thomas Morgan discovered them. In fact, the discovery was made by a female scientist, Nettie Stevens. She became a victim of what is called the “Matilda effect” - when the achievements of female scientists are hidden or denied.

Stevens studied sex determination in fruit flies and concluded that it depends on the X and Y chromosomes. Although many write that Stevens worked with Morgan, she carried out almost all of her observations on her own. Morgan received the Nobel Prize for all the work done by Stevens. He later published in the journal Science, in which he said that Stevens acted in the study simply as a laboratory assistant and could not be called a real scientist. Moreover, it was Nettie Stevens who began the research - and even brought fruit flies to Morgan's laboratory.

Lise Meitner

helped discover nuclear fission

Lise Meitner's research in nuclear physics led to the discovery of nuclear fission - the fact that the nucleus of an atom can split in two. This discovery, in turn, became the foundation for the creation atomic bomb. In 1907, the Austrian Meitner graduated from the University of Vienna and moved to Berlin, where she began working with the chemist Otto Hahn. After the Nazis annexed Austria in 1938, the Jewish Meitner was forced to leave for Stockholm. There she continued to work with Gan, secretly meeting with him and corresponding with him.

Hahn carried out experiments that proved nuclear fission, but could not come up with any explanation for what he found - Meitner did it for him. But Gan published the study without mentioning her as a co-author. Some historians of science believe that Meitner understood why he did this - he could not afford it in Nazi Germany. Not only nationality, but also Meitner’s gender played a role: scientists on the Nobel committee refused to recognize the merits of a female scientist. Hahn received the Nobel Prize in 1944 for his discovery of nuclear fission alone, without Meitner. However, her contemporaries and colleagues said that Meitner's work was very important for this discovery. But because her name was not included in Hahn's study - and she did not receive the Nobel Prize - no one knew Meitner's name for many years.

1. P.N. Yablochkov and A.N. Lodygin - the world's first electric light bulb

2. A.S. Popov - radio

3. V.K. Zvorykin (the world's first electron microscope, television and television broadcasting)

4. A.F. Mozhaisky - inventor of the world's first airplane

5. I.I. Sikorsky - a great aircraft designer, created the world's first helicopter, the world's first bomber

6. A.M. Ponyatov - the world's first video recorder

7. S.P. Korolev - the world's first ballistic missile, spaceship, the first satellite of the Earth

8. A.M.Prokhorov and N.G. Basov - the world's first quantum generator - maser

9. S. V. Kovalevskaya (the world's first woman professor)

10. S.M. Prokudin-Gorsky - the world's first color photograph

11. A.A. Alekseev - creator of the needle screen

12. F.A. Pirotsky - the world's first electric tram

13. F.A. Blinov - the world's first crawler tractor

14. V.A. Starevich - three-dimensional animated film

15. E.M. Artamonov - invented the world's first bicycle with pedals, a steering wheel, and a turning wheel.

16. O.V. Losev - the world's first amplifying and generating semiconductor device

17. V.P. Mutilin - the world's first mounted construction combine

18. A. R. Vlasenko - the world's first grain harvesting machine

19. V.P. Demikhov was the first in the world to perform a lung transplant and the first to create a model of an artificial heart

20. A.P. Vinogradov - created a new direction in science - geochemistry of isotopes

21. I.I. Polzunov - the world's first heat engine

22. G. E. Kotelnikov - the first backpack rescue parachute

23. I.V. Kurchatov - the world's first nuclear power plant (Obninsk); also, under his leadership, the world's first H-bomb 400 kt power, blown up on August 12, 1953. It was the Kurchatov team that developed thermonuclear bomb RDS-202 (Tsar Bomba) with a record power of 52,000 kt.

24. M. O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky - invented a three-phase current system, built a three-phase transformer, which put an end to the dispute between supporters of direct (Edison) and alternating current

25. V.P. Vologdin - the world's first high-voltage mercury rectifier with a liquid cathode, developed induction furnaces for the use of high-frequency currents in industry

26. S.O. Kostovich - created the world's first gasoline engine in 1879

27. V.P.Glushko - the world's first electric/thermal rocket engine

28. V. V. Petrov - discovered the phenomenon of arc discharge

29. N. G. Slavyanov - electric arc welding

30. I. F. Aleksandrovsky - invented the stereo camera

31. D.P. Grigorovich - creator of the seaplane

32. V.G. Fedorov - the world's first machine gun

33. A.K. Nartov - built the world's first lathe with a movable support

34. M.V. Lomonosov - for the first time in science formulated the principle of conservation of matter and motion, for the first time in the world began to teach a course in physical chemistry, for the first time discovered the existence of an atmosphere on Venus

35. I.P. Kulibin - mechanic, developed the design of the world's first wooden arched single-span bridge, inventor of the searchlight

36. V.V. Petrov - physicist, developed the world's largest galvanic battery; opened an electric arc

37. P.I. Prokopovich - for the first time in the world, he invented a frame hive, in which he used a magazine with frames

38. N.I. Lobachevsky - Mathematician, creator of “non-Euclidean geometry”

39. D.A. Zagryazhsky - invented the caterpillar track

40. B.O. Jacobi - invented electroplating and the world's first electric motor with direct rotation of the working shaft

41. P.P. Anosov - metallurgist, revealed the secret of making ancient damask steel

42. D.I.Zhuravsky - first developed the theory of calculations of bridge trusses, which is currently used throughout the world

43. N.I. Pirogov - for the first time in the world, compiled the atlas “Topographic Anatomy”, which has no analogues, invented anesthesia, plaster and much more

44. I.R. Hermann - for the first time in the world compiled a summary of uranium minerals

45. A.M. Butlerov - first formulated the basic principles of the theory of the structure of organic compounds

46. ​​I.M. Sechenov - the creator of evolutionary and other schools of physiology, published his main work “Reflexes of the Brain”

47. D.I.Mendeleev - discovered periodic law chemical elements, creator of the table of the same name

48. M.A. Novinsky - veterinarian, laid the foundations of experimental oncology

49. G.G. Ignatiev - for the first time in the world, developed a system of simultaneous telephone and telegraphy over one cable

50. K.S. Dzhevetsky - built the world's first submarine with an electric motor

51. N.I. Kibalchich - for the first time in the world, he developed a design for a rocket aircraft

52. N.N.Benardos - invented electric welding

53. V.V. Dokuchaev - laid the foundations of genetic soil science

54. V.I. Sreznevsky - Engineer, invented the world's first aerial camera

55. A.G. Stoletov - physicist, for the first time in the world he created a photocell based on the external photoelectric effect

56. P.D. Kuzminsky - built the world's first radial gas turbine

57. I.V. Boldyrev - the first flexible photosensitive non-flammable film, formed the basis for the creation of cinematography

58. I.A. Timchenko - developed the world's first movie camera

59. S.M. Apostolov-Berdichevsky and M.F. Freidenberg - created the world's first automatic telephone exchange

60. N.D. Pilchikov - physicist, for the first time in the world he created and successfully demonstrated a wireless control system

61. V.A. Gassiev - engineer, built the world's first phototypesetting machine

62. K.E. Tsiolkovsky - founder of astronautics

63. P.N. Lebedev - physicist, for the first time in science experimentally proved the existence of light pressure on solids

64. I.P. Pavlov - creator of the science of higher nervous activity

65. V.I. Vernadsky - naturalist, creator of many scientific schools

66. A.N. Scriabin - composer, was the first in the world to use lighting effects in the symphonic poem “Prometheus”

67. N.E. Zhukovsky - creator of aerodynamics

68. S.V. Lebedev - first obtained artificial rubber

69. G.A. Tikhov - astronomer, for the first time in the world, established that the Earth, when observed from space, should have a blue color. Later, as we know, this was confirmed when filming our planet from space.

70. N.D. Zelinsky - developed the world's first highly effective coal gas mask

71. N.P. Dubinin - geneticist, discovered the divisibility of the gene

72. M.A. Kapelyushnikov - invented the turbodrill in 1922

73. E.K. Zawoisky discovered electrical paramagnetic resonance

74. N.I. Lunin - proved that there are vitamins in the body of living beings

75. N.P. Wagner - discovered the pedogenesis of insects

76. Svyatoslav Fedorov - the first in the world to perform surgery to treat glaucoma

77. S.S. Yudin - first used blood transfusions of suddenly deceased people in the clinic

78. A.V. Shubnikov - predicted the existence and first created piezoelectric textures

79. L.V. Shubnikov - Shubnikov-de Haas effect (magnetic properties of superconductors)

80. N.A. Izgaryshev - discovered the phenomenon of passivity of metals in non-aqueous electrolytes

81. P.P. Lazarev - creator of the ion excitation theory

82. P.A. Molchanov - meteorologist, created the world's first radiosonde

83. N.A. Umov - physicist, equation of energy motion, concept of energy flow; By the way, he was the first to explain, practically and without ether, the misconceptions of the theory of relativity

84. E.S. Fedorov - founder of crystallography

85. G.S. Petrov - chemist, world's first synthetic detergent

86. V.F. Petrushevsky - scientist and general, invented a range finder for artillerymen

87. I.I. Orlov - invented a method for making woven credit cards and a method of single-pass multiple printing (Orlov printing)

88. Mikhail Ostrogradsky - mathematician, O. formula (multiple integral)

89. P.L. Chebyshev - mathematician, Ch. polynomials (orthogonal system of functions), parallelogram

90. P.A. Cherenkov - physicist, Ch. radiation (new optical effect), Ch. counter (nuclear radiation detector in nuclear physics)

91. D.K. Chernov - Ch. points (critical points of phase transformations of steel)

92. V.I. Kalashnikov is not the same Kalashnikov, but another one, who was the first in the world to equip river ships with a steam engine with multiple steam expansion

93. A.V. Kirsanov - organic chemist, reaction K. (phosphoreaction)

94. A.M. Lyapunov - mathematician, created the theory of stability, balance and motion mechanical systems with a finite number of parameters, as well as L.’s theorem (one of the limit theorems of probability theory)

95. Dmitry Konovalov - chemist, Konovalov’s laws (elasticity of parasolutions)

96. S.N. Reformatsky - organic chemist, Reformatsky reaction

97. V.A. Semennikov - metallurgist, the first in the world to carry out bessemerization of copper matte and obtain blister copper

98. I.R. Prigogine - physicist, P.'s theorem (thermodynamics of nonequilibrium processes)

99. M.M. Protodyakonov - scientist, developed a globally accepted scale of rock strength

100. M.F. Shostakovsky - organic chemist, balsam Sh. (vinyline)

101. M.S. Color - Color method (chromatography of plant pigments)

102. A.N. Tupolev - designed the world's first jet passenger aircraft and the first supersonic passenger aircraft

103. A.S. Famintsyn - plant physiologist, first developed a method for carrying out photosynthetic processes under artificial light

104. B.S. Stechkin - created two great theories - thermal calculation of aircraft engines and air-breathing engines

105. A.I. Leypunsky - physicist, discovered the phenomenon of energy transfer by excited atoms and

Molecules to free electrons during collisions

106. D.D. Maksutov - optician, telescope M. (meniscus system of optical instruments)

107. N.A. Menshutkin - chemist, discovered the effect of a solvent on the rate of a chemical reaction

108. I.I. Mechnikov - the founders of evolutionary embryology

109. S.N. Winogradsky - discovered chemosynthesis

110. V.S. Pyatov - metallurgist, invented a method for producing armor plates using the rolling method

111. A.I. Bakhmutsky - invented the world's first coal miner (for coal mining)

112. A.N. Belozersky - discovered DNA in higher plants

113. S.S. Bryukhonenko - physiologist, created the first artificial blood circulation apparatus in the world (autojector)

114. G.P. Georgiev - biochemist, discovered RNA in the nuclei of animal cells

115. E. A. Murzin - invented the world's first optical-electronic synthesizer "ANS"

116. P.M. Golubitsky - Russian inventor in the field of telephony

117. V. F. Mitkevich - for the first time in the world, he proposed the use of a three-phase arc for welding metals

118. L.N. Gobyato - Colonel, the world's first mortar was invented in Russia in 1904

119. V.G. Shukhov is an inventor, the first in the world to use steel mesh shells for the construction of buildings and towers

120. I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky - committed the first Russian trip around the world, studied the islands of the Pacific Ocean, described the life of Kamchatka and about. Sakhalin

121. F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev - discovered Antarctica

122. The world's first icebreaker of a modern type is the steamship of the Russian fleet "Pilot" (1864), the first Arctic icebreaker is "Ermak", built in 1899 under the leadership of S.O. Makarova.

123. V.N. Chev - the founder of biogeocenology, one of the founders of the doctrine of phytocenosis, its structure, classification, dynamics, relationships with the environment and its animal population

124. Alexander Nesmeyanov, Alexander Arbuzov, Grigory Razuvaev - creation of the chemistry of organoelement compounds.

125. V.I. Levkov - under his leadership, hovercraft were created for the first time in the world

126. G.N. Babakin - Russian designer, creator of Soviet lunar rovers

127. P.N. Nesterov was the first in the world to perform a closed curve in a vertical plane on an airplane, a “dead loop”, later called the “Nesterov loop”

128. B. B. Golitsyn - became the founder of the new science of seismology

And many, many more...

Saturday, September 30, 2017 18:53 + to quote book

One hundred living geniuses- a list compiled by the consulting company Creators Synectics and published by the British newspaper The Daily Telegraph on October 28, 2007.

The initial basis of the list was compiled through a survey: according to e-mail 4,000 Britons were asked to name 10 contemporaries they consider geniuses, whose merits turned out to be the most valuable for humanity. Around 600 responses were received, naming around 1,100 people (of which two thirds were from the UK and US).

The firm emailed 4,000 Britons, asking each to name up to 10 living candidates for the title of genius. As a result, 1100 names were obtained. The commission then compiled a list out of 100 people, who were assessed by five parameters - contribution to changing the system of beliefs, social recognition, intellectual power, value of scientific achievements and cultural significance. As a result, Albert Hofmann and Tim Berners-Lee, who shared first place, received 27 points out of a possible 50.

"Saint Hofmann" - painting by Alex Gray

Almost quarter included in the list" 100 living geniuses"made up British. Per share Americans have to 43 places on the list. Which is not surprising, since they were not interviewing Chinese or Russians.
Nevertheless, three Russians also found a place on the list. These are Perelman, Kasparov and Kalashnikov. One even managed to get into the top ten.

100 most brilliant people of our time
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/One hundred_living_geniuses

So here is this List. Top 10 first!

1-2.Tim Berners-Lee, Great Britain. Computer Scientist


An Oxford graduate and computer scientist, he is the author of the HTTP protocol and the HTML language.
In 1989 Berners-Lee offered a global hypertext project that laid the foundation for the creation of the World Wide Web, the Internet!

3. George Soros, USA. Investor and philanthropist
An outstanding financier and speculator, whose enormous resources allowed him to organize a number of attacks on the national currencies of Great Britain and Asian countries.


IN Lately retired from business and is actively involved in charitable activities through the organization " Open Society" and charities in 25 countries.

4.Matt Groening, USA. Satirist and cartoonist
Author and producer, became famous thanks to the satirical animated series “The Simpsons” and “Futurama”.


The Simpson family and the fictional town of Springfield first appeared on television in 1987. Since then, the popularity of the series has not waned, and in 2007 a full-length version of the cartoon was released on movie screens.

5-6. Nelson Mandela, South Africa. Politician and diplomat


Human rights activist, laureate Nobel Prize peace in 1993, fought for a long time at the head of the African National Congress against apartheid in South Africa, spent 28 years in prison. From 1994 to 1999 he served as president of the country. Currently actively supports the fight against AIDS.

Frederick Sanger, Great Britain. Chemist
Graduate of Cambridge University, biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate.

He is known for his work on insulin, which made it possible to obtain it synthetically, and for his research in the field of DNA.

Dario Fo, Italy. Writer and playwright


Theater figure, winner of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Literature. In his work he combined propaganda satire with the traditions of medieval theater. Author of the works "Mystery Bouffe" (1969), "Accidental Death of an Anarchist" (1970), "Knock Knock! Who's There? Police" (1974), "If you can't pay, don't pay" (1981).

Stephen Hawking, Great Britain. Physicist
One of the most famous theoretical physicists of our time, a specialist in cosmology and quantum gravity.


Being practically paralyzed, Hawking continues to engage in scientific and popularization activities. Bestselling author " Short story time".

Oscar Niemeyer, Brazil. Architect
One of the founders of the modern Brazilian school of architecture, a pioneer of reinforced concrete construction.


Since 1957 he has been developing new capital country - the city of Brazil, participated in the design of the UN headquarters in New York.

Philip Glass, USA. Composer


Minimalist composer, performer. He became known to the general public after creating the soundtrack for Godfrey Reggio's film "Koyaniskazzi". He also wrote music for the films “The Truman Show”, “The Illusionist”, “The Hours”, and music for the opening of the 2004 Olympics in Athens.

Grigory Perelman, Russia. Mathematician


Scientist from St. Petersburg proved the Poincaré conjecture, formulated back in 1904. His discovery was considered the most significant scientific achievement 2006. Despite this, the reclusive Russian refused the million-dollar prize and the highest award in the mathematical world - Fields's awards.
…………
And the rest of the geniuses:

12-14. Andrew Wiles (mathematician, UK) - proved Fermat's Last Theorem - 20
12-14. Li Hongzhi (spiritual leader, China) - Created the religious organization “Falun Gong” - a mixture of Buddhism and Taoism with elements of qigong health gymnastics.
12-14. Ali Javan (engineer, Iran) - Engineer, one of the creators of the world's first gas laser using a mixture of helium and neon.

15-17. Brian Eno (composer, UK) -19 Invented ambient - a musical genre with elements of jazz, new age, electronic music, rock, reggae, ethnic music and noise. 19
15-17. Damien Hirst (artist, UK) - One of the most expensive painters of our time. Death is a central theme in his works. The most famous series is Natural History: dead animals in formaldehyde.
15-17. Daniel Tammet (savant and linguist, UK) - Encyclopedist and linguist works with numbers faster than a computer. You can learn any foreign language in a few hours.

18. Nicholson Baker (writer, USA) - A novelist whose writing focuses on the narrator's flow of thought.
19. Daniel Barenboim (musician, Israel) - 17 Pianist and conductor. He has received many awards, including for various recordings.
20-24. Robert Crumb (writer and artist, USA) - 16 Greeting card artist, music connoisseur. He gained worldwide fame for his underground comics.
20-24. Richard Dawkins (biologist and philosopher, UK) - 16 Leading evolutionary biologist. The terms that first appeared in his books became widespread.
20-24. Sergey Brin and Larry Page (founders of Google, USA) - 16
20-24. Rupert Murdoch (publisher and media tycoon, USA) - 16 Founder and head of News Corporation. Under his control are media, film companies and book publishing houses in the USA, Great Britain, Australia and other countries.
20-24. Geoffrey Hill (poet, UK) - 16 Poet, translator. He became famous for his unusual “corporate” style - the language of advertising, mass media and political “rhetoric”.

25. Garry Kasparov (chess player, Russia) - 15
Garry Kimovich Kasparov is considered one of the strongest chess players of all time.


At 22, he became the youngest world champion in history and defended the title several times. In 2005, the grandmaster announced the end of his sports career and became involved in social and political activities. Currently he heads the United Civil Front organization and criticizes the current Russian government and president.
………………
26-30. Dalai Lama (spiritual leader, Tibet) – 14
A spiritual leader who, according to legend, is the reincarnation of the endless suffering of all Buddhas. Combines the title of king and head of Tibetan Buddhism.

26-30. Steven Spielberg (film director, screenwriter and producer, USA) - 14
Director, producer, screenwriter. At the age of 12, he won an amateur film competition, presenting a 40-minute film about the war, “Escape to Nowhere” (1960).

26-30. Hiroshi Ishiguro (robotician, Japan) – 14
Roboticist. Created a robot guide for the blind. In 2004 presented the most perfect android, similar to a person. Known as one of the creators of the Aktroid, Geminoid, Kodomoroid, Telenoid series of robots.

One of the versions of these robots completely replicates the appearance of the creator himself and replaces him during lectures.

26-30. Robert Edwards (physiologist, UK) - 14
Robert Edwards (Great Britain). In 1977, he was the first in the world to carry out fertilization of human germ cells outside the body and transfer the resulting embryo to the future mother. Louise Brown was born 9 months later
26-30. Seamus Heaney (poet, Ireland) - 14
Each of the poet's books became a bestseller. In 1995 he received the Nobel Prize in Literature

31. Harold Pinter (writer and playwright, UK) - 13
In his performances, the actors use colloquial vocabulary and play tramps and hard workers.
32-39. Flossie Wong-Staal (biotechnologist, China) - 12
Biologist-virologist. She became the first researcher to decipher the structure of the immune deficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS.

32-39. Robert Fischer (chess player, USA) - 12


Bobby Fischer, at age 14, became the youngest US chess champion in the country's history.
…………..
32-39. Prince (singer, USA) - 12 The Western press called the singer the most unsinkable musician in history. For more than 20 years, his songs have enjoyed constant popularity.
32-39. Henryk Górecki (composer, Poland) - 12 Known for his unique style of music, which critics call vitally explosive.
32-39. Noam Chomsky (philosopher and linguist, USA) - 12 Philologist and linguist. His father was a Jew of Ukrainian descent.
32-39. Sebastian Thrun (robotician, Germany) - 12 Created unmanned vehicles that reached speeds of up to 60 km/h.

32-39. Nima Arkani-Hamed (physicist, Canada) - 12th Physicist. He states that our three-dimensional island-universe floats inside the fourth dimension, commensurate with the macrocosm
32-39. Margaret Turnbull (astrobiologist, USA) - 12
Studies the principles of the birth of stars, galaxies and universes.
40-42. Elaine Pagels (historian, USA) - 11 Historian - author of books exploring alternative scriptures rejected by the church. The most famous is the Gnostic Gospels.
40-42. Enrique Ostrea (doctor, Philippines) - 11 Pediatrician and neonatologist. Known for many studies, in particular how drugs and alcohol affect the baby in the womb.
40-42. Gary Becker (economist, USA) – 11
Economist. Advocates investment in human capital
…………………
43-48. Muhammad Ali (boxer, USA) - 10
One of the most famous boxers in the history of the sport. I came up with the tactical scheme “Float like a butterfly and sting like a bee.”

43-48. Osama bin Laden (Islamist, Saudi Arabia) - 10 Leader of the Islamic terrorist organization Al-Qaeda. Terrorist #1 in the world. The reward on his head exceeded $50 million.

43-48. Bill Gates (creator of Microsoft Corporation, USA) - 10 Richest person on Earth.

43-48. Philip Roth (writer, USA) - 10 Received the most prestigious awards in America, including the Pulitzer. His novel The Plot Against America became a bestseller.
43-48. James West (physicist, USA) - 10 Inventor of the electret condenser microphone, which does not require a voltage source.
43-48. Vo Dinh Tuan (biologist and physician, Vietnam) - 10 Invented several diagnostic devices (in particular, an optical scanner) capable of detecting DNA damage.
…………..
49-57. Brian Wilson (musician, USA) - 9
The genius of rock music. He led the Beach Boys until he became addicted to drugs. But he managed to overcome his addiction.
49-57. Stevie Wonder (singer and composer, USA) - 9 Singer and songwriter, blind from birth. At the age of 10 he signed his first music contract, and at 12 he released his debut album.
49-57. Vinton Cerf (Internet protocol developer, USA) - 9 Computer scientist. One of the “fathers” of the Internet.

49-57. Henry Kissinger (diplomat and politician, USA) - 9 Winner of the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for his unquestioned authority in the field of international relations.

49-57. Richard Branson (businessman, UK) - 9 Billionaire, founder of the Virgin corporation. Known for his repeated attempts to break world speed records.
49-57. Pardis Sabeti (geneticist, anthropologist, Iran) - 9 Received a degree in biology with a PhD in anthropology at Oxford. Specializes in genetics.
49-57. John de Mol (media magnate, Netherlands) - 9 Producer, TV magnate. He came up with the idea of ​​​​creating the most popular reality show “Big Brother”.
……………………
49-57. Meryl Streep (actress, USA) - 9


Hollywood calls her the best actress of her generation. She was nominated for an Oscar 12 times and received two gold statuettes.

49-57. Margaret Atwood (writer, Canada) - 9 Invented the LongPen electronic device, which allows her to sign copies of her books without leaving home.
58-66. Placido Domingo (opera singer, Spain) - 8 World famous opera tenor. He is fluent in conducting and piano.
58-66. John Lasseter (animator, USA) is the creative leader of Pixar studio. He is called a solitary artist, and his style is compared to the late Walt Disney.
58-66. Shunpei Yamazaki (computer monitor developer, Japan) - 8 Computer scientist and physicist. The most prolific inventor in history- owner of more 1700 patents!

58-66. Jane Goodall (anthropologist, UK) - 8 Ethologist, primatologist and anthropologist. After living with mountain gorillas for several years, she became the founder of an original method for studying the life of chimpanzees.
58-66. Kirti Narayan Chowdhury (historian, India) - 8 Historian, writer and graphic artist. He is the only historian from South Asia to be accepted into the British Academy.
58-66. John Goto (photographer, UK) - 8 Photographer. He was the first to use Photoshop to process his photographs.
………………..
58-66. Paul McCartney (musician, UK) – 8

Rock musician, singer and composer, one of the founders of The Beatles. Wrote the most commercially successful single Hey Jude and the hit Yesterday.

58-66. Stephen King (writer, USA) - 8 Writer, works in the genres: horror, thriller, fantasy, mysticism. The universally recognized “king of horror.”

58-66. Leonard Cohen (poet and musician, Canada) - 8 Patriarch of folk rock. He published several novels and poetry collections, earning a solid literary name
67-71. Aretha Franklin (singer, USA) - 7 Black singer. She is called the "Queen of Soul". She has released two dozen records and received two Grammy awards.
67-71. David Bowie (musician, UK) - 7 Rock musician, producer, audio engineer, composer, artist, actor. Became famous in the 1970s with the advent of glam rock.
67-71. Emily Oster (economist, USA) - 7 Became the first researcher to compare data on the persecution of witches with weather conditions in the 16th and 17th centuries.

67-71. Stephen Wozniak (computer developer, co-founder of Apple, USA) - 7


Considered one of the fathers of the personal computer revolution.

67-71. Martin Cooper (engineer, inventor cell phone, USA) - 7

In 1973, the first call was made from the streets of New York.
But mobile phones only became truly widespread in 1990 year.

72-82. George Lucas (director, USA) - 6 He directed the television epic "Star Wars". Fans around the world still live by the principles underlying the fictional Jedi philosophy.
72-82. Nile Rodgers (musician, USA) - 6 Elite studio musician. This black guitarist, composer and producer is considered a master of disco-pop.
72-82. Hans Zimmer (composer, Germany) - 6 Known for his music for many films, for example, Rain Man. He was the first to use a combination of orchestral and electronic music.

72-82. John Williams (composer, USA) - 6 Five-time Oscar winner. He wrote music for the films “Jaws”, Superman”, “Jurassic Park”, “Star Wars”, “Harry Potter” and others.
72-82. Annette Beyer (philosopher, New Zealand) - 6 Made significant contributions to the development of feminist philosophy.
72-82. Dorothy Rowe (psychologist, Australia) - 6 Gives an explanation of depression and shows how to get out of this condition: “Take your life into your own hands!”
……………………..
72-82. Ivan Marchuk (artist, sculptor, Ukraine) - 6 Created a unique style of painting - weaving.

72-82. Robin Escovado (composer, USA) - 6 Supporter French school. In recent decades, he wrote music exclusively for the choir chapel.
72-82. Mark Dean (computer developer, USA) - 6 Invented a device that made it possible to control a modem and a printer at the same time.
72-82. Rick Rubin (musician and producer, USA) - 6 Co-owner of Columbia Records. MTV named him the most powerful producer of the last 20 years.
72-82. Stan Lee (writer, publisher, USA) - 6 Publisher and lead writer of Marvel Comics magazine. Laid the beginning of the X-Men comic book series.

83-90. David Warren (engineer, Australia) - 5 Created the world's first emergency operational flight information recorder, the so-called black box for aircraft.
83-90. Jun Fosse (writer, playwright, Norway) - 5 He became famous after writing the play “And We Will Never Separate.”
83-90. Gertrude Schnakenberg (poetess, USA) - 5 Representative of the feminist movement in modern poetry. Writes about universal human values.

83-90. Graham Linehan (writer, playwright, Ireland) - 5 Wrote scripts for many television comedies. Known as the screenwriter of the TV series Father Ted.
83-90. JK Rowling (writer, UK) - 5 Children's writer, author of the Harry Potter novels. They brought her worldwide fame and a fortune of $1 billion.

Scientists, their contribution to the development of biology .

Scientist

His contribution to the development of biology

Hippocrates 470-360 BC

The first scientist to create a medical school. The ancient Greek doctor formulated the doctrine of four main types of physique and temperament, described some skull bones, vertebrae, internal organs, joints, muscles, large vessels.

Aristotle

384-322 BC

One of the founders of biology as a science, he was the first to generalize the biological knowledge accumulated by humanity before him. He created a taxonomy of animals and devoted many works to the origin of life.

Claudius Galen

130-200 AD

Ancient Roman scientist and doctor. Laid the foundations of human anatomy. Physician, surgeon and philosopher. Galen made significant contributions to the understanding of many scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic.

Avicenna 980-1048

An outstanding scientist in the field of medicine. Author of many books and works on oriental medicine.The most famous and influential philosopher-scientist of the medieval Islamic world. From that time, many Arabic terms have been preserved in modern anatomical nomenclature.

Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519

He described many plants, studied the structure of the human body, the activity of the heart, and visual function. He made 800 precise drawings of bones, muscles, and the heart and scientifically described them. His drawings are the first anatomically correct depictions of the human body, its organs, and organ systems from life.

Andreas Vesalius

1514-1564

Founder of descriptive anatomy. He created the work “On the structure of the human body.”

Studying the works and his views on the structure of the human body, Vesalius corrected over 200 errors of the canonized ancient author. He also corrected Aristotle’s mistake that a man has 32 teeth and a woman 38. He classified teeth into incisors, canines and molars. He had to secretly obtain corpses from the cemetery, since at that time the autopsy of a human corpse was prohibited by the church.

William Harvey

1578-1657

Opened the blood circulation.

William HARVEY (1578-1657), English physician, founder modern sciences physiology and embryology. Described the systemic and pulmonary circulation. Thanks to Harvey,
in particular, is that it is he
experimentally proved the existence of a closed
human circulation, in parts
which are arteries and veins, and the heart is
pump. For the first time he expressed the idea that “all living things come from eggs.”

Carl Linnaeus 1707-1778

Linnaeus - creator unified system classification of flora and fauna, in which the knowledge of the entire previous period of development was generalized and largely organized . Among the main achievements of Linnaeus is the introduction of precise terminology when describing biological objects, the introduction into active use , establishing a clear subordination between .

Karl Ernst Baer 1792-1876

Professor of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy. He discovered the egg in mammals, described the blastula stage, studied the embryogenesis of the chicken, established the similarity of the embryos of higher and lower animals, the theory of the sequential appearance in embryogenesis of characters of type, class, order, etc. Studying intrauterine development, established that the embryos of all animals are early stages developments are similar. The founder of embryology, formulated the law of embryonic similarity (established the main types of embryonic development).

Jean Baptiste Lamarck 1744-1829

Biologist who created the first holistic theory of the evolution of the living world.Lamarck coined the term "biology" (1802).Lamarck has two laws of evolution:
1. Vitalism. Living organisms are governed by an internal desire for improvement. Changes in conditions immediately cause changes in habits and through exercise the corresponding organs are changed.
2. Acquired changes are inherited.

Georges Cuvier 1769-1832

Creator of paleontology - the science of fossil animals and plants.Author of the “catastrophe theory”: after catastrophic events that destroyed animals, new species arose, but time passed, and again a catastrophe occurred, leading to the extinction of living organisms, but nature revived life, and those well adapted to new conditions appeared environment species that then died again during a terrible catastrophe.

T. Schwann and M. Schleiden

1818-1882, 1804-1881

C. Darwin

1809-1882

Created the theory of evolution, evolutionary doctrine.Essence evolutionary doctrine consists of the following basic provisions:
All types of living beings inhabiting the Earth were never created by anyone.
Having arisen naturally, organic forms were slowly and gradually transformed and improved in accordance with environmental conditions.
The transformation of species in nature is based on such properties of organisms as heredity and variability, as well as natural selection that constantly occurs in nature. Natural selection occurs through complex interactions of organisms with each other and with factors inanimate nature; Darwin called this relationship the struggle for existence.
The result of evolution is the adaptability of organisms to their living conditions and the diversity of species in nature.

G. Mendel

1822-1884

The founder of genetics as a science.

1 law : Uniformity first generation hybrids. When crossing two homozygous organisms belonging to different pure lines and differing from each other in one pair of alternative manifestations of the trait, the entire first generation of hybrids (F1) will be uniform and will carry the manifestation of the trait of one of the parents.
2nd law : Split signs. When two heterozygous descendants of the first generation are crossed with each other in the second generation, splitting is observed in a certain numerical ratio: by phenotype 3:1, by genotype 1:2:1.
3rd law: Law independent inheritance . When crossing two homozygous individuals that differ from each other in two (or more) pairs of alternative traits, the genes and their corresponding traits are inherited independently of each other and are combined in all possible combinations.

R. Koch 1843-1910

One of the founders of microbiology. In 1882, Koch announced his discovery of the causative agent of tuberculosis, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize and world fame. In 1883, another classic work by Koch was published - on the causative agent of cholera. This outstanding success was achieved by him as a result of studying cholera epidemics in Egypt and India.

D. I. Ivanovsky 1864-1920

Russian plant physiologist and microbiologist, founder of virology. Discovered viruses.

He established the presence of filterable viruses that were the causes of the disease along with microbes visible under a microscope. This gave rise to a new branch of science - virology, which developed rapidly in the 20th century.

I. Mechnikov

1845-1916

Laid the foundations of immunology.Russian biologist and pathologist, one of the founders of comparative pathology, evolutionary embryology and domestic microbiology, immunology, creator of the doctrine of phagocytosis and the theory of immunity, creator of a scientific school, corresponding member (1883), honorary member (1902) of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Together with N.F. Gamaleya, he founded (1886) the first bacteriological station in Russia. Discovered (1882) the phenomenon of phagocytosis. In his works “Immunity in Infectious Diseases” (1901), he outlined the phagocytic theory of immunity. Created a theory of the origin of multicellular organisms.

L. Pasteur 1822-1895

Laid the foundations of immunology.

L. Pasteur is the founder of scientific immunology, although before him the method of preventing smallpox by infecting people with cowpox, developed by the English physician E. Jenner, was known. However, this method has not been extended to the prevention of other diseases.

I. Sechenov

1829-1905

Physiologist. He laid the foundations for the study of higher nervous activity. Sechenov discovered the so-called central braking- special mechanisms in the frog’s brain that suppress or depress reflexes. This was a completely new phenomenon, which was called “Sechenov braking.”The phenomenon of inhibition discovered by Sechenov made it possible to establish that all nervous activity consists of the interaction of two processes - excitation and inhibition.

I. Pavlov 1849-1936

Physiologist. He laid the foundations for the study of higher nervous activity. Created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes.Further, the ideas of I.M. Sechenov were developed in the works of I.P. Pavlov, who opened the way for objective experimental research of the functions of the cortex, developed a method for developing conditioned reflexes and created the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Pavlov in his works introduced the division of reflexes into unconditioned, which are carried out by innate, hereditarily fixed nerve pathways, and conditioned, which, according to Pavlov’s views, are carried out through nerve connections formed in the process of individual life of a person or animal.

Hugode Frieze

1848–1935

Created the mutation theory.Hugo de Vries (1848–1935) - Dutch botanist and geneticist, one of the founders of the doctrine of variability and evolution, conducted the first systematic studies of the mutation process. He studied the phenomenon of plasmolysis (the contraction of cells in a solution whose concentration is higher than the concentration of their contents) and eventually developed a method for determining the osmotic pressure in a cell. Introduced the concept of “isotonic solution”.

T. Morgan 1866-1943

Created the chromosomal theory of heredity.

The main object with which T. Morgan and his students worked was the fruit fly Drosophila, which has a diploid set of 8 chromosomes. Experiments have shown that genes located on the same chromosome during meiosis end up in one gamete, i.e., they are inherited linked. This phenomenon is called Morgan's law. It was also shown that each gene on the chromosome has a strictly defined location - a locus.

V. I. Vernadsky

1863-1945

Founded the doctrine of the biosphere.Vernadsky's ideas played an outstanding role in the formation of the modern scientific picture of the world. The center of his natural science and philosophical interests is the development of a holistic doctrine of the biosphere, living matter (organizing the earth's shell) and the evolution of the biosphere into the noosphere, in which the human mind and activity, scientific thought become the determining factor of development, a powerful force comparable in its impact on nature with geological processes. Vernadsky's teaching on the relationship between nature and society had a strong influence on the formation of modern environmental consciousness. 1884-1963

Developed a doctrine of the factors of evolution.He authored numerous works on questions of evolutionary morphology, on the study of patterns of animal growth, on questions about the factors and patterns of the evolutionary process. A number of works are devoted to the history of development and comparative anatomy. He proposed his theory of the growth of animal organisms, which is based on the idea of ​​an inverse relationship between the rate of growth of an organism and the rate of its differentiation. In a number of studies he developed the theory of stabilizing selection as an essential factor in evolution. Since 1948 he has been studying the question of the origin of terrestrial vertebrates.

J. Watson (1928) and F. Crick (1916-2004)

1953 The structure of DNA has been determined.James Dewey Watson - American molecular biologist, geneticist and zoologist; He is best known for his participation in the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953. Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

After successfully graduating from the University of Chicago and Indiana University, Watson spent some time conducting chemistry research with biochemist Herman Kalkar in Copenhagen. He later moved to the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, where he first met his future colleague and comrade Francis Crick.

Before the idea double helix Watson and Crick came up with DNA in mid-March 1953, while studying collected and Maurice Wilkins experimental data. The discovery was announced by Sir Lawrence Bragg, director of the Cavendish Laboratory.