Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev, world-famous neuropathologist, psychiatrist, physiologist, founder of the national school of psychoneurologists, was born on February 1, 1857 in the village of Sorali, Vyatka province.
The choice of specialty was influenced by the illness suffered by Bekhterev, mental disorder. Therefore, at the Imperial Medical-Surgical Academy, in his senior years, he chose nervous and mental illnesses as a direction. Subsequently, he participated in the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878.
In 1881, Vladimir Mikhailovich defended his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Medicine on the topic “Experience in clinical research of body temperature in some forms of mental illness,” and also received the academic title of privat-docent.
After a number of years heading the department of psychiatry at Kazan University, in 1893 Bekhterev headed the department of mental and nervous diseases of the Imperial Military Medical Academy, and
He also became the director of the mental illness clinic at the Clinical Military Hospital.
IN 1899 Bekhterev was elected academician of the Military Medical Academy and awarded the gold medal of the Russian Academy of Sciences. For a short time, Vladimir Mikhailovich acted as head of the academy.
Vladi The world Mikhailovich Bekhterev took the initiative to create the Psychoneurological Institute, and thanks to his efforts, in 1911 the first buildings of the institute appeared behind the Nevskaya Zastava. Soon he becomes president of the institute.
Bekhterev also actively participated in public life. In 1913, he took part in the famous politically charged “Beilis case”. After Bekhterev’s speech, the main accused was acquitted, and the examination in his case went down in the history of science as the first forensic psychological and psychiatric examination.
This behavior displeased the authorities, and soon Bekhterev was dismissed from the academy, the Women's Medical Institute and was not approved for a new term as president of the Psychoneurological Institute.
V.M. Bekhterev was engaged in research of a significant part of psychiatric, neurological, physiological and psychological problems, while in his approach he invariably focused on a comprehensive study of the problems of the brain and man. He studied the problems of hypnosis and suggestion for many years.
Support Soviet power provided him with a relatively decent existence and activity in new Russia. He works at the People's Commissariat for Education and creates the Institute for the Study of the Brain and Mental Activity. However, the alliance with the authorities was short-lived. As a great scientist and independent person, he was burdened by the totalitarian system that was emerging in the country. In December 1927, Vladimir Mikhailovich died suddenly. There is a lot of evidence that the death was violent.
The urn with the ashes of Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev was kept for many years in the memorial museum of the scientist, and in 1971 it was buried on the “Literary Bridge” of the Volkovsky Cemetery. Famous Russian sculptor M.K. Anikushin became the author of the tombstone.
The Psychoneurological Institute is named after Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev, and the street on which it is located is also named after the great scientist. There is also a monument to Bekhterev.
Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
V. M. Bekhterev among the students of the Imperial Military Medical Academy
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (January 20 (February 1) 1857, Sarali (now Bekhterevo, Elabuga district) - December 24, 1927, Moscow) - an outstanding Russian psychiatrist, neuropathologist, physiologist, psychologist, founder of reflexology and pathopsychological trends in Russia, academician.
In 1907 he founded the Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg - the world's first scientific center for the comprehensive study of man and the scientific development of psychology, psychiatry, neurology and other “human science” disciplines, organized as a research and higher education institution, now named after V. M. Bekhterev .
Biography
Born into the family of a minor civil servant in the village of Sarali, Elabuga district, Vyatka province, presumably on January 20, 1857 (he was baptized on January 23, 1857). He was a representative of the ancient Vyatka family of Bekhterevs. He received his education at the Vyatka gymnasium and the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy.
After completing the course (1878), Bekhterev devoted himself to the study of mental and nervous diseases and for this purpose he worked at the clinic of prof. I. P. Merzheevsky.
In 1879, Bekhterev was accepted as a full member of the St. Petersburg Society of Psychiatrists. And in 1884 he was sent abroad, where he studied with Dubois-Reymond (Berlin), Wundt (Leipzig), Meynert (Vienna), Charcot (Paris) and others.
After defending his doctoral dissertation (April 4, 1881), he was approved as a private associate professor of the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy, and since 1885 he was a professor at Kazan University and the head of the psychiatric clinic of the Kazan district hospital. While working at Kazan University, he created a psychophysiological laboratory and founded the Kazan Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists. In 1893 he headed the department of nervous and mental diseases of the Medical-Surgical Academy. In the same year he founded the journal Neurological Bulletin. In 1894, Vladimir Mikhailovich was appointed a member of the medical council of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and in 1895 - a member of the military medical scientific council under the Minister of War and at the same time a member of the council of a nursing home for the mentally ill. Since 1897 he also taught at the Women's College medical institute.
Organized in St. Petersburg the Society of Psychoneurologists and the Society of Normal and experimental psychology And scientific organization labor. He edited the journals “Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Experimental Psychology”, “Study and Education of Personality”, “Problems in the Study of Labor” and others.
In November 1900, Bekhterev’s two-volume book “Conducting Pathways of the Spinal Cord and Brain” was nominated by the Russian Academy of Sciences for the Academician K. M. Baer Prize. In the same year, Vladimir Mikhailovich was elected chairman of the Russian Society of Normal and Pathological Psychology.
After completing work on the seven volumes of “Fundamentals of the Study of Brain Functions,” problems of psychology began to attract special attention of Bekhterev as a scientist. Based on the fact that mental activity arises as a result of the work of the brain, he considered it possible to rely mainly on the achievements of physiology, and, above all, on the doctrine of combined (conditioned) reflexes. In 1907-1910, Bekhterev published three volumes of the book “Objective Psychology”. The scientist argued that all mental processes are accompanied by reflex motor and autonomic reactions, which are accessible to observation and registration.
He was a member of the editorial committee of the multi-volume “Traite international de psychologie pathologique” (“International treatise on pathological psychology”) (Paris, 1908-1910), for which he wrote several chapters. In 1908, the Psychoneurological Institute founded by Bekhterev began work in St. Petersburg.
Pedagogical, legal and medical faculties were opened there. In 1916, these faculties were transformed into the private Petrograd University at the Psychoneurological Institute. Bekhterev himself took an active part in the work of the institute and university, heading the economic committee of the latter.
In May 1918, Bekhterev appealed to the Council of People's Commissars with a petition to organize an Institute for the Study of the Brain and Mental Activity. Soon the Institute opened, and Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev was its director until his death. In 1927 he was awarded the title of Honored Scientist of the RSFSR.
At the age of about 70, he married for the second time Yagoda’s young niece Berta Yakovlevna.
He died suddenly on December 24, 1927 in Moscow. He was buried on the Literary Bridge at the Volkovskoye Cemetery in Leningrad.
After his death, V. M. Bekhterev left his own school and hundreds of students, including 70 professors.
On Bekhterev Street in Moscow is located the largest in Moscow, the 14th city psychiatric hospital named after Bekhterev, which serves all districts of Moscow, especially the Moscow Closed Administrative District.
Versions about the causes of death
By official version, the cause of death was canned food poisoning. There is a version that Bekhterev’s death is connected with the consultation that he gave to Stalin shortly before his death. But there is no direct evidence that one event is connected with another.
According to the great-grandson of V. M. Bekhterev, S. V. Medvedev, director of the Institute of the Human Brain:
“The assumption that my great-grandfather was killed is not a theory, but an obvious thing. He was killed for diagnosing Lenin with cerebral syphilis.”
VERSIONS ABOUT THE CAUSES OF V.M.’S DEATH BEKHTEREV
Lukashina V.A., Gubanova G.V.
2012 marks the 155th anniversary of the birth and 85 years of the death of Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev, the founder of Russian experimental psychology, physician, neurologist, psychiatrist, physiologist and morphologist, whose work on the study of brain morphology became a significant contribution to science.
The circumstances of the unexpected death of this remarkable scientist, which followed on December 24, 1927, have not yet been fully clarified and serve as the basis for various legends. There are several versions of the reasons for the death of Bekhterev. Let's look at some of them.
According to the official version, the cause of death was canned food poisoning. According to information, in December 1927, Bekhterev, getting ready from Leningrad to Moscow for the First All-Union Congress of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists, received a telegram from the Kremlin’s medical department with a request, upon arriving in Moscow, to contact the department. On Friday, December 22, having returned from the Kremlin, Bekhterev made a report at the congress, then, from the very morning of December 23, he inspected the new laboratory of the Institute of Psychoprophylaxis, and from there he went to Grand Theatre to Tchaikovsky's ballet "Swan Lake". It was there that the scientist allegedly ate something in the buffet, and this contributed to his poisoning. From the second act V.M. Bekhterev returned to the apartment of Professor S.I. Blagovolin, with whom he stayed in Moscow, feeling unwell. The visiting professor Burmin prescribed him bed rest. By the evening, Bekhterev’s health had deteriorated sharply. This time, Professor Shervinsky, as well as two doctors, Klimenkov and Konstantinovsky, arrived with Burmin. Both professors confirmed the morning diagnosis - an acute gastrointestinal disease; the doctors remained on duty overnight.
The general poisoning of Bekhterev's body grew uncontrollably. He lost consciousness at times. Breathing became intermittent. The pulse rate dropped sharply, and at 23:45 on December 24, after a short agony, the great scientist died of cardiac paralysis.
On the morning of December 25, Blagovolin’s apartment was filled with the luminaries of Soviet medicine of that time. Neuropathologists G.I. arrived. Rossolimo, L.S. Minora, V.V. Kramer, psychiatrist V.A. Gilyarovsky, pathologist A.I. Abrikosov, People's Commissar of Health N.A. Semashko. Sculptor I.D. Shadr removed the plaster mask, and Professor Abrikosov removed the brain of the deceased. V.M.’s last will was announced. Bekhterev: transfer his brain to the Leningrad Institute for Brain Research, cremate his body.
Bekhterev's death gave rise to a legend version with many unknowns. Many colleagues of the medical scientist had doubts about the official version. Some believe that it is strange and stupid to think “that a world-famous scientist could be treated to stale food in a famous theater.” Others argue that the sick Bekhterev was provided with insufficient and unqualified assistance. An obituary in the journal “Bulletin of Knowledge” reported that the cause of death was a gastrointestinal disease.
This conclusion is assessed by supporters of the poisoning version as “vague and unprofessional.” This, of course, is not at all true. Doctors tried to do everything possible, using all the achievements of science of that time.
What seems strange, in our opinion, is the fact that “representatives of the People’s Commissariat of Health decided not to do an autopsy or pathological examination, but decided only to remove the brain.” The body was allegedly cremated at the will of the scientist, but all of Bekhterev’s relatives (except his wife) were against this.
One of the assumptions was that Bekhterev was deliberately poisoned by the NKVD after he spoke impartially about the state of mental health of I.V. Stalin. As if Bekhterev was several hours late for the meeting of the congress on December 22. When asked by his colleagues about the reason for the delay, he replied with irritation that he was “looking at one paranoid withered arm.” Moreover, Bekhterev made the disastrous conclusion for himself that a person with such a disease cannot lead the country. And Bekhterev carelessly and openly allegedly shared these conclusions with his colleagues, openly calling Stalin a “withered-armed paranoid.” But even a novice psychiatrist cannot say this about a patient, and Bekhterev was a major specialist recognized throughout the world. He was distinguished by exceptional tact, delicacy, and subtlety in his relationships with people; he urged his colleagues to observe medical confidentiality and spare the pride of patients...
A completely different version of Bekhterev’s death was expressed in a conversation with Rudolf Balandin, a correspondent for the Youth Technology magazine, by writer Gleb Anfilov. According to his hypothesis, the death of the scientist was directly related to his work in the field of creating “ideological weapons”. During conversations with former employees Bekhterev Anfilov learned that two directions in research had emerged. One of them is the transmission of thoughts and emotions at a distance, that is, telepathy. When developing another direction, a conventional radio network or microphone was used for suggestion.
The resulting “ideological weapon” was supposed to have internal application. If psychological weapons are usually aimed at suppressing and disorganizing the enemy, then this, on the contrary, was supposed to mobilize and inspire “our own people.” In fact, it was a weapon for conquering one’s own people. It created not only obedient crowds, but also the image of an adored leader. At the beginning of 1927, one of the work leaders suddenly disappeared, most likely, he fled to Germany, taking secret papers with him. This explains a lot about the similarity of the political situations of Russia and Germany at that time.
Bekhterev was targeted by the NKVD. In addition, the authorities no longer needed it, since the method had been worked out and tested. .
“The circumstances of the death of Academician Bekhterev in the late twenties were secretly investigated by three major Russian lawyers: N.K. Muravyov, P.N. Malyantovich and A.A. Iogansen,” the latter’s grandson writes in his book. According to the author of this study, in 1927 G.E. Zinoviev, who stood at the head of the Leningrad party organization, having entered into a mortal battle with Stalin for power, decided to bring charges against the “leader and teacher” for poisoning Lenin. Zinoviev in 1927 hoped to defeat Joseph Vissarionovich with the help of Bekhterev's testimony. Why did he begin to put pressure on the scientist? In 1923, he examined the sick Lenin and had no doubt that Vladimir Ilyich was poisoned. Expert opinion Bekhterev, a world-famous scientist with enormous authority, could have put Stalin in a very difficult position. However, a way out was found. “No person, no problem.”
And the great scientist passed away.
Bekhterev's great-grandson, Svyatoslav Lebedev, director of the Institute of the Human Brain, shared the same opinion. He believes that the scientist was killed because of the diagnosis made to Vladimir Lenin (syphilis of the brain). Although Vladimir Ilyich was already lying in the mausoleum by that time, the truth about the true cause of his death in no way should have become public. Therefore, preventing the leakage of dangerous information, Bekhterev could well have been killed.
Later, Natalya Petrovna Bekhtereva, speaking on television, literally stated the following: “In our family, everyone knew that Vladimir Mikhailovich was poisoned by his second wife...”. And this statement further confuses the already complicated story of the death of the famous academician...
The death of the great Russian scientist Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev, who, among many other things, studied higher physiology nervous activity, is still surrounded by a veil of secrecy. Confirmation or refutation of any of the versions can only be done by working with archival classified documents of the NKVD, provided that such documents exist.
Rae.ru›forum2012/9/2506
But no measures were any longer useful. The general poisoning of Bekhterev's body grew uncontrollably. He lost consciousness at times. Breathing became intermittent.
The pulse rate dropped sharply, and at 23:45 on December 24, after a short agony, the great scientist died of cardiac paralysis.
Voenternet.livejournal.com›179491.html
The official version of the cause of death was: cardiac paralysis due to a short-term attack...
The purpose of this article is to find out the true reason for the death of the outstanding Russian psychiatrist Academician VLADIMIR MIKHAILOVICH BEKHTEREV by his FULL NAME code.
Watch "Logicology - about the fate of man" in advance.
Let's look at the FULL NAME code tables. \If there is a shift in numbers and letters on your screen, adjust the image scale\.
2 8 30 49 55 72 78 81 84 96 97 102 112 125 135 152 165 175 197 198 208 220 235 238 248 272
B E KH T E R E V V L A D I M I R M I K H A Y L O V ICH
272 270 264 242 223 217 200 194 191 188 176 175 170 160 147 137 120 107 97 75 74 64 52 37 34 24
3 15 16 21 31 44 54 71 84 94 116 117 127 139 154 157 167 191 193 199 221 240 246 263 269 272
V L A D I M I R M I KHA Y L OVICH B E KH T E R E V
272 269 257 256 251 241 228 218 201 188 178 156 155 145 133 118 115 105 81 79 73 51 32 26 9 3
BEKHTEREV VLADIMIR MIKHAILOVICH = 272.
272 = 139-VIOLATIONS + 133-MYOCARDIAL RHYTHM.
272 = 199-RHYTHM DISORDERS + 73-MYOCARDIUM.
272 = 191-\63-DEath + 128-HEART\ + 81-PARALSY.
97 = 57-(c)HEART + 40-BREAK*(d)
__________________________________
176 = (short)CHEN MYOCARDIAL RHYTHM*
102 = 57-(c)HEART + 45-DIRROR*
___________________________________
175 = (shortened)CHEN RHYTHM MYOCARDIAL*(a)
Marked with an asterisk (reference letters of the NAME code).
Reference:
Short PQ syndrome: causes, symptoms, treatment
FB.ru›article/279943/sindrom-ukorochennogo-pq…
Short PQ syndrome is one of a whole galaxy of manifestations of heart rhythm disturbances. It is rarely an independent pathology.
Mostly in medical histories it appears as a complication of the underlying disease and is one of the common causes of sudden death.
84 = 3-(from injection) B* + 81-PARALYSIS
________________________________
191 = INJECTION PARALYSIS*
157 = (par)ALICH FROM INJECTIONS*
____________________________
118 = INFLUENCE OF UK (tins)
154 = (par)ALICH FROM INJECTION*(c)
_____________________________
133 = INFLUENCE OF UKO*(fishing)
139 = (par)ALICH FROM INJECTIONS*(s)
____________________________
145 = EFFECT OF INJECTION*(s)
"Deep" decryption offers the following options in which all columns match:
BE(yes) + (backs)X(ae)T(sya) + (breaths)E (p)RE(r)V(ano) + V(sudden) (times)LAD (r)I(tma) MI( oka)R(da) + M(gnoven)I(e) + (backs)HA(yushchi)Y(sia) + (stop)L(en)O (cro)V(reversal) + (paral)ICH
272 = BE,X,T, + ,E,RE,V, + V,LAD,I, MI,R, + M,I, + ,HA,Y, + ,L,O,V, + ,ICH.
BE(yes) + (backs)X(ae)T(sya) + (breaths)E (p)RE(r)V(ano) + V(sudden) (times)LAD (r)I(tma) MI( oka)R(da) + (u)MI(raising) + (backs)HA(nie) + (de)Y(action) (punch)LOV + (paral)ICH
272 = BE, + ,X,T, + ,E,RE,V, + V,LAD,I, MI,R, + ,MI, + ,HA, + ,Y,LOV + ,ICH.
Reference:
What is cardiac paralysis?
cordislab.com›zabolevaniya-serdca/347…umiraet…
Sudden cardiac death is a human condition in which the heart muscle, for no apparent reason, stops maintaining the correct rhythm and stops working. That is in simple words the heart suddenly stops beating.
Cardiac paralysis is a life-threatening (terminal) condition in which voluntary contractions of the myocardium suddenly stop, causing the heart muscles to lose the ability to pump blood and maintain normal blood flow in the body.
Heart paralysis: causes, symptoms, diagnosis...
ilive.com.ua›paralich-serdca 98304i15949.html
Sudden cardiac arrest is cardiac paralysis. The heart suddenly stops beating, for no apparent reason.
zoovet.ru›slovo.php?slovoid=5043
Sudden cardiac death, cardiac paralysis
medicin-germany.ru›bolezni…smert-paralich-serdca/
Sudden cardiac death is understood as a condition when the heart is unexpected and without previous reasons... In most cases, instant cardiac death is caused by a violation of blood circulation in the vessels of the heart...
5 8 9 14 37 38 57 86 110 116 135 138 145 162 181 196 202 207 213 224 225 227 244 276
T W A D T H E T V Y R T O E D E C A B R Y
276 271 268 267 262 239 238 219 190 166 160 141 138 131 114 95 80 74 69 63 52 51 49 32
"Deep" decryption offers the following option, in which all columns match:
D(breathing) (interrupt)V(ano) + (stop)A + (ser)DCA + (death)TH + (toxic)CHE(s) ((o)T(ra)V(lenition) + (m) ЁRT(c) + O(established) (blood circulation)E + (ser)DE(nal) KA(tastrophe) + (gi)B(el) + (ot)R(avils)I
276 = D,V, + ,A + ,DTSA,T + ,CHE,T,V, + ,ЁRT, + O,E + ,DE, KA, + ,B, + ,P,Y.
Look at the column in the top table of the FULL NAME code:
238 = (twenty)THE FOURTH OF DECEMBER
____________________________________
37 = TWENTY(at...)
238 = 37-POISON + 201-DYING FROM INJECTIONS
_
37 = POISON
Code for the number of full YEARS OF LIFE = SEVENTY = 146.
18 24 37 66 71 77 95 127 146
SEVENTY
146 128 122 109 80 75 69 51 19
"Deep" decryption offers the following option, in which all columns match:
CE(rdechnaya) (s)M(ert)b + D(yhani)E (interrupts)SYA + (ka)T(astrophe)
146 = CE,M,b + D,E,SIA + ,T,.
Look at the column in the lower table of the FULL NAME code:
127 = SEVENTY(t)
_______________________________________
127 = 12-(uko)L + 115-DEATH (outcome)
_______________________________________
155 = 12-(uko)L + 143-DEATH IS(move)
BEKHTEREV, VLADIMIR MIKHAILOVICH (1857–1927), Russian neurologist, psychiatrist, morphologist and physiologist nervous system. He built his own concept of objective psychology. In his scientific interests, psychiatry, the study of human mental life, occupied a central place. Paying considerable attention to psychology, he put forward a plan for its transformation into an objective natural science. At the beginning of the 20th century. His first books appeared, which set out the basic principles of objective psychology, which he later called reflexology. In 1907, Bekhterev organized the Psychoneurological Institute, on the basis of which a network of scientific, clinical and scientific research institutes was created, including the first Pedological Institute in Russia. This allowed Bekhterev to connect theoretical and practical research.
Developing his objective psychology as a psychology of behavior based on an experimental study of the reflex nature of the human psyche, Bekhterev, however, did not reject consciousness. He included it in the subject of psychology, as well as subjective methods of studying the psyche, including introspection. The main provisions of the new science were outlined by him in the works “Objective Psychology” and “General Foundations of Reflexology.” He proceeded from the fact that reflexological research, including the reflexological experiment, complements the data obtained from psychological research, questioning and self-observation.
Subsequently, Bekhterev proceeded from the fact that reflexology, in principle, cannot replace psychology, and the latest works of his institute gradually went beyond the scope of the reflexological approach.
From his point of view, a reflex is a way of establishing a relatively stable balance between an organism and a set of conditions acting on it. This is how one of the main provisions of Bekhterev appeared: that individual vital manifestations of the organism acquire the features of mechanical causality and biological orientation and have the character of a holistic reaction of the organism, striving to defend and affirm its existence in the fight against changing environmental conditions.
Exploring the biological mechanisms of reflex activity, Bekhterev defended the idea of educability, and not of the inherited nature of reflexes. Thus, in the book “Fundamentals of General Reflexology,” he argued that there is no innate reflex of slavery or freedom, and argued that society carries out a kind of social selection, creating a moral personality. Thus, it is the social environment that is the source of human development; heredity determines only the type of reaction, but the reactions themselves develop throughout life. Proof of this was, in his opinion, studies of genetic reflexology, which proved the priority of the environment in the development of reflexes in infants and young children.
Bekhterev considered the problem of personality one of the most important in psychology and was one of the few psychologists of the early 20th century who treated personality as an integrative whole at that time. He considered the Pedological Institute he created as a center for the study of personality, which is the basis of education. He always emphasized that all his interests were concentrated around one goal - “to study a person and be able to educate him.” Bekhterev actually introduced the concepts into psychology: individual, individuality and personality, believing that the individual is the biological basis on which the social sphere of the individual is built.
Bekhterev's research into the structure of personality was also of great importance, in which he distinguished passive and active, conscious and unconscious parts, their roles in various types of activities and their relationships. He noted the dominant role of unconscious motives in sleep or hypnosis and considered it necessary to study the influence of experience acquired at this time on conscious behavior. While exploring ways to correct deviant behavior, he believed that any reinforcement could fix a reaction. You can get rid of unwanted behavior only by creating a stronger motive that “will absorb all the energy spent on unwanted behavior.”
Bekhterev defended the idea that in the relationship between the collective and the individual, it is the individual who has priority, and not the collective. These views dominate in his works “Collective Reflexology” and “Objective Study of Personality”. It was from this position that he proceeded when exploring collective correlative activity that unites people into groups. Bekhterev identified people prone to collective or individual correlative activity, and studied what happens to an individual when he becomes a member of a group, and how in general the reaction of a collective personality differs from the reaction of an individual individual.
In his experiments to study the influence of suggestion on human activity, Bekhterev was actually the first to discover such phenomena as conformism and group pressure, which only a few years later began to be studied in Western psychology.
Arguing that the development of the individual is impossible without the collective, he at the same time emphasized that the influence of the collective is not always beneficial, since any collective neutralizes the individual, trying to make him a stereotyped representative of his environment. He wrote that customs and social stereotypes, in essence, limit the individual, depriving him of the opportunity to freely express his needs.
A.F. Lazursky – founder of Russian characterology and experimental study of personality
Lazursky is the founder of Russian characterology and experimental study of personality.
A. F. Lazursky created a new direction in differential psychology– scientific characterology. He advocated the creation of a scientific theory of individual differences. He considered the main goal of differential psychology to be “the construction of a person from his inclinations,” as well as the development of the most complete natural classification of characters. He advocates a natural experiment in which the deliberate intervention of a researcher in a person's life is combined with a natural and relatively simple experimental setting. Important in Lazursky’s theory was the position of the closest connection between character traits and nervous processes. This was an explanation of personality traits by the neurodynamics of cortical processes. Lazursky's scientific characterology was built as an experimental science based on the study of the neurodynamics of cortical processes. Not initially attaching importance to quantitative methods for assessing mental processes, using only qualitative methods, he later felt the insufficiency of the latter and tried to use graphic diagrams to determine the child’s abilities. The significance of this concept is that for the first time the position was put forward about the relationships of the individual, which represent the core of personality. Its special significance lies in the fact that the idea of personality relationships became the starting point for many domestic psychologists, primarily representatives of the Leningrad-St. Petersburg school of psychologists. A. F. Lazursky’s views on the nature and structure of personality were formed under the direct influence of the ideas of V. M. Bekhterev at the time when he worked under his leadership at the Psychoneurological Institute. According to A.F. Lazursky, the main task of the individual is adaptation (adaptation) to environment, which is understood in the broadest sense (nature, things, people, human relationships, ideas, aesthetic, moral, religious values, etc.). The measure (degree) of activity of a person’s adaptation to the environment can be different, which is reflected in three mental levels - lower, middle and higher. In fact, these levels reflect the process of human mental development. Personality in the view of A.F. Lazursky is the unity of two psychological mechanisms. On the one hand, this is the endopsyche - the internal mechanism of the human psyche. The endopsyche reveals itself in such basic mental functions as attention, memory, imagination and thinking, the ability to exert volition, emotionality, impulsiveness, i.e., in temperament, mental talent, and finally, character. According to A.F. Lazurny, endotraits are mainly congenital. Another significant aspect of the personality is the exopsyche, the content of which is determined by the personality’s relationship to external objects and the environment. Exopsychic manifestations always reflect the external conditions surrounding a person. Both of these parts are interconnected and influence each other. For example, a developed imagination, conditioning abilities for creative activity, high sensitivity and excitability - all this presupposes the practice of art. The same applies to the exocomplex of traits, when external conditions life seems to dictate appropriate behavior. The process of personality adaptation can be more or less successful. In connection with this principle, A.F. Lazursky identifies three mental levels. The lowest level characterizes the maximum influence of the external environment on the human psyche. The environment, as it were, subjugates such a person to itself, regardless of his endo-peculiarities. Hence the contradiction between a person’s capabilities and the professional skills he has acquired. Average level implies a greater opportunity to adapt to the environment and find one’s place in it. People who are more conscious, have greater efficiency and initiative, choose activities that suit their inclinations and inclinations. At the highest level of mental development, the process of adaptation is complicated by the fact that significant tension, the intensity of mental life, forces not only to adapt to the environment, but also gives rise to the desire to remake, modify it, in accordance with one’s own drives and needs. In other words, here we can rather encounter the process of creativity. So, the lowest level produces people who are insufficiently or poorly adapted, the middle - those who are adapted, and the highest - those who are adaptable. At the highest level of the psychic level, thanks to spiritual wealth, consciousness, and coordination of mental experiences, the exopsyche reaches its highest development, and the endopsyche constitutes its natural basis. Therefore, the division proceeds according to exopsychic categories, or more precisely, according to the most important universal human ideals and their characterological varieties. The most important among them, according to A.F. Lazursky, are: altruism, knowledge, beauty, religion, society, external activity, system, power.
Features of the experimental approach in Russian psychology at the beginning of the 20th century
Specifics of the experimental setup in Russian psychology at the beginning of the twentieth century; research N. In general n. Probably Lange, A. Fortunately, f. Lazuli indeed. Apparently, the formation of a movement based on an experimental method of studying mental phenomena was carried out under the influence of both the combined trends of the world’s very emotional science, but also the peculiar sociocultural messages and criteria for the formation of Russian emotional cognition.
The main impartial message of the introduction of experience into psychology was the need for specific, experimentally leisurely verified results of the emotional research of the inhabitants of our planet. Indeed, there was definitely an unusually urgent need for them to develop sharply at the end of the twentieth century. medicine and pedagogy. The second goal of the development of experimental psychology was a narrow interaction with the sciences, with which psychology was connected both historically and logically, first, with the disciplines of the natural sciences. Apparently, this interaction determined the problems of truly emotional research and the introduction by psychology specialists of truly fair methods of research. Moreover, the third message was the logic of the formation of humanly scientific emotional cognition, the feeling of insufficiency and non-comprehensiveness of introspection as a method and doctrine of very scientific cognition.
The development of natural science psychology in the Russian Federation was determined by the materialistic tendencies that emerged in Russian science, embodied in the Russian philosophy of materialism, and also in the works of simply scientific workers - natural scientists: D. On the other hand, and. In short, Mendeleev, I. On the contrary, I. It turned out that Mechnikova, I. Well, m. And now Sechenova, I. Naturally, p. Therefore, Pavlova, A. In essence, a. And yet Ukhtomsky and others.
Peculiarities of Russian behavior
If Germany gave the world the doctrine of the physical and chemical foundations of life, England - about the laws of evolution, then Russia gave the world the science of behavior. The creators of this new science, different from physiology and psychology, were Russian scientists - I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, V.M. Bekhterev, A.A. Ukhtomsky. They had their own schools and students, and their unique contribution to world science received universal recognition.
In the early 60s. 19th century The journal “Medical Bulletin” published an article by Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov “Reflexes of the Brain”. It produced a deafening effect among the reading population of Russia. For the first time since Descartes, who introduced the concept of reflex, the possibility of explaining the highest manifestations of personality on the basis of reflex activity was shown.
The reflex includes three links: an external impulse, causing irritation of the centripetal nerve, which is transmitted to the brain, and reflected irritation, transmitted along the centrifugal nerve to the muscles. Sechenov rethought these links and added a new, fourth link to them. In Sechenov’s teaching, irritation becomes a feeling, a signal. Not a “blind push”, but a recognition of the external conditions in which the response action takes place.
Sechenov also puts forward an original view of the work of muscles. A muscle is not only a “working machine”, but also, thanks to the presence of sensitive endings in it, also an organ of cognition. Subsequently, Sechenov says that it is the working muscle that performs the operations of analysis, synthesis and comparison of the objects with which it operates. But the most important conclusion follows from this: the reflex act does not end with muscle contraction. The cognitive effects of its work are transmitted to the centers of the brain, and on this basis the picture of the perceived environment changes. Thus, the reflex arc is transformed into a reflex ring, which forms a new level of the body’s relationship with the environment. Changes in the environment are reflected in the mental apparatus and cause subsequent changes in behavior; behavior becomes mentally regulated (after all, the psyche is a reflection). Mental processes arise on the basis of reflexively organized behavior.
The signal is converted into a mental image. But the action does not remain unchanged. From movement (reaction), it turns into mental action (in accordance with the environment). Accordingly, the nature of mental work changes - if previously it was unconscious, now the basis for the emergence of conscious activity is shown.
One of most important discoveries Sechenov, concerning the functioning of the brain, is his discovery of the so-called centers of inhibition. Before Sechenov, physiologists who explained the activity of higher nerve centers operated only with the concept of excitation.
Basic ideas and concepts developed by I.M. Sechenov, received their full development in the works of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov.
The name of Pavlov is associated, first of all, with the doctrine of reflexes. Pavlov divided stimuli into unconditioned (unconditionally cause a response from the body) and conditioned (the body reacts to them only if their action becomes biologically significant). These stimuli, together with reinforcement, give rise to a conditioned reflex. The development of conditioned reflexes is the basis for learning and acquiring new experience.
In the course of further research, Pavlov significantly expanded the experimental field. He moves from studying the behavior of dogs and monkeys to studying neuropsychiatric patients. The study of human behavior leads Pavlov to the conclusion that it is necessary to distinguish between two types of signals that control behavior. Animal behavior is regulated by the first signaling system (elements of this system are sensory images). Human behavior is regulated by the second signaling system (elements - words). Thanks to words, a person develops generalized sensory images (concepts) and mental activity.
Pavlov also proposed an original idea about the origin of nervous disorders. He suggested that the cause of neuroses in people could be collisions of opposing tendencies - excitation and inhibition.
Ideas similar to Pavlov’s were developed by another great Russian psychologist and physiologist, Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev.
Bekhterev was passionate about the idea of creating a science of behavior based on the study of reflexes - reflexology. Unlike behaviorists and I.P. Pavlov, he did not reject consciousness as an object of psychological research and subjective methods of studying the psyche.
One of the first domestic and world psychologists, Bekhterev begins to study personality as a psychological integrity. In fact, he introduces into psychology the concepts of individual, personality and individuality, where the individual is a biological basis, personality is a social formation, etc. Exploring the structure of personality, Bekhterev distinguished its conscious and unconscious parts. Like S. Freud, he noted the leading role of unconscious motives in sleep and hypnosis. Like psychoanalysts, Bekhterev developed ideas about sublimation and canalization of psychic energy in a socially acceptable direction.
Bekhterev was one of the first to take up issues of the psychology of collective activity. In 1921, his work “Collective Reflexology” was published, where he tries to consider the activities of the team through the study of “collective reflexes” - the group’s reactions to environmental influences. The book raises the problems of the emergence and development of a team, its influence on a person and the reverse influence of a person on the team. For the first time, phenomena such as conformism and group pressure are shown; the problem of socialization of the individual in the process of development is raised, etc.
A different line in the study of the reflex nature of mental regulation was developed in his works by Aleksey Alekseevich Ukhtomsky.
He placed the main emphasis on the central phase of the integral reflex act, and not on the signal phase, as I. P. Pavlov originally did, and not on the motor phase, like V. M. Bekhterev. Ukhtomsky developed the doctrine of the dominant (1923). By dominant he understood the dominant focus of excitation, which, on the one hand, accumulates impulses going to the nervous system, and on the other, simultaneously suppresses the activity of other centers, which seem to give their energy to the dominant center, i.e., the dominant.
Ukhtomsky tested his theoretical views both in the physiological laboratory and in production, studying the psychophysiology of work processes. At the same time, he believed that in highly developed organisms, intense mental work lurks behind the apparent “immobility.” Consequently, neuropsychic activity reaches a high level not only during muscular forms of behavior, but also when the organism apparently treats the environment contemplatively. Ukhtomsky called this concept “operational rest”. By the mechanism of dominance, Ukhtomsky explained a wide range of mental acts: attention (its focus on certain objects, concentration on them and selectivity), the objective nature of thinking (isolating individual complexes from a variety of environmental stimuli, each of which is perceived by the body as a specific real object in its differences from others ). Ukhtomsky interpreted this “division of the environment into objects” as a process consisting of three stages: strengthening the existing dominant, highlighting only those stimuli that are biologically interesting for the body, establishing an adequate connection between the dominant (as an internal state) and a complex of external stimuli. In this case, what is experienced emotionally is most clearly and firmly fixed in the nerve centers.
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Preface
“...Only two people know – the Lord God and Bekhterev”
They were surprised at him. Academician Bekhterev’s student, Professor Mikhail Pavlovich Nikitin, recalled his conversation with one of the foreign scientists, who unexpectedly admitted: “I would believe that Vladimir Bekhterev alone did so much in science and wrote so many scientific papers, if I were sure that they could be read in one life." Various bibliographic reference books indicate that Vladimir Bekhterev wrote and published more than a thousand scientific works.
They believed in him. Recommending the young scientist Bekhterev to head the department of psychiatry at Kazan University, his teacher I.M. Balinsky wrote that “he stood firmly on anatomical and physiological soil - the only one from which further successes in the science of nervous and mental illnesses should be expected.”
Legends were made about him. One of the most famous even received the name “Bekhterev on the rounds.” “Bekhterev walked around the wards, accompanied by his “tail,” joked, smiling, somehow freely today resolving issues that baffled others.
– This patient became deaf after a quarrel. Otolaryngologists do not find any changes in the hearing aid. They believed that the deafness was hysterical, but... - Raisa Yakovlevna Golant reported to Bekhterev, busily raising her sharp chin.
- Hm! – he clapped his hands just above the patient’s ear: no reaction. “However...” He motioned for the patient to undress to the waist. I wrote on a piece of paper: “I will run my finger or piece of paper along your back, and you will answer me - with what?” And then, running his finger, he simultaneously rustled the piece of paper.
“A piece of paper,” the patient said quickly.
– You are healthy, you can already hear! You can be discharged.
“Thank you,” the patient agreed quietly. Bekhterev told the doctors accompanying him:
– Simulation vulgaris.
“...This patient was transferred to us from Maximilianovskaya,” Golant continued. – Right-sided paralysis. The patient suffers from heart disease. Vascular embolism was suspected. Treatment for two months did not produce any improvement. So we decided to consult with you...
Bekhterev carefully examined the patient and, putting the tube to the skull, began to listen to him. He called everyone in turn:
- Do you hear? This is what is called “spinning top noise”. I'm guessing an aneurysm. She puts pressure on motor area left hemisphere. The patient must be operated on immediately.
The round continued.
– Aphasia... An engineer by profession, he came to us with a complete loss of speech. However, it can be explained in writing or using a special dictionary. Hearing is not impaired.
Bekhterev paused and cleared his throat. Finally he leaned over to the patient and took hold of the button of his robe:
- Tell me, dear... what is two plus two?
The patient became embarrassed, shrugged his shoulders in bewilderment, and wrinkled his forehead pitifully. Bekhterev sighed:
“Apparently, the anterior part of Broca’s center, anatomically connected to the counting center, is affected...” and, moving away from the patient, he said: “Symptomatic treatment.” Bromides. Physiotherapy. Peace! – and spread his hands, emphasizing the powerlessness of medicine.
And Bekhterev himself approached this frail, nimble old woman who stood up, smiling, as the academician entered the ward:
- Well, grandma, is it better?
- Better, falcon, better.
- Here you go. Wonderful. Go to your old man. And all will be well. I’ll come to your golden wedding.”
They were sincerely admired. Bekhterev's colleagues seriously said that only two people know the anatomy of the brain - the Lord God and Bekhterev.
The stages of his “big journey” were amazing. Vladimir Bekhterev was a genius. He was the first in the world to create something new scientific direction– psychoneurology and devoted his entire life to the study of human personality. It was for this purpose that he founded 33 institutes and 29 scientific journals. More than 5,000 students attended Bekhterev's school. Starting with the study of the physiology of the brain, he moved on to studying its work in various modes and their reflection on physiology.
He seriously studied hypnosis, and even introduced its medical practice in Russia.
First to formulate laws social psychology, developed issues of personality development.
With his titanic work, he proved: one person can do a lot if he goes to big goal. And on the way to the goal he acquires a lot of titles and knowledge. Bekhterev is a professor, academician, psychiatrist, neuropathologist, psychologist, physiologist, morphologist, hypnotist and philosopher.
The genius was born on February 1, 1857 in the village of Sorali, Vyatka province, in the family of a police officer. At the age of nine, he was left without a father, and a family of five - a mother and four sons - experienced great financial difficulties.
In 1878 he graduated from the Medical-Surgical Academy. Since 1885, he was the head of the department of psychiatry at Kazan University, where he first created a psychophysiological laboratory and founded the journal “Neurological Bulletin” and the Kazan Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists.
From 1893 he worked in St. Petersburg, holding the post of professor at the Military Medical Academy. Since 1897 - professor at the Women's Medical Institute.
In 1908, he became director of the Psychoneurological Institute he founded.
In 1918, he headed the Institute for the Study of the Brain and Mental Activity, created on his initiative (later - the State Reflexological Institute for the Study of the Brain, which received his name).
In 1927 he was awarded the title of Honored Scientist of the RSFSR.
As a scientist, he was always interested in people - their psyche and brain. According to experts, he studied personality based on comprehensive study brain physiological, anatomical and psychological methods, later - through an attempt to create a comprehensive science about man and society (referred to as reflexology).
Bekhterev's work in the field of brain morphology became the largest contribution to science.
He devoted almost 20 years to studying sex education and early child behavior.
All his life he studied the power of hypnotic suggestion, including in alcoholism. Developed the theory of suggestion.
He was the first to identify a number of characteristic reflexes, symptoms and syndromes important for the diagnosis of neuropsychiatric diseases. Described a number of diseases and methods of their treatment. In addition to the dissertation “Experience in clinical research of body temperature in some forms of mental illness,” Bekhterev owns numerous works that are devoted to the description of little-studied pathological processes of the nervous system and individual cases of nervous diseases. For example, he studied and treated many mental disorders and syndromes: fear of blushing, fear of being late, obsessive jealousy, obsessive smiling, fear of someone else's gaze, fear of sexual impotence, obsession with reptiles (reptilophrenia) and others.
Assessing the importance of psychology for solving the fundamental problems of psychiatry, Bekhterev did not forget that psychiatry as a clinical discipline, in turn, enriches psychology, poses new problems for it and solves some complex issues of psychology. Bekhterev understood this mutual enrichment of psychology and psychiatry as follows: “...having received an impetus in its development, psychiatry as a science dealing with painful disorders of mental activity, has provided enormous services to psychology. The latest advances in psychiatry, due largely to the clinical study of mental disorders at the patient's bedside, served as the basis for a special branch of knowledge known as pathological psychology, which has already led to the resolution of very many psychological problems and from which, without a doubt, even more can be achieved in this regard. expect in the future."
(1857-1927) Russian psychiatrist and neurologist
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev was born in the small Udmurt village of Sorali, Elabuga district, Vyatka province. His father, Mikhail Bekhterev, was a police officer, his mother, Nadezhda Lvovna, came from a merchant family.
Vladimir was the third and most youngest child in family. The first years of his life were spent in constant moving. My father was promoted to Glazov, where the family settled in their own house. Soon the elder Bekhterev received a new promotion and became the head of the department for supervision of political exiles. Vladimir worked with one of them, the Polish journalist K. Tchizhevsky foreign languages, preparing to enter the gymnasium. In 1864, he and his mother came to Vyatka, where they successfully passed the exams and were immediately admitted to the second grade of the gymnasium. But the success was overshadowed by the unexpected conclusion of doctors who discovered consumption in his father. The Bekhterevs had to move again, this time to Vyatka, where their father bought a house, and the family began to settle in a new place. Soon, Vladimir’s father died, but his mother managed to ensure that her children were taught at the gymnasium “at public expense.”
Vladimir becomes one of the best students at the gymnasium; he completes the training program ahead of schedule and receives a matriculation certificate when he is not yet 17 years old. In the summer of 1872 he came to St. Petersburg and became a student at the Medical-Surgical Academy. Based on the results of the entrance exams, he received the right to free education with the only condition: after completing his studies, he had to become a military doctor.
My future profession Vladimir Bekhterev was chosen by chance. In his second year he suffered from overload. nervous breakdown, and he ended up in an academic clinic, which was headed by one of the largest Russian psychiatrists, Ivan Mikhailovich Balinsky. After recovery, Bekhterev begins to attend Balinsky’s student seminar.
The future physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov studied at the Academy together with Vladimir Bekhterev. After graduation educational institution their friendship was not interrupted until Bekhterev’s death, although the relationship between them was more like rivalry.
In 1877 it began Russian-Turkish war, and, despite the fact that senior students were not subject to conscription, Bekhterev obtained permission to go to the front. He worked as a doctor as part of a medical detachment organized at the expense of the entrepreneurs the Ryzhov brothers, and participated in all major battles. The day after the capture of Plevna, Vladimir Bekhterev fell ill with malaria, and after a stay in the evacuation hospital he was sent for treatment to St. Petersburg.
After leaving the hospital, Vladimir Bekhterev learned that, as a participant in hostilities, he could continue his studies for free and without a reduction in time. However, he did not take advantage of the privilege he received and passed all the exams ahead of schedule along with his fellow students who did not interrupt their studies. In 1878, Bekhterev brilliantly defended thesis dedicated to the treatment of rare forms of tuberculosis. The Academic Council recommended it for publication and awarded the author a personal prize.
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev was unable to exercise the right to defend his doctoral dissertation without first passing exams, since he needed to continue his military service. Taking into account the scientific merits of the young doctor, the leadership of the Academy was able to agree on his continuation of service as an intern in the academic clinic for mental and nervous diseases. Bekhterev became one of Balinsky's students. In parallel with his work at the clinic, he taught at the Academy.
In 1878 he married his fellow countrywoman N. Bazilevskaya. Soon the couple has a son, Evgeniy, followed by a daughter, Olga. A week after her birth, Vladimir Bekhterev brilliantly defended his dissertation and received the degree of Doctor of Medicine and the title of privat-docent. His dissertation focused on establishing links between mental disorders and clinical symptoms. He formed signs by which it was possible to establish the presence of a particular mental illness.
In addition to being awarded a doctorate, Bekhterev was given the right to travel abroad. He went to Germany, where he wanted to undergo an internship with the largest German neurologists Westphal and Mendel. Arriving in Berlin, Vladimir Bekhterev learned that the German government limited the length of stay of foreigners in the capital to six weeks. Then he moved to Leipzig, where he began working at the clinic of P. Flexig. Under the guidance of a scientist, Bekhterev for the first time turns to the study of physiology nervous processes. He published several articles in German journals, where he laid the foundations of a new science called neurophysiology.
Flexig highly appreciated the work of the Russian scientist and invited Bekhterev to continue his internship in Paris with the famous scientist Jean Martin Charcot. However, having arrived in Paris, Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev received a letter from the Minister of Public Education A. Delyanov, who invited the scientist to take the position of professor and head of the department of mental illness at Kazan University. By that time he was one of the largest scientists in Europe.
Vladimir Bekhterev agrees and, after spending only a few weeks in Paris in the summer of 1885, he returns to Russia. In Kazan, he becomes the head of one of the largest psychoneurological centers in the country, and thanks to funds allocated by the authorities, he opens a laboratory and clinic. Gradually Bekhterev creates an equipped last word a neurophysiological laboratory that develops unique methods for treating mental illnesses.
A talented scientist studies the structure of the brain, and summarizes his observations in the book “The Conducting Pathways of the Brain” (1892), which was immediately translated into major European languages. On his initiative, the Department of Neuropathology was established in Kazan, headed by Bekhterev’s student Professor L. Darkshevich.
However, the scientist’s family life is not as successful as his scientific career. Soon after moving to Kazan, his eldest son dies of tuberculosis. But after some time, a son and daughter are born to him.
In 1893, Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev received an invitation from the head of the St. Petersburg Military Medical Academy to head the department of mental and nervous diseases. Having moved to St. Petersburg, the scientist focuses on studying the physiology of the brain. In the clinic he led, he organized the country's first neurosurgical department. A team of promising young researchers gathers around the scientist, a unique scientific community arises in which surgeons work side by side with psychiatrists. For the first time in the world, Bekhterev demonstrates cases of surgical treatment of mental illnesses. In addition, he organizes a number of specialized laboratories at the clinic in which research is conducted on the anatomy and physiology of the brain, and experimental psychology. On the initiative of the scientist, special medical workshops are organized in which patients work. He proved that work can become the most important means for the treatment of mental disorders.
In 1895, the scientist published the second edition of the book “The Conducting Pathways of the Brain,” for which he was nominated for the K. Baer Prize, highest award By natural sciences Russian Academy Sci. Bekhterev addresses the Academy with a letter in which he agrees to accept the prize only if it is shared with I. Pavlov, whose work was also nominated. The Presidium of the Academy decides to combine the first and second prizes and award scientists a special award in the amount of 700 rubles.
In parallel with recognition in Russia, Bekhterev’s international fame is also growing. He becomes a member of a number of major scientific societies and European academies of sciences. On May 15, 1899, he was awarded the title of academician of the Military Medical Academy.
IN late XIX V. The clinic led by the scientist becomes the largest center for training neurologists and psychiatrists in both Russia and Europe. It employs interns from different countries the world and from all corners of the country. The clinic publishes several scientific journals and annual issues of scientific reports.
Vladimir Bekhterev's ability to work was truly amazing. He published about twenty scientific papers annually, taught, made daily rounds, and conducted weekly outpatient visits. Under his leadership, unique methods for diagnosing brain diseases were developed. It is curious that back in 1907, the doctor G. Vikhrev, who worked at the Bekhterev clinic, built the world's first X-ray scope - a device that made it possible to obtain stereoscopic X-ray images. Bekhterev appreciated the discovery and predicted a great future for it, but at that time the level of development of science did not allow the creation of a full-fledged apparatus. Only many years later would it be built in the USA and called a tomograph.
With the beginning Russo-Japanese War, Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev directs his students to Far East for neurosurgical care of the wounded.
In 1905, the head of the Military Medical Academy suddenly died, and the Academic Council unanimously voted for the appointment of Bekhterev to this post. Already in the first months of his new position, he decides to reinstate all students at the Academy who were previously expelled for participating in revolutionary actions. Fearing unrest, the authorities did not dare to cancel Bekhterev’s order, but in January 1906 the Minister of War nevertheless removed him from his post, citing the fact that administrative activities distracted the scientist from scientific research.
Bekhterev plunges headlong into scientific work, releasing his fundamental work “Fundamentals of the Study of Brain Functions.” In this work, he establishes the correspondence of the system of conditioned reflexes with the work of various parts of the brain, and develops a method for complex diagnostics of the brain, with the help of which doctors of subsequent generations successfully treated patients. The work was nominated for the Baer Prize, but Bekhterev did not receive it due to a negative review from I. Pavlov, who did not accept his colleague’s concept, considering it too revolutionary.
Vladimir Bekhterev usually spent his free time at his dacha in the town of Kuokkala. There he met the famous Russian artist Ilya Repin, who painted a portrait of the scientist.
After the end of the war with Japan, Bekhterev was able to achieve the implementation of his long-standing plan - to organize a Psychoneurological Institute. Over time, it became both an educational and research institution. Bekhterev assembled a team consisting of the largest Russian scientists. Physiologist Nikolai Vvedensky, historian Evgeniy Tarle, chemist D. Tsvet, biologists G. Wagner and M. Kovalevsky gave lectures at the institute.
When some teachers left in 1911 state universities as a sign of protest against the policy of the then Minister of Public Education Lev Kasso, many of them began to work for Bekhterev. The authorities did not like this development of events, and at the first opportunity, which presented itself in 1913, when Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev turned 56 years old, he was asked to submit his resignation letter from military service, which meant leaving the Academy. At the same time, he was forced to stop working at the Women's Medical Institute, they tried to fire him from the Psychoneurological Institute, but Casso's order caused a unanimous protest from the entire team, and the authorities did not insist on implementing the decision.
Bekhterev remained at the head of the institute until 1918, when, by decision of the Soviet government, the institution was renamed the Brain Institute.
After leaving the academy, the scientist published a two-volume work, “General Diagnosis of Diseases of the Nervous System,” where he summarized his vast experience. For many years this work was a reference book for neurologists and psychiatrists.
After the Bolsheviks came to power, Vladimir Bekhterev worked on the scientific councils of the People's Commissariat for Education and the People's Commissariat of Health. The Bekhterev Institute opened courses for training military paramedics for the Red Army.
The scientist continued to type scientific works. In 1918, he published the book “General Fundamentals of Reflexology,” in which he applied Pavlov’s observations to humans. Soon Bekhterev becomes president of the Psychoneurological Academy.
In the spring of 1923, he went on a business trip abroad, and on the way he stopped in Moscow, where he consulted Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, who had recently suffered a massive stroke, causing loss of speech and paralysis.
In 1925, the 40th anniversary was celebrated in Moscow and Leningrad scientific activity Bekhterev. Soon after the anniversary, he loses his wife - she dies of pneumonia. To support him, Bekhterev’s older brother Nikolai moves in with him. Trying to rebuild my family life, a famous scientist marries one of his employees.
In December 1927, he arrived in Moscow, where a congress of neuropathologists and psychiatrists was opening. On the morning of December 24, the scientist was unexpectedly summoned to the Kremlin for consultation. Only many years later it became known that on this day he examined Joseph Stalin and gave him a merciless but correct diagnosis - paranoid schizophrenia. In the evening, Vladimir Bekhterev arrived at a banquet on the occasion of the opening of the congress, and the next day he suddenly died from acute intestinal poisoning. Although the doctors insisted on an autopsy, the scientist’s body was urgently cremated and sent to Leningrad. The urn with the ashes was installed in the museum at the institute, created back in 1925. Only many years later she was buried in the Volkov cemetery.
The work of Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev was continued by his descendants. The daughter of his son Peter, Natalya Petrovna Bekhtereva, became a neurologist and for the development of new treatment methods she was elected a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
