The basic principles of spelling, taking into account which the rules for writing words are formulated, are morphological-phonemic, phonetic, traditional and the principle of differentiated writing. Writing words that do not have spelling patterns, for example, house, floor, hold, does not correspond to any spelling principle.
The morphological-phonemic principle lies in the uniform writing of identical morphemes, regardless of their pronunciation options.
Morphological principle allows you to maintain the unity of the same morphemes in writing. This is achieved due to the fact that the letter is not reflected positional alternations vowels and consonants. Uniform spelling is established according to the pattern of writing a morpheme in a strong position. So, for example, the sound [e] in the root morpheme -les- can have pronunciation variants [and e] in the word forest and [b] in the word forester. However, for writing, the option in the strong position [e] is chosen. Based on the morphophonematic principle, not only roots are written, but also many suffixes, prefixes and endings, the spelling of which is also checked by the strong position of this vowel or consonant sound in the same morpheme. For example, the prefix ot- is always written with a vowel o and a consonant t, regardless of the pronunciation options: finishing [addelkъ], clear [ach'ys't'it'], because the choice of writing the prefix is based on the strong position of the sounds in this prefix: vacation, have dinner. The prefixes over-, under- and some others are written in the same way. The suffixes of nouns -ost, -izn, -av, -ar, etc. are written in the same way (in the word ruk-av-itsa, as in the word pyκ-aβ∖ in the word tok-ar, as in the word vrat-ar). Unstressed case endings can be verified by the strong position of the endings of other words, but of the same type of declension: book - hand, oak - table (book, hand - 1st cl.; oak, table - 2nd cl.). The following spelling rules are based on the morphological-phonemic principle:
1. Spelling of unstressed vowels, checked by stress: breeze - wind.
2. Spelling of unpronounceable consonants: star - star.
3. Spelling of voiced and voiceless consonants at the end of a word: oak - oaks.
4. Spelling of prefixes: o-, ob-, from-, on-, over-, on-, under-: give - vacation.
5. Spelling of suffixes: -ov-, -a-, -ya-, etc.: detained - detain.
6. Spelling case endings: lakes - buckets.
7. Spelling a soft sign after consonants inside a word: take - I'll take, casually - I'll slide.
In the Russian language there is assimilative softness, which is not indicated in writing (guest), and independent softness
(eighth), denoted ь. To distinguish an independent soft sound from an assimitative softened one, you need to change the word so that the sound being tested comes before hard sound. If the independent softness of the sound is preserved, then it is indicated in writing by the letter ь.
Initially Russian letter was mainly phonetic. The vowel sounds of the complete formation o, a, etc. did not change during pronunciation; akanye appeared only in the 12th - 13th centuries. Consonant sounds were not deafened or voiced, since their pronunciation was supported by special vowels of incomplete formation ь and ъ. So, for example, in the Old Russian language it was impossible to stun sonorous sounds in the words shop, mug, since the sounds [v] and [zh] were followed by vowel sounds of incomplete formation: shop, mug. The fall of the reduced, the development of akanya, the processes of assimilation and dissimilation changed the pronunciation of words, but the spelling of morphemes in words remained in accordance with the morphological principle. The historical consolidation of the morphological principle occurred because it made it possible to see related words. The kinship of the words forester - forest - forester, fairy tale - storyteller, etc. becomes more important in our minds than pronunciation differences. Thus, the morphological principle appears as a consequence of the awareness of the relatedness of certain roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings. We write words depending on our understanding of their composition. The morpheme remains an unchangeable meaningful unit in consciousness. Hence the desire not to change its spelling. When choosing a graphic representation of a phoneme in a morpheme, two tendencies collide - to preserve the spelling of the morpheme or to designate the sound in accordance with the pronunciation. If the first tendency wins, morphological writing develops, and if the second tendency wins, phonetic writing develops.
Deviations from the morphological principle of writing significant parts of a word are observed when the same morpheme is written differently in different positions. Such deviations are observed: 1) in the spelling of prefixes with -з, -с (take a nap, but cry; tasteless, but useless)", 2) in the spelling of prefixes roz-/-s - raz-/s (splurge, but fall apart; painting , but write it down)", 3) in the spelling of endings of adjectives, participles, pronouns and ordinal numbers in im.p. units (sixth, but fifth; such, but that, etc.); 4) in endings after hissing ones (a cock, but a nut; a candle, but a cloud; fresh, but clumsy); 5) in the absence of double consonants in some derivative words (crystal, but crystal; column, but column); 6) in some roots, where a/o or i/e alternates
(dawn, but to dawn; I will gather, but to collect, etc.), 7) in roots, with alternating consonants (leg, foot; light, lighting, etc.); 8) in the roots, where after Russian prefixes the initial and turns into ы (play along, before June).
The phonetic principle is to reflect in writing the alternation of phonemes in weak and strong positions. With this type of writing, the letter corresponds to the pronunciation (it is written as it is heard). Thus, the same morpheme has different spellings depending on its pronunciation. There are few spellings that correspond to the phonetic principle in Russian spelling. According to the phonetic principle, the following are written: 1) prefixes starting with 3-∕c-∙. without-/bes-, who-/voe-, up-/all-, from-/is-, bottom-/nis-, once-/ras-, rose-/ros-, through-/through~: chosen - fulfilled, overthrow
Fall down, extraordinary - striped", 2) spelling of the prefixes roz-/ros- - raz-/ras-", distribute - distributed, schedule
Receipts - painting", 3) spelling ы instead of and in the roots after Russian prefixes: unprincipled, refined, artless,
4) spelling ы after c in the suffix -yn: sinitsyn, sisters (but: dad, mom, Svetin), in words: tsyts, gypsy, chicks",
5) writing the letter o under stress after sibilants in suffixes and endings of nouns, adjectives and adverbs: river, pebble, strap, cloak, fresh, hot, cherry plum, canvas (but: pebble, calico, plush; 6) writing individual letters in some roots: ladder (climb, climb), nostril (nose, nasal), wedding (matchmaker, matchmaker), in these words assimilation due to deafness was fixed in writing.
The traditional historical principle of spelling is the writing of words in accordance with established traditions. Phonemes in weak positions are designated by one of the possible options.
The traditional principle includes: 1) writing alternating roots: expound - expound, swimmers
Swim, etc., 2) writing a soft sign after the hissing ones: daughter, supine, just, read, smear, etc.; 3) spelling of the vowel in the suffixes -insk-/-ensk-: Sochi, Baku, but: Penza, Frunze; 4) writing paired sounds in terms of sonority/voicelessness that are not verified by a strong position: station, football, baking, asbestos; 5) writing vocabulary words: railings, vinaigrette, accompaniment, etc.; 6) writing the ending -ого instead of the pronounced -ova in adjectives, participles, ordinal numbers and some pronouns: large, read, second, which. If the spelling of dictionary words just needs to be remembered or clarified in the dictionary, then the spelling of alternating roots and the spelling of a soft sign after sibilants is regulated by a system of rules. Soft sign after sizzling
written with nouns female 3rd declension (night, daughter), for verbs in the infinitive, in the 2nd person singular. h. and in the imperative mood mi. h. (burn, bake, read, pour, cut, smear), as well as in adverbs, except really, married, unbearable, backwards, backhand, and particles (only, I mean). Nouns male, nouns in plural genitive case. hours and short adjectives are written without a soft sign (brick, many clouds, good, burning). There are few alternating roots in the Russian language, but the rules for writing them are heterogeneous in nature, which creates difficulties in spelling such roots.
Spelling of alternating roots
| Alternating | Writing rules | Exceptions |
| Alternation fundamentally depends on the place of stress in the roots | ||
| zar-/zor- | dawn - dawn | dawn, dawn |
| rap-∕rop- creature-/creative clan-/clone- | In the unstressed position O: burnt - burning, to do something - a creature, to tilt - bow | burnt, soot, burnt utensils |
| Alternation is fundamentally dependent on the last consonants of the root | ||
| lag-/false- | A before G, O before?K: to expound - to expound | canopy |
| jump-/jump- | A before K, O before H: gallop - I’ll pass | jump, jump |
| grow"/rasch-/ | And before ST, Ш; O in other cases: overgrow, grow, overgrown | teenager, Rostislav, moneylender, Rostok, Rostov, industry |
| Alternation fundamentally depends on the meaning of the roots | ||
| swim-/swim- | O is in the roots of words denoting people: swimmer, swimmers, swimmer. And in other cases: float, swimming | quicksand |
Table continuation
| equal-/equal- | Equal - in the meaning “equal, identical”: compare, equality. Rovn - meaning “flat, smooth”: to straighten paths, level beds | level plain, level, alignment |
| poppy/mok- | Poppy - meaning “to dip into liquid”: to dip into water. Mok - meaning “to absorb moisture, to get wet”: waterproof, blotter | |
| Alternations fundamentally depend on the suffix -a- | ||
| κac-∕κoc- | And in the root, if there is a suffix -a-: touch - touch | |
| bir-/ber- blist-/blest- dir-/hold-zhig-/zheg- world-/mer- pir-/pers-steel-/steel- tier-/ter- chnt-/even- | And in the root it is written, if there is a suffix -a-: to remove - I will remove, damn become - shine, run away - I'll run away, light - lit, die - died, lock - locked, spread - spread, wipe - wiped, | combine, combination, count |
There are also other varieties of the traditional writing principle in the Russian language. Thus, the alternation of a/o can be fundamentally associated with the formation of aspect pairs in verbs with suffixes -ыва-/-iva-: in the roots of imperfective verbs it is written a, in the roots of perfective verbs - o: throw away - throw away, flood - flood , abandon - abandon, touch - touch, be late
Be late, keep an eye on - keep an eye on, etc.
Differentiated spellings, unlike other principles, do not regulate spelling, but explain spelling different letters in similar sounding words: shafts - oxen, campaign
Company, compliment - compliment, genie - genie. With the help of differentiated spellings, the lexical and grammatical meaning of words is distinguished. Should not be considered as
differentiated writing - those cases where the letter distinguishing homophones is easily verified by a strong position, for example: rarefy - rare and discharge - charge; interspersed - alternating, interspersed and interspersed - stirring, stirring.
Means that differentiate lexical and grammatical meaning. 1) letters: burn (noun) - burn (verb), carcass (short greeting piece of music, m.r.) - ink (paint, f.r.); 2) capital or small letters: Eagle (city) - eagle (bird), Roman (name), novel (literary genre); 3) continuous, semi-continuous and separate writing: about you (preposition), to the bank account (preposition and noun), despite your age (preposition), despite looking in the book (particle and gerund); 4) stress: cities (m. h., im. p.), cities (singular h., r. p.) when (in an unstressed position - a conjunction, in a stressed position - an adverb. (Wed: I don’t know, when it's needed. I'll come when it appears. free time), that (in an unstressed position - a conjunction, in a stressed position - a pronoun); 5) quotation marks: language (means of communication), with language "(captured enemy), Maxim Gorky (Russian writer), motor ship "Maxim Gorky".
Integrated, semi-continuous and separate spellings are determined by special principles: lexical-morphological (the spelling depends on the part of the speech: despite youth and despite looking out the window); lexical-syntactic (different spellings of phrases and words: fast-flowing days and fast-flowing streams from the mountains); and word-formation-grammatical (the spelling depends on the formal word-formation indicator: complex words with the first part in -iko are written in succession with a hyphen, words with a connecting vowel are written together: chemical-technological, dried fruits.
A branch of linguistics that studies the system of rules for the uniform spelling of words and their forms, as well as these rules themselves. The central concept spelling is spelling.
A spelling is a spelling regulated by a spelling rule or established in a dictionary order, i.e., a spelling of a word that is selected from a number of possible spellings from the point of view of the laws of graphics.
Spelling consists of several sections:
1) writing significant parts of a word ( morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, the designation by letters of the sound composition of words where this is not determined by graphics;
2) continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings;
3) use of uppercase and lowercase letters;
4) transfer rules;
5) rules for graphic abbreviations of words.
Spelling of morphemes (significant parts of the word) is regulated in the Russian language by three principles of Russian spelling - traditional, phonetic, morphological (phonemic, morphematic).
Traditional the principle governs the writing of unverifiable vowels and consonants ( from tank, apteka), roots with alternations ( add up - add up), differentiating spellings ( ozho g - ozho g).
Phonetic The principle of spelling is that in individual groups of morphemes the actual pronunciation can be reflected in writing, i.e. positional changes sounds. In Russian spelling, this principle is implemented in three spelling rules - the spelling of prefixes ending in salary (once to beat - to drink once), spelling of the vowel in the prefix roses/times/ros/ras (ra list - painting) and spelling of roots starting with And, after prefixes ending in a consonant ( and history - previous history).
Morphological (phonemic, morphematic) the principle is leading and governs more than 90% of all spellings. Its essence is that phonetically positional changes - reduction of vowels, deafening, voicing, softening of consonants - are not reflected in the letter. In this case, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants as in a strong position, for example, in a position before a vowel. In different sources, this basic principle may have different names - phonemic, morphematic, morphological.
There are many spelling rules associated with writing roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings. But the main, guiding principle is one. Let's look at examples.
Why in the word water is the root written o, and in the word grass - a?
Why are there different endings in the noun: from the village and to the village?
Why should you write oak, but soup? After all, the same sound [p] is heard.
Why is sad written with the letter t, but delicious is written without it?
It seems there are different spelling rules here, however, they can be combined on the basis of the guiding principle of spelling, which requires that the writer:
1) did not trust his ears and did not write as he heard;
2) checked doubtful spellings;
3) remembered that verification is possible only in the same morpheme (root, ending, etc.);
4) knew how to choose the right test word.
The main thing is to know the strong positions: for vowels - this is the position under stress, and for consonants - before vowels and before l, m, n, r, v.
Keeping this in mind, you can easily check all the above examples: water - water, grass - grass, from the village - from the river, to the village - to the river, oak - oaks, soup - soups, sad - sad, tasty - tasty.
You can also check the spelling of suffixes and prefixes. What letter (e, i, i) is written in the suffix of the word feather? The word feathery means “consisting of feathers”, “feather-like”. The same suffix is in the words: stony, radiant, granular. Therefore, you need to write the letter and - feathery. Fake or phony? We check: pine, spruce.
It's the same with consoles. Why is the prefix written through A, and a through O? They say you need to remember that there are no prefixes zo- and pa- (by the way, there is a prefix pa- - stepson, flood, pipe). Let's try to check: dark, dark - under the accent a; train, funeral, handwriting - under the emphasis of Fr. The prefix s- in the words make, reset, rot sounds like z, but if you put it in a strong position, it becomes clear that there is no prefix z- in the Russian language: break, cut, rip, tie.
Thus, all rules have the same basis. They determine the leading principle of Russian spelling. This principle, when the sound is checked by a strong position, is called morphological. This principle is the most convenient for Russian writing.
1. Check the unstressed vowel with stress:
yes lky - dl, to full - dl, le s - ls.
2. Check a doubtful consonant (paired in deafness / voicedness) by substituting a vowel or l, m, n, r, v: oak -Oak trees
If you hear a pair of sounds,
Be careful my friend
Double check immediately
Feel free to change the word:
Tooth to tooth, ice to ice.
You too will be literate!
3. Check an unpronounceable consonant by substituting a vowel: late - be late .
Not wonderful, not wonderful,
It's terrible and dangerous
There is no point in writing the letter T!
Everyone knows how lovely it is
It is appropriate to write the letter T!
Exceptions: feel (but participate), holiday, happy, neighborhood, staircase (but ladder), clearly (but viands), regale (but handwriting), peer (but peer), glass (but bottle), sparkle (but shine), splash (but splash), eyelashes, assistant.
CONCLUSION THREE: in order to consciously apply the morphological principle of spelling, it is necessary to have an idea of grammatical meaning both the word as a whole and its individual parts in particular.
The morphological principle of Russian orthography is so logical and generally consistent that there are practically no exceptions. ( It is estimated that in texts in Russian, 96% of spellings meet this principle.) One can easily imagine what a storm of indignation this categorical statement will cause among diligent readers of grammar reference books, where almost every rule is accompanied by a long list of notes and exceptions, bashfully compressed into small petite lines.
However, most of these seemingly anomalous spellings are by no means exceptions. They were born as a result of certain restrictions and violations of the morphological principle, which, in turn, also have their own historical pattern and are subject to the logic of the centuries-old development of the very system of our language.
Let's compare two well-known verbs - to get angry and to quarrel. It is easy to notice that both of them are written through a double C, although such a spelling corresponds to the morphological composition of the word only in the first case (prefix ras + quarrel), and in the second (prefix ras + quarrel) - the word, according to the morphological principle, should I would write with a triple C: ra sss orate. However, the absence of such a form is well explained. The fact is that in the Russian language “there are only two degrees of consonant length: consonants can be either long (which is conveyed in writing by writing two letters, cf. Kassa), or short (which is conveyed by writing one letter, cf. Kosa). The third there is no degree of length of consonants, so writing three identical consonants is phonetically meaningless" [Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling. M., 1976. S. 168-169].
Thus, it turns out that writing only two consonants at the junction of morphemes, although morphologically there should be three such consonants (bath - but bathroom, although the adjective suffix -n- is attached to the root of baths), or one consonant, when according to the morphological principle there should be be written two (crystal - but crystal, Finn - but Finnish, finka, column - but column, manna - but semolina, uniform - but formenka, operetta - but operetta, ton - but five-tonka, antenna - but antenna man), is explained by the action historically established phonetic patterns of the Russian language.
Now it becomes clear the spelling of adjectives such as Nice, Cherepovets, German, which, at first glance, conflicts with the spelling of Konstanz, which was mentioned above.
In fact: by adding the suffix -sk- to the base, according to the morphological principle, we would expect to see the form Nice. However, such a form would reflect the third degree of longitude of consonants, which is absent in the Russian language. Our spelling was free to choose from two options (Niztsky or Nitssky), equally violating the morphological principle for the sake of phonetic regularity. The reasonableness of preferring the first of the possible options is obvious: it at least preserves the spelling of the generating stem of a word, especially a foreign word, intact.
We must not forget that spelling norms developed gradually, preserving the heritage of the past, and therefore they cannot but reflect the linguistic state of previous eras. It is safe to say that the remaining 4% of “anomalous” spellings that do not fall within the scope of the morphological principle of spelling did not arise spontaneously, but under the influence of certain phonetic traditions that have developed over the long centuries of the existence of our language.
On the pages of various manuals, textbooks and grammars, the same spelling patterns are often interpreted differently (for example, spellings in root morphemes with alternating vowels like -zor- -zar- are considered by some authors to be subject to the phonetic principle of spelling, while others consider them to be a consequence of the traditional principle ). However, since you and I are in this moment We are concerned not so much with scholastic as with practical problems, let’s forget about terminological accuracy and ask a more specific question: “What, exactly, are these phonetic traditions and what trace did they leave in Russian orthography?”
Spelling of roots is included in the Unified State Examination in the Russian language for grade 11 (task 8).
Algorithm for checking the spelling of roots
- Check if the root is alternating. If it is, check according to the rule.
- If the root is not alternating, try to find a test word. If a test word is found, the letter is tested.
- If the test word was not found, the letter is untestable.
Spelling of alternating roots
The spelling of alternating roots can depend on many factors: stress, the presence of a suffix, the meaning of the word, etc.
Alternating vowels O and A in the root
| Alternating roots | Rule | Examples | Exceptions |
|---|---|---|---|
| -GOR-/-GAR- | Without accent always -GOR- | G O howl | Vyg A rivers Prig A ry |
| -ZOR-/-ZAR- | Without accent always -ZAR- | Z A rya | Z O roar Zoryanka |
| -CLONE-/-CLAN- | Without accent always -CLONE- | Knuckle O a thread | - |
| -TVOR-/-TVAR- | Always without emphasis -TVOR- | TV O rhenium | Approved A ry |
| -PLOV-/-PLAV- | Without accent always -PLAV- | Pople A wok | Pl O vec Pl O sneeze Pl O vtsy |
| -KOS-/-KAS- | If after the root there is a suffix -A-, then -KAS- | TO O dream TO A With A tion |
|
| -EVEN-/-EVEN- | If the word means “even, smooth”, then -EVEN- If the word means “equal, identical”, then -EQUAL- |
Ur A opinion Subdr. O heed |
R A vnina Por O vnu Ur O ven R A get into the ranks |
| -MOK-/-MAK- | If the word means “wet, absorbed liquid”, then -MOK- If the word means “still dry, immerse in liquid”, then -MAK- |
Exchange A whip You m O whip |
Prom O rolling paper |
| -ROS-/-RAST-/-RASH- | The root -ROS- letter O In the roots -RAST-, -RASH- the letter A |
R A wailing Vyr A whelped Vyr O if |
R O drain R O stov R O stislav R O stockman P O teenage Negative A with On the rise O st |
| -LOG-/-LAG- | At the root -LOZH- the letter O At the root -LAG is the letter A |
Floor A go away Floor O live |
Floor O G |
| -SKOCH-/-SKACK- | The root -SKOCH- is the letter O At the root -SKAK- the letter A |
Sk A roll Sun O read |
Sk A choke Sk A chu Sk A chi |
Alternating vowels E and I in the root
The alternation of vowels E and I in roots depends on the presence of the suffix -A- after the root: if there is a suffix, then I is written, otherwise E is written.
| Alternating roots | Rule | Examples | Exceptions |
|---|---|---|---|
| -BER-/-BIR- | Ub e RU Ub And R A t |
||
| -PER-/-PIR- |
If after the root there is a suffix -A-, then the root contains I |
Zap e R Zap And R A t |
|
| -DER-/-DIR- |
If after the root there is a suffix -A-, then the root contains I |
Vyd e ripped Vyd And R A t |
|
| -TER-/-TYR- |
If after the root there is a suffix -A-, then the root contains I |
You are t e R You are t And R A t |
|
| -MER-/-WORLD- |
If after the root there is a suffix -A-, then the root contains I Not to be confused with the word put up, the vowel of which is verifiable (peace). |
Deputy e R Deputy And R A t |
|
| -STEL-/-STEEL- |
If after the root there is a suffix -A-, then the root contains I |
St e pour Dist And l A t |
|
| -SHINE-/-BLIST- |
If after the root there is a suffix -A-, then the root contains I |
Bl e weave Bl And st A t |
|
| -THE-/-CHIT- |
If after the root there is a suffix -A-, then the root contains I |
Calculation e T Calculation And T A t |
Op. e thief Op. e tanning |
| -BURN-/-ZIG- |
If after the root there is a suffix -A-, then the root contains I |
Vyzh e G Vyzh And G A t |
Spelling of checked vowels/consonants in the root
If a vowel or consonant is a verifiable letter in the root, then there is a word with the same root in which the vowel is under stress and the consonant is before the vowel.
- Sche...matic – test word schema => schematic
- To cheer up - the test word is cheerfulness => to cheer up
- Happy – test word happiness => happy
- Fragile - test word frail => fragile
- Ice hole - test word cut through => ice hole
- Dangerous – test word dangerous => dangerous
Spelling of unchecked vowels/consonants in the root
Unverifiable vowels and root consonants should be checked in a dictionary and memorized the correct spelling.
§4. Use of letters e and e. Spelling.At the beginning of words, the letters e and e are written in accordance with the pronunciation, for example: export (cf.: huntsman), ellipse (cf.: heresy), echo (cf.: Eve), this (cf.: eats).
After and, as well as after consonants, the letter e is written, for example: hygiene, diet, muffler, stand.
Exceptions: foreign words mayor, sir, peer and some proper names (Ulan-Ude).
After other vowels, e is often written, for example: poetry, silhouette, maestro. The letter e is used in certain words, for example: project, registry.
№1
Rewrite. Read these words correctly.
Make up a sketch..mu, colors sp..ktra, ..gersky costume, ancient..pos, great..poha, wide...screen movie, funny..pizod, di...tic dining room, personal hygiene..on, lie under t..ntom, latest mod..l, long tunnel..l, enemy..squad, wonderful highway.., mashed potatoes.., hot coffee.., new t..ma, dangerous incident...nt, slow. .volition, experienced tr..n..r, swimming pool..in, local history music..y, replace piece..ps..l, dark force..t, sew a coat in at..lie, art.. nd with books.
№2
Read the examples and indicate: a) verifiable morphological spellings of prefixes and roots; b) unverifiable morphological (traditional) spellings of roots; c) spellings of prefixes and roots that deviate from the morphological principle.
Planted, ran, low, river, steppe, confess, gatehouse, dog, ram, asbestos, apparatus, station, stick up, break, exclaim, painting, receipt, tan, tanned, tangent, touch, request.
Untalented, helpless, smell, clayey, patronage, cabin, crimson, jump, bend, slippery, asphalt, grow, thicket, collect, collect, corridor, gallery, collective.
№3
Rewrite. Explain what the separate or combined spelling of words is based on.
Shelter from the rain under (the) weight, value (the) weight in gold; rush (into) the distance, peer (into) the distance of the steppe; advance (into) the depths of the desert, retreat (into) the depths; return home (during) time, get sick (during) vacation; enter (in) a dense mass of clouds, approach (in) a dense mass of clouds; pour coffee (into) a hand mill, process parts (in) manually.
№4
Rewrite. Explain the rationale behind the use of capital letters.
Watch the (N, s)northern night on the coast of the (N, s)northern sea; cross
(K, k) Caucasian mountains, lush (K, k) Caucasian vegetation; send spaceship from (3, h) earth to its satellite - (L, l) una, admire the light of (L, l) una; fight for peace on
(3, h) earth; go down the marble (D, d) palace stairs, visit St. Petersburg on (D, d) Skvortsovaya Square; sell (K,k)tanned goods, live in (K,k)tanned lane.
The exploits of the (I, m)lya (M, f) Uromets, the fearlessness of the Gorky (S, s) circle, aphorisms
(K,k)ozmy (P,p)rutkova, nobility of the (Ch,h)atskys, good-heartedness of the (M,m)anilovs, high-society (L,l)ovelas, take on the role of (M,m)mentor, the whims of ( M, m) philanthropists.
§ 5. Use of capital letters
Written with a capital letter:
a) first names, patronymics, surnames of people, their nicknames, pseudonyms, for example: Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov, Dmitry Donskoy, Prince Vladimir Krasnoe Solnyshko, Ilya Ilf (pseudonym), as well as animal names: the horse Kholstomer, the cat Murka;
b) geographical and administrative names, for example: the Pacific Ocean, Lake Baikal, the Danube River, the Himalayan Mountains, Ukraine, the United States of America, the city of Kyiv, Matrosova Street;
c) names of periodicals, literary works, factories, etc. (and these names are enclosed in quotation marks), for example: the newspaper “Priazovsky Rabochiy”, the magazine “Focus”, the poem “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, the Azovstal plant, the publishing house “Prosveshcheniye” .
The use of capital letters in the names of institutions and organizations, in the names of holidays and significant dates, in the names of orders and honorary titles is based on the following rules.
Written with a capital letter:
a) all words, except official ones, in the names of the highest state legislative and governmental institutions, for example: the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, the Supreme Court of Ukraine, the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, the Red Cross and Red Crescent Society; also: Constitution (Basic Law) of Ukraine;
b) all words, except for the words order and degree, in the full names of orders, for example: Order of Kutuzov, Order of Glory III degree (but: order Patriotic War I degree)",
Note. If the name of the insignia is enclosed in quotation marks, then only the first word and the proper names included in the name are written in capital letters, for example: medal “For military service Ukraine", Order of Merit;
c) all words in the names of senior positions and honorary titles in Ukraine, for example: President of Ukraine, Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, Hero of Ukraine;
Note. The names of other positions and honorary titles are written with lowercase letter, for example: minister, honored worker of science, people's artist of Ukraine, laureate of the Shevchenko Prize, etc.
d) the first two words in the names of two historical events: The Great Patriotic War.
The first word is written with a capital letter:
a) in the names of holidays and significant dates, major historical events, for example: Knowledge Day, International Women's Day, Paris Commune, Civil War, The Second World War;
b) in the names of institutions (except for those indicated above in paragraph 1 “a”), educational institutions, industrial and other enterprises and organizations, for example: Ministry of Finance of Ukraine, Kiev-Mohyla Academy, Tretyakov Gallery, House of Journalists.
§ 6. Use of ь to indicate the softness of consonants in writing
At the end of a word, the letter ь is written after any soft consonant, except for hissing ones, for example: horse (cf.: horse), frost (cf.: frost), lantern (cf.: blow).
In the middle of the word the letter ь is written:
a) after a soft l, standing before any vowel (hard or soft), for example: sick, herring, flatter, boy, sawyer;
b) after a soft consonant standing before a hard consonant, for example: Kuzma, less, struggle;
c) between two soft consonants only if, when the word changes, the second consonant becomes hard, and the first remains soft (cf. “b”), for example: in request (request), Kuzmich (Kuzma), and struggle (struggle).
The letter ь is not written inside the combinations chk, chn, nch, nshch, rshch, rch: river, river, nurse, mason, lamplighter, spoiled.
The letter ь is not written between two soft l: illusion.
№5
Rewrite. Explain why you did or did not put b in place of the dots.
A rather boring time was approaching; It was November... already outside the yard. Nyan..ka Var..ka, a girl...about thirteen years old, rocks the cradle... He spends his time nannying little kids. I have a question for you: repeat your story to this young man, whom you can simply call Sanya. The rain... came in gusts, turning into showers... then into drizzle... Frost... - frost-like snow-like sediment. The guests are laughing and the glasses are chatting. As a reward for anyone, you will take a horse. On the table lay a map of the Volga, all covered with blue and red icons. Here the smallest shack is decorated with the most ingenious carvings. Do not refuse me my request..be. She sat down at her desk. The next day.. I saw Zinaida only with a piece of chalk.. The racers started early in the morning. I don’t tolerate servility, don’t lie, don’t humiliate yourself!
§ 7. Use of ь to denote grammatical forms
In some cases, the letter ь serves to indicate the grammatical form of words.
Use after sizzling
After hissing ь it is used:
a) in feminine nouns singular, for example: speech, silence, rye (cf. masculine noun: ball, hut, watchman)",
b) in the imperative mood of verbs: appoint, cut, eat, appoint, cut,
c) in indefinite form verbs: take care, cut, take care, cut your hair;
d) in the 2nd person singular of verbs of the present and future tense, for example: you carry, you carry, you throw, you rush, you rush, you fiddle;
e) in adverbs (except for unbearable, already, married), for example: unbearable, completely;
e) in particles you see, you know, only, you see.
Note. In the middle of a word ь is sometimes used as separator, for example: rye.
Use ь in some case and verb forms
The letter ь is used: a) in the instrumental case of the plural of some nouns and numerals (for example: children, people, four), as well as in other cases of the numeral eight: eight (gen., dat., prepositional fall.), eight and eight (creative fall);
b) in an indefinite form: to carry - to tinker, to shave - to shave;
c) in the imperative mood: prepare, prepare, get ready.
№6 Change the given words according to the examples. Rewrite. Place it where necessary.
Nights - night, breams, wastelands, alkalis, bricks, trumpeters, little things, drawings, dugouts, things, reeds, swords, speeches.
They glue - you glue, they saw, they blow, they burn, they lay, they melt; they fight, whisper, hope, line up, splash, worry, practice.
№7
In these phrases, replace imperfective verbs in the imperative mood with perfective verbs in the same mood.
Get ready to hike - get ready to hike; set a meeting, throw a ball, meet you at the station, get up on time, correct mistakes, notify you of your arrival, be comforted as soon as possible, do not be offended by a remark, take textbooks, do not forget about consultation, sit at the table, cut bread, lie down to rest.
§ 8. Spelling of unstressed vowels of the root word
In accordance with the morphological principle of Russian spelling, unstressed vowels of the root are written as they are pronounced under stress. Consequently, to check the spelling of unstressed vowels, you need to change the word or select a related word where the root vowel being tested is under stress, for example: reduce - reduces, reconciliation - peace, measurement - measure, unification - united.
The spelling of an unstressed vowel cannot, however, be checked using imperfective verbs with the suffixes -yat, -iv, since in these verbs there is often a instead of the root o. For example, the word throw away should be checked with the word throw away, not throw away.
The spelling of many words with unstressed vowels cannot be checked by stress: dog, ham, vinaigrette, carriage, etc. The spelling of such words should be memorized, and it is enough to know the spelling of one word in order to correctly write the roots in related words: carriage, carriage, trolley, carriage driver; boot, boot, shoemaker, cobbler, shoemaker.
In a number of cases, there is an alternation of vowels in the roots, the replacement of one vowel with another: collect - collect, sunbathe - tan, etc.
The spelling of roots with alternating vowels will be discussed below.
№8
Make up phrases with these words. Indicate how you can check the spelling of highlighted vowels.
Develop - flutter, caress - rinse, enlightenment - dedication, valley - distant, diminish - beg, fade - see, reconciliation - measurement, prick - heat up.
№9
Read it. Rewrite, indicating next to each word in which letters are missing, a test; indicate the emphasis.
Measure the area, settle the quarreling guys, thin the carrots in the garden, load the gun, pile firewood, pour iron, weed the ridge, pour the goose, to dedicate a lantern, to dedicate a poem to a friend, to go down into the depths, to be in the distance, to ask for help, to praise someone’s merits, to close successes, to close. .sing with your teeth in pain, pay off your debt, rally...together in the name of a common cause. To be a housekeeper (i.e. to live in a certain area for a long time), to build a vegetable garden, to wear fast collars, fast horses, to meet mowing deadlines, to pay money on a bill , kill cows, cover up a grudge.
№10
For each phrase with an imperfect verb, select the same phrase with a perfect verb and rewrite it.
Ask (what to do?) a question - ask (what to do?) a question. Realize guilt - ... . Dressing up my younger brother - ... . Put on a suit - ... . Sing ditties loudly - ... . Swallow down the medicine with water - ... . Warm up the kettle - ... . To defeat the enemy - ... . Publish books - ... . Create an abundance of products - ... . Recognize merit - ... . Get up early - ... . Parting with friends - ... .
§ 9. Alternation of vowels in the roots of words
The spelling of words with alternating unstressed vowels in the roots of words (e - i, o -a) is based on a number of special rules.
Alternating i - e
In roots with alternating vowels e - and (ber- - bir, per - pir, mer - world, stel - steel, der - dir, etc.) the letter And it is written only when the root is followed by the suffix -a-, for example: choose - will choose, lock - lock up, die - die, spread - spread out, tear apart - tear apart, shine - shine.
The same rule is based on the spelling of roots in which -a- (-я-) alternates with -im- or -in-, for example: squeeze - squeeze, crush - crush, start - start, remove - remove; -im- or -in- are written in these roots when they are followed by the suffix -a-. But: combine, combination.
Alternating a - o
In the roots lag - lodge and kas - kos letter A it is written if the root is followed by the suffix -a-: to believe - to put (exception: canopy), to touch - to touch.
In the roots there is a letter pilaf A written in all cases, except for the words swimmer, swimmer, for example: fin, floating. The word quicksand is written with the letter s.
The root mak- is written when they talk about immersing something in a liquid: dip (bread in milk), dip (pen in an inkwell); the root mok- is written in words with the meaning “to let liquid through”, “to become wet”: boots get wet, waterproof raincoat, blotting paper.
№11
Rewrite, insert the missing letters.
to expound, to expound, to assume, to suppose...to live, to touch, to touch, to dream, assumption, supposed, to touch, to impose, ul..sing, adjective, disparate ...shaking, spreading out; pl..vtsy, float..wok, melt..pour, pl..vka, pl..wuch, pl..pour; the shoes get wet, dip the brush in paint, a good wash, a waterproof coat, wash it out in the rain.
№12
Our affairs worked out brilliantly. This book is given as an appendix. A fine is imposed for violating traffic rules. They stole her and she fell asleep. The horse barely touched the ground. The stove is so hot that you can’t touch... sleep. Cast iron is smelted continuously. Both the feeder and the swimmer died. The pouring rain washed me down to the last thread. Oblomov took the pen, dipped it into the inkwell, but there was no ink. The floor is lined with colored tiles. The theater season is expected to end by June 15. I can rely on you... Early winter night covered the village with a dark floor...
^
CONTINUATION “Alternating vowels in roots”
In the roots clan-clone: bow, bow, inclination, creature, creativity, creation.
Exception: utensils.
In the root gar-gor in an unstressed position there is also usually o (under the stress - a), for example: sunbathe - sunbathe, tanned, tan.
Exception: fumes.
At the root zar - zor in an unstressed position it is written a (under stress there is both a and o), for example: dawn, lightning, illuminated, but: dawn, glow.
In the root skak-skoch in an unstressed position, the letter a is usually written before k, and the letter o - before h, for example: jump - jump, jump - jump, upstart. But: jump, jump (1st unit), jump (imperative mood).
The root equal is predominantly written in words that are related in meaning to “equal” (“identical”), for example: uniform, equivalent, compare, all the same, also in the words equal, equal, equal, equal, plain; the root rovn - is mainly written in words related in meaning to “even” (“smooth”, “straight”), for example: level (paths), level (pit), level (flower beds), level, level.
At the root, the vowel a is written without stress only before the consonants st and sh; before s without a subsequent t it is written about, for example: age, growth, but: grew.
Exceptions: industry, rostok, usurer, Rostov, Rostislav, as well as derivatives from them, for example: industry, rostok, usurious, etc.
№13
Rewrite and explain the spelling.
Keep level in the rows, make an even...regular movement, level out the beds, compare two numbers, incomparable values, trim the lilac bushes, raise the level of production, reach six hundred meters , solve the level ... opinion, successful comparison ... take the ditch, magnificent plain; violent pores, grow in breadth and depth, improper fusion of bones, grow..become grass, swamp pores...layered with moss, a new branch of industry, build up strength, disgusting loan shark.
^
INDEPENDENT WORK
Rewrite, adding missing punctuation marks. Do parsing five sentences.
When he [Pushkin] entered the audience with Uvarov, it was as if the sun was shining on the audience for me. At that time I was in awe of his poetry; I fed on her like mother’s milk; his verse made me tremble and...storga. The verses of his creations fell on me like beneficial rain. I and all the young men of that time who were interested in poetry owe his genius a direct influence on our aesthetic education.
Davydov, professor of the history of Russian literature, gave a lecture. “Here is the theory of art,” Uvarov said, addressing us students and pointing to Davydov, “and here is art itself,” he added, pointing to Pushkin. He effectively responded with this phrase, obviously prepared in advance. We all greedily stared at Pushkin. Kachenovsky was also waiting for his turn to give a lecture. Unintentionally, a conversation started between them about the Tale of Igor's Campaign, which little by little turned into a heated argument. Come closer, gentlemen, this is interesting for you. Uvarov invited us and we surrounded Pushkin Uvarov and both professors with a close crowd like a wall. I can’t express how great our pleasure was to see and hear our idol.
I don’t remember all the details of the competition, I just remember that Pushkin passionately defended authenticity ancient Russian epic. (I. A. Goncharov “Memories”)
