|
State name |
Form of government. Political regime |
Method of establishing power |
|
Czechoslovakia |
Presidential republic. Democracy | |
|
Yugoslavia |
Monarchy | |
|
Presidential republic. Democracy | ||
|
Republic. Democracy | ||
|
Germany |
Republic. Democracy |
Revolutionary |
|
Republic. Democracy |
Revolutionary |
|
|
Parliamentary republic. Democracy |
Revolutionary |
|
|
Republic. Democracy |
Revolutionary |
|
|
Finland |
Republic. Democracy |
Revolutionary |
3. The Versailles Conference and its decisions. We especially highlight the issue of the humiliation of the German nation and the possible emergence of the ideology of revanchism in the country. We give a definition of revanchism (1, p. 326).
4. We present the main decisions of the Washington Conference.
5. It should be noted that the League of Nations was created at the Versailles Conference, and the goals of its creation are indicated.
6. The issue of the inconsistency and instability of the Versailles-Washington system created as a result of the war is considered. This was the first attempt to build international relations based on the principles of collective security and self-determination of peoples and to lay the foundations of a world that would be based not on the balance of power, but on the strength of morality, on the equality of all subjects of international relations, on the openness of diplomacy (28, p. 57) .
But at the beginning we note that it carried certain constructive principles:
a) The League of Nations was designed to promote the peaceful resolution of disputes, the suppression of aggressive actions, and disarmament;
b) the first constructive steps were taken in the field of limiting the naval arms race, both quantitative and qualitative restrictions were established on the main classes of ships;
c) the victorious countries proceeded from the principle of responsibility of the Central Powers, especially Germany, for aggression; this was of great importance for the development of international law.
After this, we highlight the main circumstances that characterize the inconsistency and instability of this system:
a) aggravation of the national and religious issue as a result of territorial changes in Europe (millions of Germans found themselves outside Germany, and hundreds of thousands of Hungarians outside Hungary);
b) the desire of the defeated states to return lost territories, the formation of revanchist sentiments and the emergence of political forces that preach totalitarian ideas;
c) dissatisfaction of the victorious powers with the terms of the treaties and the strengthening of their former allies;
d) actual disregard for the interests of colonial and dependent countries (the rights to self-determination of the peoples of these countries were not granted);
e) underestimation of the economic problems of the post-war world order, the desire to rob the vanquished rather than contribute to the restoration of their economy (exorbitant reparation payments);
f) insufficient capabilities of the League of Nations to fulfill the functions assigned to it (the USA, Germany, and the USSR were outside the League of Nations).
To better understand this problem, we can offer the following option for studying this issue in a strong class (43, p. 31).
The work is carried out in groups “Historical hats”. At the beginning of the lesson, students are divided into groups of 4-5 people, and each group receives from the teacher a hat of a certain color: yellow, black, white, red and blue (the teacher can give the groups a colored picture of hats, explaining the meaning of each color and the group’s work with it ).
The yellow hat is the optimist's hat.
The group receiving the yellow hat must find all the positive points in the topic covered. It is necessary to list all the issues of world politics that were resolved at conferences after the end of the First World War, to find successes in solving their problems for each country (where they exist).
The black hat is the pessimist's hat.
The group that received the black hat must find all the issues that were not resolved at the post-war conferences, highlight all the failures in international relations for each country, and show the injustice of the conference decisions.
White hat - hat of an objective observer
The group that received the white hat must find and list only specific facts on the topic without judgment (what conferences took place, their results).
Red hat - emotional participant hat
The group that received the red hat must explain what emotions and feelings the countries participating in the conferences experienced and why, who was satisfied with the new system international relations, and who doesn't.
The blue hat is the philosopher's hat.
The group that received the blue hat must prepare arguments on the following questions: how strong was the created Versailles-Washington system of international relations and whether it is legitimate to talk about strong international relations in general, whether the participating countries of the First World War learned any lessons from it, judging by decisions of post-war international conferences?
After group discussion (20 minutes), each group presents its message. Students of other groups have the right to add, ask questions, and argue with the statements made after the message. The teacher regulates the discussion of the performance of each group and summarizes it.
At the end of the lesson, you can pose a problem to the students: “We see, on the one hand, revanchist forces are maturing in Germany, for the strengthening of which there are quite serious conditions, and on the other hand, an international organization is being created, the purpose of which is to prevent a revision of the results of the First World War with with the help of force. Which line won? You can answer this question even now.”
During this lesson the teacher pays a lot of attention to working with maps (1, p. 58) and atlases.
As homework - questions from the textbook (1, p. 65, questions No. 1, 4, 5, and No. 8 requires a broader analysis).
To answer question 4, students should either be referred to sources where these documents are available, or students should be given copies of these documents. In the textbook L.N. Aleksashkina provides an exposition of “14 points of V. Wilson” (1, p. 60).
In connection with these issues, it should be noted that the war radically changed the position of the United States in the world, its economic and military power increased. All this pushed American politicians and, above all, the country's President William Wilson to fight to change the status of the United States in the international arena. It was reflected in Wilson’s “14 Points,” in which the United States unambiguously expressed its claims to the role of an arbiter in international relations and a guarantor of the post-war world order.
All tasks given in the lesson are checked in the next lesson using a wide variety of methods.
conclusions:
1) the First World War is the most important milestone in the history of the twentieth century;
2) The Versailles-Washington treaty system laid the foundation for the post-war world order and in many ways this system was the cause of the Second World War;
3) the US claims to the role of arbiter in international relations were rejected by European countries and the US is returning to traditional isolationism;
4) a colossal humiliation of the German nation occurred;
5) the created League of Nations is the first attempt to create an international organization to prevent the outbreak of war.
One of the first countries to be affected by the disintegration process was Austria-Hungary. After the war, the growth of separatist sentiments sharply intensified among the peoples of Austria-Hungary. In October 1918, a general political strike began in the Czech Republic, which grew into a revolution. The new authorities of the Czech Republic announced their secession from Austria-Hungary. By the end of October the empire had completely collapsed. Slovakia also left it. On October 28, the creation of a binational Czechoslovak Republic led by philosopher and journalist Tomas Masaryk. On October 31, 1918, democratic revolutions in Austria and Hungary completed the collapse of the empire, proclaiming the formation Austrian And Hungarian Republic. The new republican leaders signed peace on the terms of the Entente.
In the Republic of Austria, a coalition government was formed consisting of liberals, conservatives and social democrats. The new authorities abolished noble privileges, introduced an 8-hour working day, and allowed the activities of workers' committees at enterprises. The Constitution, adopted in 1920, guaranteed the population a number of rights and freedoms and turned Austria into one of the most progressive states in Europe in the field of social legislation.
| T. Masaryk |
Anti-Austrian protests in Istria and Dalmatia in the fall of 1918 culminated in the creation of the People's Council (Council) of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The new government, meeting in Zagreb, abolished the laws that linked the Yugoslav lands with Austria and Hungary, and proclaimed the creation of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (GSHS). Soon the Kingdom of Serbia joined the GSHS. On December 1, 1918, appeared on the map of Europe Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes led by the Serbian Karageorgievic dynasty. After some time, Montenegro joined it. Later the new state became known as Yugoslavia.
In November 1918, the inhabitants of Poland managed to restore their independence, lost in late XVIII V. On November 11, socialist Jozef Pilsudski formed a broad coalition government, which, in addition to his party, included ministers from the peasant party and a number of other parties and groups. In December 1918, the government managed to take control of part of the Polish lands that had previously belonged to Germany. In 1921 after graduation Soviet-Polish war(provoked by the Entente to overthrow Soviet power in Ukraine, and then used by the Bolshevik leadership to advance the “red bayonet” deeper into Europe), Western Ukrainian and Western Belarusian lands came under Polish rule. The country's constitution was adopted in March 1919. Pilsudski became the head of state, pursuing a tough domestic and foreign policy.
In December 1917, Soviet Russia recognized the democratic government created in Finland. But almost immediately a civil war broke out in the country. Supporters socialist revolution, who received tacit support from Soviet Russia, created the Red Guard, and their opponents, united in the White Army under the command of the former tsarist general Karl Gustav Mannerheim, were helped by German troops. The Germans captured the cities of Tampere and Helsinki, and in April 1918 the Finnish Red Guard surrendered Vyborg. The Finnish-Soviet border passed close to Petrograd.
By July 1919, the authorities managed to suppress the revolutionary movement, and the government was formed as a coalition of Social Democrats and liberal-conservative parties. In 1921, Finland also received the Åland Islands from Sweden, but was obliged to demilitarize the archipelago. Material from the site http://doklad-referat.ru
In 1918-1919 Soviet republics arose in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, which were soon defeated. Power passed to the bourgeois-democratic parties, which proclaimed the independence of the former Baltic provinces of the Russian Empire.
Even during the First World War, British troops occupied a number of Arab provinces Ottoman Empire, however, they were unable to maintain control over this territory for a long time. In 1920-1922 mass uprising led to the formation Kingdom of Iraq, ten years later it finally became independent. Transjordan, which since 1921 had been a semi-autonomous territory within a mandate, remained under British control longer. Palestine. In 1920 it was formed Kingdom of Syria, whose territory was soon captured by the French and governed by them under the mandate of the League of Nations (just like Lebanon). Mongolian People's Republic in 1921 it gained independence from its powerful Chinese neighbor. In 1922 the British recognized independence Egypt. Arose from the ruins of the Ottoman Empire Turkish Republic.
iv>Source: doklad-referat.ru
Formation of new states
And this is how Austria-Hungary collapsed.
Dates and events
- October 16, 1918. - the head of the Hungarian government announced the termination of Hungary's union with Austria.
- 28 of October- The National Czechoslovak Committee (established in July 1918) decided to form an independent Czechoslovak state.
- 29th of October- the National Council was created in Vienna and the independence of German Austria was proclaimed; on the same day, the National Council in Zagreb proclaimed the state independence of the southern Slavs of Austria-Hungary.
- October 30- a Liquidation Commission was created in Krakow, which took control of the Polish lands that had previously been part of Austria-Hungary, and declared these lands to belong to the revived Polish state; on the same day, the National Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina (which was captured by Austria-Hungary in 1908) announced the annexation of both lands to Serbia.
At the final stage of the world war, the Ottoman Empire also collapsed, from which territories inhabited by non-Turkish peoples were separated.
As a result of the fall of multinational empires, a number of new states emerged in Europe. First of all, these were countries that had restored their once lost independence - Poland, Lithuania and others. The revival required significant efforts. At times this was especially difficult to do. Thus, the “gathering” of Polish lands, previously divided between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia, began during the war, in 1917, and only in November 1918 power passed into the hands of a single provisional government of the Polish Republic. Some of the new states first appeared on the map of Europe with this composition and borders, for example, the Republic of Czechoslovakia, which united two related Slavic people- Czechs and Slovaks (proclaimed on October 28, 1918). The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, Slovenes (proclaimed on December 1, 1918), which later became known as Yugoslavia, became a new multinational state.
The formation of a sovereign state was a turning point in the life of each of the peoples. However, it did not solve all problems. The legacy of the war was economic devastation and aggravated social contradictions. Revolutionary unrest did not subside even after independence.
Paris Peace Conference
>On January 18, 1919, it opened at the Palace of Versailles near Paris. peace conference. Politicians and diplomats from 32 states had to determine the results of the war, paid for with the blood and sweat of millions of people who fought on the fronts and worked in the rear. Soviet Russia did not receive an invitation to the conference.
The main role at the conference belonged to representatives of the USA, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, but in reality the main proposals were made by three politicians - US President William Wilson, British Prime Minister D. Lloyd George and head of the French government J. Clemenceau. They imagined the conditions of the world differently. Back in January 1918, Wilson proposed a program for a peaceful settlement and post-war organization of international life - the so-called “14 points” (on its basis an armistice was concluded with Germany in November 1918).
The “14 points” provided for the following: the establishment of a just peace and the renunciation of secret diplomacy; freedom of navigation; equality in economic relations between states; arms limitation; settlement of colonial issues taking into account the interests of all peoples; liberation of occupied territories and principles for determining the borders of a number of European states; the formation of an independent Polish state, including “all lands inhabited by Poles” and with access to the sea; creation of an international organization guaranteeing the sovereignty and integrity of all countries.
The program reflected both the aspirations of American diplomacy and the personal views of Wilson. Before being elected president, he was a university professor for many years, and if before he sought to introduce students to the truth and ideals of justice, now he strives to introduce entire nations to the truth and ideals of justice. Not the least role in putting forward the “14 points,” obviously, was played by the author’s desire to contrast the “positive democratic program” with the ideas of the Bolsheviks and the foreign policy course of Soviet Russia. In a confidential conversation at that time, he admitted: “The ghost of Bolshevism lurks everywhere... There is serious concern throughout the world.”
The French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau took a different position. His goals were practical - to achieve compensation for all French losses in the war, maximum territorial and monetary compensation, as well as the economic and military weakening of Germany. Clemenceau adhered to the motto “Germany will pay for everything!” For his intransigence and fierce defense of his point of view, the conference participants called him the nickname “tiger” that stuck with him.
The experienced and flexible politician D. Lloyd George, too, sought to balance the positions of the parties and avoid extreme decisions. He wrote: “...it seems to me that we should try to draw up a peace treaty as objective arbiters (judges), forgetting about the passion of war. This treaty must have three purposes in mind. First of all, to ensure justice in taking into account Germany's responsibility for the outbreak of the war and for the ways in which it was waged. Secondly, it must be a treaty which a responsible German government can sign with confidence that it is able to fulfill its obligations. Thirdly, it must be a treaty that will not contain any provocations for a subsequent war and will create an alternative to Bolshevism that will offer everyone reasonable people a real settlement of the European problem..."
The discussion of peace terms lasted almost six months. Behind the scenes of the official work of commissions and committees, the main decisions were made by members of the Big Three - Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George. They conducted closed consultations and agreements, “forgetting” about “open diplomacy” and other principles proclaimed by V. Wilson. An important event during the protracted discussions was the decision to create an international organization to help maintain peace - the League of Nations.
On June 28, 1919, a peace treaty between the Allied powers and Germany was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Grand Palace of Versailles. Under the terms of the treaty, Germany transferred Alsace and Lorraine to France, the districts of Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium, the region of Poznan and parts of Pomerania and Upper Silesia to Poland, and the northern part of Schleswig to Denmark (following a plebiscite).
The left bank of the Rhine was occupied by Entente troops, and a demilitarized zone was established on the right. The Saar region came under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a “free city”, Memel (Klaipeda) seceded from Germany (later incorporated into Lithuania). In total, 1/8 of the territory on which 1/10 of the country’s population lived was torn away from Germany. In addition, Germany was deprived of its colonial possessions, and its rights in the Shandong province in China were transferred to Japan. Restrictions were introduced on the number (no more than 100 thousand people) and weapons of the German army. Germany also had to pay reparations - payments to individual countries for damage caused as a result of the German attack.
Versailles-Washington system
The Treaty of Versailles was not limited to the decision German question. It contained provisions on the League of Nations - an organization created to resolve international disputes and conflicts (the Charter of the League of Nations was also cited here).
Later they were signed peace treaties with Germany's former allies - Austria (September 10, 1919), Bulgaria (November 27, 1919), Hungary (June 4, 1920), Turkey (August 10, 1920).
They determined the borders of these countries, established after the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire and the separation of part of their territories in favor of the victorious powers. For Austria, Bulgaria, and Hungary, restrictions on the size of the armed forces were introduced, and reparations were provided for the victors. The terms of the agreement with Turkey were especially harsh. She lost all her possessions in Europe, on the Arabian Peninsula, in North Africa. Armed forces Turkey was being reduced, it was forbidden to keep a fleet. Zone Black Sea straits came under the control of an international commission. This treaty, humiliating for the country, was replaced in 1923, after the victory of the Turkish revolution.
The League of Nations, established in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, took part in the redistribution of colonial possessions. The so-called mandate system was introduced, according to which colonies taken from Germany and its allies under the mandate of the League of Nations were transferred to the guardianship of “advanced” countries, primarily Great Britain and France, which managed to occupy a dominant position in the League of Nations. At the same time, the United States of America, whose president put forward the idea and actively contributed to the creation of the League of Nations, did not join this organization and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles. This indicated that new system, eliminating some contradictions in international relations, gave rise to new ones.
The post-war settlement could not be limited to Europe and the Middle East. Significant problems also existed in Far East, in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. There, the interests of the British, the French, who had previously penetrated into this region, and new contenders for influence - the USA and Japan, collided, whose rivalry turned out to be especially acute. To solve the problems, a conference was convened in Washington (November 1921 - February 1922). It was attended by representatives of the USA, Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal and China. Soviet Russia, whose borders were in this region, did not receive an invitation to the conference this time either.
Several treaties were signed at the Washington Conference. They secured the rights of the United States, Great Britain, France and Japan to the territories they owned in this region (for Japan this meant recognition of its rights to the captured possessions of Germany), and established the balance of naval forces individual countries. The issue of China was especially considered. On the one hand, the principle of respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of China was proclaimed, and on the other, the provision of “equal opportunities” for the great powers in this country. In this way, a monopoly takeover of China by one of the powers was prevented (a similar threat existed from Japan), but hands were freed for the joint exploitation of the wealth of this huge country.
The balance of power and mechanisms of international relations in Europe and the world that had emerged by the early 1920s were called the Versailles-Washington system.
Old and new in international relations
Since 1920, the Soviet state began to establish relations with neighboring countries, having signed peace treaties with Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland. In 1921, treaties of friendship and cooperation were concluded with Iran, Afghanistan, and Turkey. They were based on the recognition of the independence of the named states, the equality of partners, and this differed from the semi-enslaving agreements imposed on the countries of the East by the Western powers.
At the same time, following the signing of the Anglo-Soviet trade agreement (March 1921), the question arose of resuming Russia’s economic ties with leading European countries. In 1922, representatives of Soviet Russia were invited to an international economic conference in Genoa (it opened on April 10). The Soviet delegation was headed by the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs G.V. Chicherin. Western powers hoped to gain access to Russian natural resources and markets, as well as find ways to economically and politically influence Russia. The Soviet state was interested in establishing economic ties with the outside world and diplomatic recognition.
The West’s means of putting pressure on Russia was to demand that it pay its foreign debts Tsarist Russia and the Provisional Government and compensation for the property of foreign citizens nationalized by the Bolsheviks. The Soviet country was ready to recognize the pre-war debts of Russia and the right of former foreign owners to receive in concession the property that previously belonged to them, subject to legal recognition of the Soviet state and the provision of financial benefits and loans to it. Russia proposed to cancel (declare invalid) military debts. At the same time, the Soviet delegation made a proposal for a general reduction in armaments. The Western powers did not agree with these proposals. They insisted on the payment by Russia of all debts, including military ones (in the amount of about 19 billion gold rubles), the return of all nationalized property to the previous owners, and the abolition of the monopoly in the country foreign trade. Soviet delegation considered these demands unacceptable and, for its part, proposed that the Western powers compensate for the losses caused to Russia by the intervention and blockade (39 billion gold rubles). Negotiations have reached a dead end.
It was not possible to reach a general agreement at the conference. But Soviet diplomats managed to negotiate with representatives of the German delegation in Rapallo (a suburb of Genoa). On April 16, a Soviet-German agreement was concluded on the resumption of diplomatic relations. Both countries renounced claims for compensation for losses caused to each other during the war. Germany recognized the nationalization of German property in Russia, and Russia refused to receive reparations from Germany. The agreement came as a surprise to international diplomatic and political circles, both because of the very fact of its signing and its content. Contemporaries noted that he gave the impression of a bomb exploding. This was a success for diplomats of the two countries and an example for others. It became increasingly obvious that the problem of relations with Soviet Russia had become one of the main problems of international politics of that time.
References:
Aleksashkina L.N. / General history. XX - early XXI centuries.
State final certification in grades XI in history is carried out orally on tickets. Each of the 25 tickets consists of 3 questions.
The first question to test your knowledge of the course “ Recent history 1900 - 1939." (X class). The second question to test the knowledge of the course “Recent and Contemporary History (1939 - the beginning of the 21st century)”, studied in the 11th grade. The third question to test the knowledge of the course “History of the Fatherland in the 20th - early 21st centuries (1939 - the beginning XXI century)", studied in the 11th grade.
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“The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the formation of new states in Europe”
Ticket 8
8.1. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the formation of new states in Europe
As a result of the First World War, four empires collapsed: Russian, Ottoman, German and Austro-Hungarian. After the war, problems of state sovereignty came to the fore. The emergence of new nation states was inevitable.
Events that influenced the formation of new states:
First World War 1914-1918
Revolution in Russia in 1917
Revolution in Germany in 1918
Revolution in Hungary in 1919
New states
| Name | Proclamation time | Form of government | Development prospects |
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| Czechoslovakia | Parliamentary-presidential republic | Tomas Masaryk | Democratic reforms, agrarian reform |
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| Kingdom CXC | Monarchy | Prince Alexander Karadjordjevich | Social, economic problems, interethnic contradictions |
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| Republic | Jozef Piłsudski | Political contradictions within the country |
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| Republic | Democratic reforms |
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| Republic (later monarchy) | M. Karolyi, B. Kuhn, M. Horthy | Democratic and economic reforms suspended |
Table of new states of Europe 11th grade Ulunyan Sergeev
Answer: Alexander Fedorovich Kerensky 2 This man was nicknamed by his contemporaries the “chief persuader” of the Russian revolution, since he: Answer: a Task 4 1 What were the goals and program of the Kornilov movement? Question 2: Which population groups in Russia were the main producers of bread? Svyatopolk-Mirsky, proclaiming a course towards cooperation between the authorities and zemstvos Answer: in Foreign policy.
Partial or complete copying of site materials without written permission from the site administration is prohibited! It still exists and is called the Vatican. Prove your opinion with facts. After discussion, each group puts forward its version of the completed task.
Table of new states of Europe 11th grade Ulunyan Sergeev
European countries in the 1920s - 1930s. Having emerged victorious from the World War, Great Britain began to play a significant role in political life Europe and the world. The government's internal political line was entirely aimed at restoring the domestic economy, burdened by the world war. Compared to other victorious countries, Great Britain was unable to get ahead in the pace of its economic development, but was only able to restore its pre-war level. However, as in other countries Western Europe, grew up in the UK standard of living t. The capitalist model of the British economy allowed industry to quickly free itself from military-state tutelage and expand significantly. Like other Western countries, Britain experienced increased business activity and increased trade. The development of the commercial and industrial base made it possible to “draw” large sections of English society into the orbit of entrepreneurship. These organizations, which defended workers' rights, became quite a powerful force of influence in the UK during this period of time. In 1925, when the government cut public funding for the coal industry, mine owners began to cut miners' wages, close unprofitable, inefficient, non-revenue-generating mines, and lay off miners en masse. In response to this, British trade unions declared a general strike in May 1926. The government's forceful measures against workers almost led to a social explosion and revolution. In fact, only the concession on the part of the trade unions did not lead English society to protracted conflict. Some workers went on strike until 1927, without achieving any concessions from the capitalists. As throughout the Western world, in France in the 1920s there was an increase in industrial production, the rise of trading companies, and an economic boom. France's economic growth was 40% of pre-war levels. It was a country whose citizens believed that all the horrors of the war were behind them, and that they should now enjoy life, i.e. They led a measured pace of life, trying to forget the monstrous losses of the war, to erase all the worst things from their memory. “Anything, but not war” - this was a peculiar attitude of French society. The rapid growth of industry turned into a catastrophic decline associated with the World Financial Crisis of 1929-1933. As in other Western countries where the crisis was raging, in France there was a tendency towards a decline in industrial production. At the height of the crisis, unprofitable enterprises were closed, which led to mass layoffs and increased unemployment. The French, like other residents of “crisis countries,” were acutely worried about the times that had come. The discontent growing day by day resulted in ever-widening support for the so-called Popular Front, which united all the left and center-left political forces Rice. As in other Western countries, in France at this time a middle class of society emerged, which largely influences politics and is the very support on which the economic development states. The growth of capital investment, mostly by the middle class, contributed to the growth of the economy as a whole. In general, World economic crisis revealed the main problem of capitalist society - the coming crises, which only intensify with each new repetition.
The French, like other residents of “crisis countries,” were acutely worried about the times that had come. Failure of the offensive of Russian troops at the front Reason for the start of mass protests Information about Russia's readiness to continue the war until victory was published in the press The government was preparing offensives to bring the end of the war closer and raise the patriotic spirit Retreat Russian army. Often you have to read it in relation to America in the 20s. Stolypin proposed introducing zemstvos only in those provinces of the region where a significant number of the Russian population lived. Stalin for the accelerated industrialization of the country. In Argentina, steam locomotive furnaces were fueled with grain. The Versailles-Washington system could not solve everything controversial issues international relations because... Land municipalization program: transfer of confiscated landowners' land into the ownership of local authorities while maintaining small peasant ownership of land belongs to: Bolsheviks. A decree was issued on November 9, 1906. Stolypin was categorically against the idea of forced alienation of part of the landowners' lands. The issue of repaying the debts of the Russian tsarist government was resolved: and at the Genoa Conference in 1922, Makarov and at the Battle of Tsushima 4 3.
Here is a map of countries in Russian and a table with sovereign states, as well as dependent territories. They include completely independent states and territories dependent on various European countries. In total, in the European part of the world there are 50 sovereign states and 9 dependent territories.
Read also:
According to the generally accepted geographical definition, the border between and Europe runs along the Ural Mountains, the Ural River and the Caspian Sea in the east, the mountain system Greater Caucasus and the Black Sea with its outlets, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles in the south. Based on this division, the transcontinental states of Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkey have territories in both Europe and Asia.
The island of Cyprus in Western Asia is close to Anatolia (or Asia Minor) and lies on the Anatolian Plate, but is often considered part of Europe and is a current member of the European Union (EU). Armenia is also entirely in Western Asia, but is a member of some European organizations.
Although providing a clearer separation between and Europe, some traditionally European islands, such as Malta, Sicily, Pantelleria and the Pelagian Islands, are located on the African Continental Plate. The island of Iceland is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which crosses the Eurasian and North American plates.
Greenland has socio-political ties to Europe and is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, but is geographically closer to. Sometimes Israel is also seen as part of the geopolitical processes of Europe.
Other territories are part of European countries but are geographically located on other continents, such as the French overseas departments, the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla on the African coast, and the Dutch Caribbean territories of Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius.
There are 50 internationally recognized sovereign states with territory located within general definition Europe and/or members in international European organizations, of which 44 have their capitals within Europe. All but the Vatican are members of the United Nations (UN), and all but Belarus, Kazakhstan and the Vatican are members of the Council of Europe. 28 of these countries have been members of the EU since 2013, meaning they are highly integrated with each other and partially share their sovereignty with EU institutions.
Political map of Europe with country names in Russian
To enlarge the map, click on it.
Political map of Europe with names of states/Wikipedia
Table of European countries with capitals
Eastern European states |
||
| № | Titles | Capital Cities |
| 1 | Belarus | Minsk |
| 2 | Bulgaria | Sofia |
| 3 | Hungary | Budapest |
| 4 | Moldova | Kishinev |
| 5 | Poland | Warsaw |
| 6 | Russia | Moscow |
| 7 | Romania | Bucharest |
| 8 | Slovakia | Bratislava |
| 9 | Ukraine | Kyiv |
| 10 | Czech | Prague |
Western European countries |
||
| № | Titles | Capital Cities |
| 1 | Austria | Vein |
| 2 | Belgium | Brussels |
| 3 | Great Britain | London |
| 4 | Germany | Berlin |
| 5 | Ireland | Dublin |
| 6 | Liechtenstein | Vaduz |
| 7 | Luxembourg | Luxembourg |
| 8 | Monaco | Monaco |
| 9 | Netherlands | Amsterdam |
| 10 | France | Paris |
| 11 | Switzerland | Berne |
Nordic states |
||
| № | Titles | Capital Cities |
| 1 | Denmark | Copenhagen |
| 2 | Iceland | Reykjavik |
| 3 | Norway | Oslo |
| 4 | Latvia | Riga |
| 5 | Lithuania | Vilnius |
| 6 | Finland | Helsinki |
| 7 | Sweden | Stockholm |
| 8 | Estonia | Tallinn |
Southern European states |
||
| № | Titles | Capital Cities |
| 1 | Albania | Tirana |
| 2 | Andorra | Andorra la Vella |
| 3 | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Sarajevo |
| 4 | Vatican | Vatican |
| 5 | Greece | Athens |
| 6 | Spain | Madrid |
| 7 | Italy | Rome |
| 8 | Macedonia | Skopje |
| 9 | Malta | Valletta |
| 10 | Portugal | Lisbon |
| 11 | San Marino | San Marino |
| 12 | Serbia | Belgrade |
| 13 | Slovenia | Ljubljana |
| 14 | Croatia | Zagreb |
| 15 | Montenegro | Podgorica |
Asian states that are partly located in Europe |
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| № | Titles | Capital Cities |
| 1 | Kazakhstan | Astana |
| 2 | Türkiye | Ankara |
States that, taking into account the border between Europe and Asia along the Caucasus, are partly located in Europe |
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| № | Titles | Capital Cities |
| 1 | Azerbaijan | Baku |
| 2 | Georgia | Tbilisi |
States that are located in Asia, although from a geopolitical point of view they are closer to Europe |
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| № | Titles | Capital Cities |
| 1 | Armenia | Yerevan |
| 2 | Republic of Cyprus | Nicosia |
Dependent territories |
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| № | Titles | Capital Cities |
| 1 | Åland (autonomy within Finland) | Mariehamn |
| 2 | Guernsey (a British Crown Dependency that is not part of Great Britain) | St Peter Port |
| 3 | Gibraltar (British overseas possessions disputed by Spain) | Gibraltar |
| 4 | Jersey (a British Crown Dependency that is not part of Great Britain) | St Helier |
| 5 | Isle of Man (British Crown Dependency) | Douglas |
| 6 | Faroe Islands (autonomous island region, part of Denmark) | Tórshavn |
| 7 | Svalbard (an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean that is part of Norway) | Longyearbyen |
