The article talks about a short biography of Dante Alighieri, the famous medieval Italian poet. His main work, “The Divine Comedy,” is included in the golden fund of world literature. Quotes from it have become popular and are used in the works of many poets and writers around the world.
Dante became one of the greatest cultural figures, whose work marked the transition to a new historical era. Medieval ascetic society was in decline, and global changes were approaching. The poet became one of the first to promote humanism, which significantly brought the beginning of the New Age closer.
Biography of Dante: early years
Dante was born in 1265 in Florence. His family was of aristocratic origin, although not very noble or rich. The boy received compulsory education, which, by his own admission, was insufficient. Dante was actively engaged in self-education, giving preference to literature and art. He begins to try his hand as a poet. The poems of the young Dante are still very weak, but new sensual motives are already noticeable in them, running counter to classical ideas.
Already in childhood, the boy found the first source for his future creativity. It turned out to be a neighbor girl named Beatrice. Dante developed a serious passion and love in his youth. Beatrice died young, which was a serious blow for Dante and became his tragedy for the rest of his life. The result was the work "New Life", which received enormous success and brought great fame to the poet. The author's creation was a collection of poems with extensive comments by the author. The artistic value of the work attracted attention to Dante's personality. Independent acquisition of knowledge led to the fact that the poet became one of the most versatile educated people of the era. His knowledge covered a wide range of sciences, from history to astronomy. Dante had an excellent understanding of ancient art and was interested in eastern culture and philosophy.
The poet did not marry for love in 1291. Family life However, things turned out well: the couple had seven children.
Respect for Dante led to his constantly occupying the highest honorary positions in the government of Florence. However, the prosperous existence did not last long. In Florence at that time there was a fierce political struggle between various aristocratic parties, which escalated into armed clashes. The so-called party came to power. "Black Guelphs", who, with the support of the Pope, began severe reprisals against their political opponents.
Biography of Dante: Life in Exile
In 1302, Dante was accused of spending public funds and fined. At the same time, the church sentenced him to death at the stake for his political beliefs. The poet is forced to hide and travel around Italy and France. The wife refused to follow her husband, and they never met again. Dante was everywhere accompanied by respect and honor in his wanderings, but this did not please the poet. He continued to yearn for Florence and took his exile hard. Dante rethinks his attitude towards life. He begins to notice that external prosperity is everywhere accompanied by a fierce struggle between various political groups and states. In this struggle, all means are used, both open violence and lies, deception, intrigue, flattery, etc.
In exile, the poet spends a lot of time creatively. A famous work is the scientific and philosophical treatise “The Feast”, the main feature of which is that it was written in Italian. This was a significant innovation, since all scientific works of that time were written in Latin.
At the same time, the poet takes an active part in public life: gives public lectures, speaks in debates where pressing issues are discussed. Dante preaches his views, formed in exile, which are humanistic in nature.
Since 1316, Dante has lived in Ravenna.
Dante's greatest work, which glorified his name, was the "Comedy", later called "Divine". The poet wrote it over many years and finished it just before his death. Detailed description the wanderings of the soul in the afterlife immortalized the name of Dante. His "Comedy" has become a classic work, which any educated person must get acquainted with.
In 1321, Dante fell ill with malaria and soon died. The poet was never able to return to his hometown, although I dreamed about it all my life. After a long time, the government of Florence realized that it had lost its greatest citizen. Attempts were made to return the remains to their homeland. However, Dante’s ashes still remain in a foreign land.
On May 21, 1265, one of the founders of the literary Italian language, the greatest poet, theologian, and politician, who went down in the history of world literature as the author of The Divine Comedy, was born. Dante Alighieri.
The Alighieri family belonged to the city's middle-class nobility, and its ancestor was the famous knight Cacciaguida, who died in the Second Crusade in 1147. Full name legendary poet Durante degli Alighieri, he was born in Florence, the largest Italian economic and cultural center Middle Ages, and remained devoted to his hometown all his life. Little is known about the writer’s family and life; even the exact date of his birth is questioned by many researchers.
Dante Alighieri was an amazingly confident man. At the age of 18, the young man said that he could write poetry perfectly and that he mastered this “craft” on his own. Dante was educated within the medieval school programs, and since there was no university in Florence at that time, he had to obtain basic knowledge himself. The author of The Divine Comedy mastered the French and Provençal languages, read everything he could get his hands on, and his own path as a scientist, thinker and poet gradually began to emerge before him.
Poet-exile
The youth of the brilliant writer fell on a difficult period: at the end of the 13th century, the struggle between the emperor and the pope intensified in Italy. Florence, where the Alighieris lived, was divided into two opposing factions - the “blacks” led by Corso Donati and the “whites,” to which Dante belonged. Thus began the political activity of the “last poet of the Middle Ages”: Alighieri participated in city councils and anti-papal coalitions, where the writer’s oratory gift was revealed in all its brilliance.
Dante did not seek political laurels, but political thorns very soon overtook him: the “blacks” intensified their activities and carried out a pogrom against their opponents. On March 10, 1302, Alighieri and 14 other “white” supporters were sentenced to death in absentia. To save himself, the philosopher and politician had to flee Florence. Dante was never able to return to his beloved city again. Traveling around the world, he looked for a place where he could retire and work quietly. Alighieri continued to study and, most importantly, create.
Monogamous poet
When Dante was nine years old, a meeting took place in his life that changed the history of all Italian literature. On the threshold of the church he ran into a little neighbor girl Beatrice Portinari and at first sight fell in love with the young lady. It was this tender feeling, as Alighieri himself admitted, that made him a poet. Until the last days of his life, Dante dedicated poems to his beloved, idolizing “the most beautiful of all angels.” Their next meeting took place nine years later, by this time Beatrice had already married, her husband was a rich signor Simon de Bardi. But no ties of marriage could prevent the poet from admiring his muse; all her life she remained “the mistress of his thoughts.” The autobiographical confession of the writer “New Life”, written at the fresh grave of his beloved in 1290, became a poetic document of this love.
Dante himself entered into one of those business marriages for political convenience that were accepted at that time. His wife was Gemma Donati, the daughter of a wealthy gentleman Manetto Donati. When Dante Alighieri was expelled from Florence, Gemma remained in the city with the children, preserving the remnants of her father’s property. Alighieri does not mention his wife in any of his works, but Dante and Beatrice became the same symbol of a love couple as Petrarch And Laura, Tristan And Isolde, Romeo And Juliet.
Dante and Beatrice on the banks of Lethe. Cristobal Rojas (Venezuela), 1889. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org
Italian "Comedy"
Beatrice's death marked the beginning of Dante's philosophical reflections on life and death, he began to read a lot Cicero, attend a religious school. All this served as the impetus for the creation of The Divine Comedy. A work of genius, created by the author in exile, and today is traditionally one of the ten most famous books. Dante's poem had a huge influence on the emergence of Italian literature itself. According to researchers, it is this work that summarizes the entire development of medieval philosophy. It also reflects the worldview of the greatest poet, which is why The Divine Comedy is called the fruit of the entire life and work of the Italian master.
Alighieri’s comedy did not immediately become “divine”, as it was later dubbed by the author of “The Decameron” Giovanni Boccaccio, having come to admiration from what I read. Dante called his manuscript very simply - “Comedy”. He used medieval terminology, where comedy is “any poetic work of the middle style with a terrifying beginning and a happy ending, written in the vernacular”; tragedy is “any poetic work of high style with an admiring and calm beginning and a terrible end.” Despite the fact that the poem touches on the “eternal” themes of life and immortality of the soul, retribution and responsibility, Dante could not call his work a tragedy, because it, like all genres of “high literature”, had to be created on Latin. Alighieri wrote his “Comedy” in his native Italian, and even with the Tuscan dialect.
Dante worked on his greatest poem for almost 15 years, managing to complete it shortly before his death. Alighieri died of malaria on September 14, 1321, leaving behind a significant mark on world literature and marking the beginning of a new era - the early Renaissance.
Dante Alighieri - the greatest and famous person, born in the Middle Ages. His contribution to the development of not only Italian, but also all world literature cannot be assessed. Today, people often search for the biography of Dante Alighieri in summary. But to be so superficially interested in the life of such a great man who made a huge contribution to the development of languages is not entirely correct.
Biography of Dante Alighieri
Speaking about the life and work of Dante Alighieri, it is not enough to say that he was a poet. The area of his activity was very extensive and multifaceted. He was interested not only in literature, but also in politics. Today Dante Alighieri, whose biography is filled with interesting events, is called a theologian.
Beginning of life
The biography of Dante Alighieri began in Florence. The family legend, which has long been the basis of the Alighieri family, stated that Dante, like all his relatives, was a descendant of the great Roman family, which laid the preconditions for the founding of Florence itself. Everyone considered this legend to be true, because Dante’s father’s grandfather was in the ranks of the army that took part in Crusade under the command of the Great Conrad the Third. It was this ancestor of Dante who was knighted, and soon died tragically during the battle against the Muslims.
It was this relative of Dante, whose name was Cacciaguida, who was married to a woman who came from a very rich and noble family - Aldighieri. Over time, the name of a famous family began to sound a little different - “Alighieri”. One of the children of Cacciaguida, who later became Dante's grandfather, often suffered persecution from the lands of Florence in those years when the Guelphs were constantly fighting with the Ghibelline peoples.
Biography highlights
Today you can find many sources that briefly talk about the biography and work of Dante Alighieri. However, such a study of Dante’s personality will not be entirely correct. A short biography of Dante Alighieri will not be able to convey all those seemingly unimportant biographical elements that so greatly influenced his life.
Speaking about the date of birth of Dante Alighieri, no one can say the exact date, month and year. However, it is generally accepted that the main date of birth is the time that Boccaccio named, being a friend of Dante, - May 1265. The writer Dante himself wrote about himself that he was born under the zodiac of Gemini, which suggests that Alighieri’s birth time was the end of May - the beginning of June. What is known about his baptism is that this event took place in 1266, in March, and his baptismal name sounded like Durante.
Education of Dante Alighieri
Another important fact that is mentioned in all short biographies of Dante Alighieri was his education. The first teacher and mentor of the young and still unknown Dante was the popular writer, poet and at the same time scientist - Brunetto Latini. It was he who laid the first poetic knowledge in young head Alighieri.
And today the fact remains unknown where Dante received his further education. Scientists who study history unanimously say that Dante Alighieri was very educated, knew a lot about the literature of antiquity and the Middle Ages, was well versed in various sciences and even studied heretical teachings. Where could Dante Alighieri have acquired such extensive knowledge? In the poet’s biography, this became another mystery that is almost impossible to solve.
For a long time Scientists from all over the world have tried to find the answer to this question. Many facts suggest that Dante Alighieri could have acquired such extensive knowledge at the university, which was located in the city of Bologna, since it was there that he lived for some time. But, since there is no direct evidence of this theory, we can only assume that this is so.
First steps in creativity and trials
Like all people, the poet had friends. His closest friend was Guido Cavalcanti, who was also a poet. It was to him that Dante dedicated a huge number of works and lines of his poem “New Life”.
At the same time, Dante Alighieri became known as a fairly young public and political figure. In 1300 he was elected to the post of prior, but soon the poet was expelled from Florence along with his comrades. Already on his deathbed, Dante dreamed of being in his native land. However, throughout his entire life after the expulsion, he was never allowed to visit the city, which the poet considered his homeland.
Years spent in exile
The expulsion of their hometown made Dante Alighieri, whose biography and books are filled with bitterness from separation from his native land, a wanderer. At the time of such large-scale persecution in Florence, Dante was already among the famous lyric poets. His poem “New Life” had already been written by this time, and he himself worked hard to create “The Feast”. Changes in the poet himself were very noticeable in his further work. Exile and long wandering left an indelible mark on Alighieri. His great work “The Feast” was supposed to be a response to the 14 canzones already accepted in society, but it was never completed.
Development in the literary path
It was during his exile that Alighieri wrote his most famous work“Comedy”, which began to be called “divine” only years later. Alighieri's friend Boccaccio greatly contributed to the name change.
There are still many legends about Dante's Divine Comedy. Boccaccio himself claimed that all three cants were written in different cities. The last part, “Paradise,” was written in Ravenna. It was Boccaccio who said that after the poet died, his children for a very long time could not find the last thirteen songs that were written by the hand of the great Dante Alighieri. This part of the “Comedy” was discovered only after one of Alighieri’s sons dreamed of the poet himself, who told where the manuscripts were located. Such a beautiful legend is actually not refuted by scientists today, because there are a lot of oddities and mysteries surrounding the personality of this creator.
Personal life of the poet
In the personal life of Dante Alighieri, everything was far from ideal. His first and last love was the Florentine girl Beatrice Portinari. Having met his love in Florence, as a child, he did not understand his feelings for her. Having met Beatrice nine years later, when she was already married, Dante realized how much he loved her. She became the love of his life, inspiration and hope for a better future. The poet was shy all his life. During his life, he spoke only twice with his beloved, but this did not become an obstacle for him in his love for her. Beatrice did not understand, did not know about the poet’s feelings, she believed that he was simply arrogant, so he did not talk to her. This was precisely the reason that Portinari one day felt very resentful towards Alighieri and soon stopped talking to him altogether.
For the poet this was a strong blow, because it was under the influence of the very love that he felt for Beatrice that he wrote most of his works. Dante Alighieri's poem “New Life” was created under the influence of Portinari’s words of greeting, which the poet regarded as a successful attempt to attract the attention of his beloved. And Alighieri completely dedicated his “Divine Comedy” to his only and unrequited love for Beatrice.
Tragic loss
Alighieri's life changed greatly with the death of his beloved. Since at twenty-one, Biche, as the girl’s relatives affectionately called her, was married to a rich and influential man, it remains surprising that exactly three years after her marriage, Portinari suddenly died. There are two main versions of the death: the first is that Biche died during a difficult birth, and the second is that she was very ill, which ultimately led to death.
For Alighieri, this loss was very great. For a long time, not finding his place in this world, he could no longer feel sympathy for anyone. Based on the awareness of his precarious position, a few years after the loss of his beloved woman, Dante Alighieri married a very rich lady. This marriage was created solely for convenience, and the poet himself treated his wife absolutely coldly and indifferently. Despite this, in this marriage Alighieri had three children, two of whom eventually followed the path of their father and became seriously interested in literature.
Death of a great writer
Death overtook Dante Alighieri suddenly. In late summer 1321, Dante went to Venice to finally make peace with the famous Church of St. Mark. During his return to his native land, Alighieri suddenly fell ill with malaria, which killed him. Already in September, on the night of the 13th to 14th, Alighieri died in Ravenna without saying goodbye to his children.
Alighieri was buried there, in Ravenna. The famous architect Guido da Polenta wanted to build a very beautiful and rich mausoleum for Dante Alighieri, but the authorities did not allow this, because the poet spent a huge part of his life in exile.
Today, Dante Alighieri is buried in a beautiful tomb, which was built only in 1780.
The most interesting fact What remains is that the familiar portrait of the poet has no historical basis or authenticity. This is how Boccaccio imagined him.
Dan Brown in his book "Inferno" writes a lot of biographical facts about Alighieri's life, which are actually recognized as reliable.
Many scientists believe that the beloved Beatrice was invented and created by time, that such a person never existed. However, no one can explain how, in this case, Dante and Beatrice could become a symbol of enormous and unhappy love, standing on the same level as Romeo and Juliet or Tristan and Isolde.
DANTE ALIGHIERI
(1265-1321)
An outstanding Italian poet, whose enormous figure, in the words of F. Engels, determines the end of the feudal Middle Ages and the beginning of the modern capitalist era. He entered the history of world literature as “the last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of modern times” (F. Engels), the author of “New Life” (1292-1293) and “The Divine Comedy” (1313-1321).
Dante was born in Florence into a noble family that belonged to the Guelph party, one of the most influential Florentine political parties. She expressed the interests of the urban bourgeoisie and was guided by the pope. The second influential party was the Ghibelline party, which defended the interests of the feudal lords and focused on the emperor. Since Florence at that time was the most developed and rich city of fragmented Italy, it was here that a fierce struggle took place between the bourgeoisie, which was gradually gaining strength, and supporters of feudal society.
From a young age, Dante participated in the political struggle on the side of the Guelphs, which influenced the formation of his active and active nature. At the same time, while studying law at the University of Bologna, he became interested in Dante's poetry. He was particularly influenced by the school of the “sweet new style”, founded by Guido Guinizelli, a literature teacher at the University of Bologna. It was him who Dante called his teacher and father. The lyricism of the school of the “sweet new style” combined the experience of Provençal chivalric poetry with its refined cult of service to the Lady and the tradition of Sicilian poetry, full of reflections and philosophical considerations of beauty.
Dante's early works (30 poems, of which 25 sonnets, 4 canzones and one stanza), combined with prose text, formed a collection called “New Life” (Vita nuova). The works in this collection contain all the elements of the “sweet new style” - philosophy, rhetoric, mystical symbolism and elegance of form. But at the same time, the collection also becomes the first achievement of the new Renaissance literature - a real hymn to life and love. Its name itself is symbolic. It can be interpreted as “new”, “updated”, “young” and may have several semantic meanings. Firstly, the change from one period of life to another (real plan). Secondly, a renewal associated with the cult of the lady of the heart and interpreted in accordance with the norms of love etiquette characteristic of Provençal culture (a plan for stylizing life events: “New Life” is an autobiographical story about Dante’s love story for Beatrice). And thirdly, spiritual rebirth in the religious sense (the highest, philosophical plane).
It is interesting to note that already in Dante’s debut work the renewal has a stepwise system - from earthly reality (the first meeting of nine-year-old Dante with eight-year-old Beatrice in the first chapter) through purification to the contemplation of paradise in the last chapters, where, after the death of Beatrice, relying on the symbolism of the number nine , proves that she was "a miracle whose root is in a strange trinity." This semantic polysemy, this non-stop movement of the soul from the earthly to the heavenly, the divine, denotes the content and structure already in the years of exile.
The fact is that Dante not only loves in poetry, but also, being a man of solid character and strong passions, a person with a developed civic consciousness, becomes a noticeable political figure. The Guelphs came to power in Florence, and in 1300 Dante was elected one of the seven members of the college of priors, which ruled the city commune. However, in the face of intensified social struggle, the unity of the Guelph party did not last long, and it split into two warring groups - the “whites”, who defended the independence of the commune from the papal curia, and the “blacks” - supporters of the pope.
With the help of papal power, the “black” Guelphs defeated the “whites” and began to massacre them. Dante's house was destroyed, and he himself was sentenced to burning. Saving his life, Dante leaves Florence in 1302, to which he will never be able to return. During the first years of exile, he lives in the hope of the defeat of the “blacks”, tries to establish connections with the Ghibilins, but quickly becomes disillusioned with them, proclaiming that from now on he is “creating a party on his own.” Remaining a supporter of a united Italy, Dante pins his hopes on the German Emperor Henry VII, who soon dies.
In exile, the poet fully understands how bitter other people’s bread can be and how difficult it is to climb other people’s stairs.” He had to live with like-minded patrons of the arts, sort out their libraries, serve as a secretary, and for some time (approximately 1308-1310) he moved to Paris.
Florence offers Dante to return to his hometown on condition of performing a humiliating form of penance, which Dante resolutely refuses. In 1315, the Florentine lordship again sentenced him to death, and Dante forever lost hope of returning to Florence, but did not stop his socio-political activities for Italy without wars and without papal power.
He doesn’t stop either literary activity. In his work of the period of recognition, new features appear, in particular, passionate didacticism. Dante acts as a philosopher and thinker, driven by the desire to teach people, to open to them the world of truth, and to contribute through his works to the moral improvement of the world. His poetry is filled with moral maxims, fabulous knowledge, and techniques of eloquence. In general, journalistic motifs and genres prevail.
Until 1313, when he began to write the Divine Comedy, Dante wrote the moral and philosophical treatise “The Symposium” (1304-1307) and two treatises in Latin, “On the Vernacular” and “The Monarchy”. "Feast", like "New Life", unites prose texts and poetry. Grandiose in concept (14 philosophical canzones and 15 prose treatises and commentaries on them), unfortunately, it remained unfinished: 3 canzones and 4 treatises were written. Already in the first canzone, Dante proclaims that his goal is to make knowledge accessible to a wide range of people, and therefore “The Feast” was written not in the Latin language traditional for the people of that time, but in the Italian language, Volgare, accessible to all people. He calls it “bread for all,” bread “with which thousands will be satisfied... It will be a new light, a new sun that will rise where the familiar has set; and it gives light to those who are in darkness, since the old sun no longer shines on them.”
The Symposium broadly presents the philosophical, theological, political and moral issues of the time. Medieval in plot and teaching style - yes, philosophy here appears in the form of a noble donna - Dante's work bears the expressive features of the Renaissance day. First of all, it is the exaltation of the human personality. According to the deep conviction of the poet, the nobility of a person does not depend on wealth or aristocratic origin, but is an expression of wisdom and spiritual perfection. The highest form of perfection of the soul is knowledge, “our highest bliss lies in it, we all naturally strive for it.”
The challenge to the Middle Ages is his call: “Love the light of knowledge!”, addressed to those in power, those who stand above the peoples. This call foreshadows the glorification of the thirst for knowledge as one of the noblest qualities of man in the Divine Comedy. In the 26th canto of “Hell”, Dante brings the legendary Odysseus (Ulysses) onto the stage and presents him as a tireless and courageous seeker of new worlds and new knowledge. In the words of the hero, addressed to his extremely tired and exhausted companions, lies the conviction of the poet himself.
His reflections on the fate of fragmented Italy and polemical attacks against her enemies and unworthy rulers are full of the Renaissance spirit; “Oh, my poor homeland, what pity for you squeezes my heart, every time I read, every time I write, something about public administration!” or (address to the now forgotten kings Charles of Naples and Frederick of Sicily): “Think about this, enemies of God, you, first one, then the other, seized rule over all of Italy, I address you, Charles and Frederick, and before you, other rulers and tyrants... It would be better for you, like swallows, to fly low above the earth, like hawks, circling in an unattainable height, looking from there at great meanness.”
The treatise “On the People's Language” is the first linguistic work in Europe, the main idea of which is the need to create a unified language for Italy literary language and his dominance over numerous dialects (Dante counts fourteen of them). Dante's civic position is reflected even in purely philological work: he introduces political meaning into his scientific judgments, connecting them with the idea of the unity of the country, which is important to him. The unfinished treatise “Monarchy”, which crowns his political journalism, is also imbued with the pathos of the unity of Italy. This is a kind of political manifesto of Dante, in which he expresses his views on the possibility of building a fair and humane state, capable of ensuring universal peace and personal freedom of every citizen.
If Dante had not written anything else, his name would still have gone down in the history of world literature forever. And yet, his world fame is associated primarily with his last work - the poem “The Divine Comedy” (1313-1321). In it, Dante brought together all the experience of the mind and heart, artistically rethought the main motives and ideas of his previous works in order to say his word “for the benefit of the world where good is persecuted.” The purpose of the poem, as the poet himself noted, is “to snatch those living in this life from the state of junk and lead them to a state of bliss.”
Dante called his work “Comedy,” explaining that, according to the norms of medieval poetics, this is the effect of any work of the middle style with a terrifying beginning and a happy ending, written in the folk language. Giovanni Boccaccio, the author of the Decameron and Dante’s first biographer, called Dante’s poem “The Divine Comedy” in his book “The Life of Dante,” expressing his admiration for the artistic perfection of the form and the richness of the content of the work.
The poem consists of three parts: “Hell”, “Purgatory” and “Paradise”. Each part (cantika) in turn has 33 songs, to which an introduction is attached, and the poem thus has 100 songs. The form of the verse of the poem is also determined by the number 3. Dante here canonizes the terzin form, taking it as the basis for the architectonics of the Divine Comedy. This structure, on the one hand, repeats the Christian model political world, which is divided into three spheres - Hell - Purgatory-Paradise, and on the other hand, it is subject to the mystical symbolism of the number 3.
The compositional structure perfectly corresponds to the intention of the poem: through visions, common in the religious literature of the Middle Ages, a journey in the afterlife to depict a person’s path to moral improvement. Dante here relies not only on religious literature, but also on the experience of Homer, who sent Odysseus to the kingdom of the dead, and on the most authoritative example of Virgil, in whom Aeneas also ascends to Tartarus to see his father.
At the same time, Dante goes much further than his predecessors. The most important artistic feature his work is that the poet himself becomes a traveler in the other world. It is he who is “halfway through the earthly world”, lost in the discord of life, which he compares to a gloomy, harsh and wild forest inhabited by ferocious predators, who seeks salvation. His favorite poet Virgil comes to Dante's aid. He becomes Dante's guide and leads him through hell and purgatory, in order to further transfer him to his beloved Beatrice, in whose illuminated accompaniment Dante ascends to heaven.
A characteristic feature of the poem is its extreme semantic richness. Almost every image in it has several meanings. Direct, immediate meaning, behind which lies an allegorical one, and that, in turn, can be either purely allegorical, or moral, or analogous (spiritual). So, the predators that crossed Dante’s path in the wild forest were the usual panther, she-wolf and lion. In an allegorical sense, the panther means voluptuousness, as well as oligarchy; Leo - neglect, violence, as well as tyranny; the she-wolf - greed, as well as the worldly power of the Roman church. At the same time, they are all symbols of fear, embarrassment, confusion in front of some hostile forces. In allegorical terms, Dante is the embodiment of the soul, Virgil - the mind, Beatrice - the highest wisdom. Hell is a symbol of evil, heaven is a symbol of love, goodness and virtue, purgatory is a transition from one state to another, higher, and the journey through the afterlife itself means the path to salvation.
The combination in the poem of a purely medieval picture of the world with its established ideas about afterlife and atonement for earthly sins with the poet’s extremely frank, passionate and emotionally charged attitude towards the images and events he painted elevates it to the level of a brilliant innovative work. Representing a grand synthesis of medieval culture, The Divine Comedy simultaneously carries within itself the powerful spirit of a new culture, a new type of thinking, which foreshadows the humanistic era of the Renaissance.
A socially active person, Dante is not content with abstract moralizing: he transports his contemporaries and predecessors into the other world with their joys and experiences, with their political preferences, with their actions and deeds - and carries out a strict and unforgiving judgment on them from the position of a sage-humanist . He acts as a comprehensively educated person, which allows him to be a politician, theologian, moralist, philosopher, historian, physiologist, psychologist and astronomer. According to the best Russian translator of Dante's poem M.L. Lozinsky, “The Divine Comedy” is a book about the Universe and, to the same extent, a book about the poet himself, which will forever remain for centuries as an ever-living example of a brilliant creation.
DANTE
Alighieri [Italian] Dante Alighieri] (May 1265, Florence - 13/4.09.1321, Ravenna), Italian. poet, thinker.
D. gen. in the family of a poor landowner, a Guelph nobleman. He received his legal education in Bologna. He became famous early on as a poet of the “sweet new style” school. From 1295 he was actively involved in the political life of the Florentine Republic. In 1300 he became one of the members of the government of Florence. Since 1302 political emigrant. From 1308 to 1313, as a publicist and politician, he actively contributed to the new imp. Henry VII, whose mission was to unite Italy and restore the greatness of the Roman Empire. After the death of the emperor (1313) and the execution of the top of the Templar Order (1314), with the Crimea D. connected his political projects, he wandered around the North. Italy in search of patronage and spiritual support (possibly visited Paris), without giving up hope of returning to Florence. However, the authorities of Florence in 1315 passed another death sentence, closing D.'s path to his homeland. From 1317 until his death he lived in Ravenna, where he completed the main work of his life - The Divine Comedy.
Main works: autobiographical story “New Life” (La Vita Nuova, 1292-1293, published in 1576); unfinished poetic and philosophical work “The Feast” (Convivio, 1303-1306); philosophical and political treatises “On popular eloquence” (De vulgari eloquentia, 1304-1307) and “On the monarchy” (De monarchia, 1307-1313); a poem in 3 parts (cants) and 100 songs “Comedy”, later called “The Divine Comedy” (La Divina Commedia, 1307-1321, published in 1472).
D. is considered the creator of Italian. lit. language and one of the founders of Europe. Literatures of the New Age. D.'s poems, dedicated to Beatrice, her untimely deceased lover, create a new artistic ideal that combines deified and idealized femininity with a specific psychologically and biographically accurate portrait of the Lady glorified by the poet. This ideal reflects not only the courtly tradition, but also the psychological discoveries of St. Francis of Assisi. In philosophical treatises D. gravitates toward an encyclopedic synthesis of the Middle Ages. scholarship, masterfully using the legacy of Aristotle, bl. Augustine, Boethius, Saint-Victorian mysticism, Bernard of Clairvaux, Bonaventure, Thomas Aquinas.
The treatise “The Feast” was conceived as a commentary on the canzones written by D. in the 90s. The object of commentary is the poetry of the author himself, and during the interpretation, elements of the author's biography, his assessment of his contemporaries, political views and emotions are introduced into the text. Such personalization of the text and the confidence that the author’s “I” is a worthy subject for a scientific treatise are atypical for the Middle Ages. commentator with his reverent “bottom-up” view of the subject of study. It is also unusual that the treatise is written in Italian. language: D. is rightly spoken of as the creator of Italian. scientific language. “The Feast” is characterized by a mixture of genres mastered by the Middle Ages. The most revealing book in this regard is III, in which D. sets out his understanding of philosophy. "Donna Gentile", the noble lady of the 2nd canzone, is Philosophy, the mistress of Reason. Behind this allegory is a reinterpretation of the events of D.’s personal life, his love for the “compassionate Donna,” which we know about from “New Life.” In order to explain the nature of philosophy, D. abundantly draws on information from physics, astronomy, psychology, and history. Chapter 14 contains an essay on D.'s sophiology, based on the Proverbs of Solomon: starting with Platonic scholasticism, the author, through courtly images, moves on to a mixture of ancient and Christian. vocabulary, depicting “heavenly Athens, where the Stoics, Peripatetics and Epicureans, illuminated by the light of eternal truth, are united by a single thirst” (Convivio. III 14. 15). Next, the author clarifies the hierarchy of Christian spiritual values and correlates them with the intuition of the Higher Femininity, which permeates all of D.’s work. Wisdom is called “the mother of everything and the beginning of every movement...” (Ibid. III 15. 15). The Eternal Wisdom of the Proverbs of Solomon merges with them.
Unlike the “Feast” of lat. D.'s treatise “On Popular Eloquence” gives the impression of integrity, although it also remained unfinished. Perhaps the philosophy of language as a thoughtful whole is first encountered precisely in the work “On Popular Eloquence.” D. clearly distinguishes between natural and cultural, “artificial” language. “The more noble of these two speeches is the popular one” (De vulgari eloquentia. I 1.4). The criteria for “nobility” (i.e. nobility and dignity) of folk speech are as follows: it is natural, living, general and primary. Secondary speech, with all its sophistication and sublimity, does not have the ability to develop and cannot fully fulfill its purpose, that is, to be a force that unites people. D. emphasizes that speech is specific human quality . Angels and demons understand each other without words: angels perceive their own kind either directly or through reflection in a divine mirror; It is enough for demons to know about the existence and power of their own kind. Animals of the same breed have the same actions and passions, and therefore can recognize others by themselves. A person is deprived of both types of spontaneity. It is moved by reason, and since reason is individual, people do not know each other by the likeness of actions and passions. But reason, separating man from animals, does not join him to the angels, since the soul of people is clothed with a rough shell of the body. Hence the need for a “reasonable and sensory sign” (Ibid. I 3.2), since without rationality a sign can neither exist in thinking nor penetrate into other thinking, and without sensory means the very transfer of rationality is impossible. Speech is such an object: sensory, since it is sound, and rational, since it means what we intend. D.'s theory of sign is one of the first semiotic concepts in Europe. Moreover, it is closely related to the understanding of culture in general. D. sees in speech a fundamental property of man, on which both the ability to communicate and connection with the higher spiritual worlds are based (according to D., man’s first word was “El” - God) (Ibid. I 4.4), and, finally, the social unity of humanity. In ch. 7 books I D. briefly tells about the construction of the Tower of Babel, which people started in order to surpass nature and the Creator. God punished pride by confusing languages and thereby destroying the human community. D. believed that the geographical dispersion of peoples is connected with this socio-linguistic catastrophe. Therefore, the dream of a Bud language. Italy was for him something more than a concern for the perfection of literature. Italy is the heir to the traditions of Rome; according to D., it should also play the role of Rome as a force uniting peoples, as a source of imperial power. The collection of scattered “languages” and the revival of the forgotten original language - this should be, according to D., the goal of culture. The basis for the search for the first language remains folk speech, since, unlike artificial Latin, it was given by God and retains a living connection with reality. D. discovers that languages are in a process of continuous change, caused by changes in spiritual and material life. D. makes an exception for ancient Hebrew, which has been preserved in purity since the time of Adam (however, in the “Comedy” it is already indirectly assumed that this language is also subject to corruption). The first to speak, according to D., was not God, but Adam, since the impulse to speak was invested in him. The poet reproduces this situation, repeats in his work the action of the first poet Adam, to whom God allowed him to speak, “so that in explaining such a great talent, the one who bestowed grace would be glorified” (Ibid. I 5.2).
D. discovered a living force, which was not noticed behind the artificial constructions of Latin, - a natural folk language, “Volgare” (Italian volgare). The treatise highlights another category that is not characteristic of the thinking of classical Christ. Middle Ages - nation. Language turns out to be the substance in which the individual soul of a people materializes; Moreover, language allows us to see that the nation is not reducible to sociality and religion, to territory and politics. Perhaps for the first time in the Middle Ages, D. began to hear the motif of the homeland as a special subject of concern and spiritual effort. At the same time, D. is the singer of the “world empire” and the universal truth of Christianity. His philosophical and poetic works reveal an awareness of a new cultural and historical reality - the autonomy of the individual, the power of science, the idea of the independence and intrinsic value of nature, language, emotionality, and the nation. At the same time, the Middle Ages remains an axiom for D. the doctrine of the hierarchy of world existence, in which each lower level lives by the gifts of the higher and has meaning to the extent that it is capable of reflecting the light of higher values. Therefore, the discovery of new essences only means a greater degree of penetration of meaning into matter, or, in theological language, greater “glory.”
In Op. “On Monarchy” D. seeks to prove 3 main points: an empire is necessary for the earthly happiness of mankind; the power of the emperor is given directly by God; Rome. the people rightfully assumed the role of imperial power. D. believes that the origin of the state was due to the Fall of Adam. Humanity found itself in the grip of sensual passions, the most dangerous of which was greed, and therefore had to create a social system that would protect people from themselves, from their destructive self-interest. However, this is a commonplace of the Middle Ages. D.'s worldview is significantly adjusted. Man, even in his nature not spoiled by sin, is a political, social being, who always strives for communication and life together. Just like Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas, D. believes the formation of the state natural process. Gos-vo, traces, does not bear the stamp of an ancient curse and can be a form of a happy life. Adam's sin makes itself felt in the fact that the greed of people infects the state itself, which loses the functions of justice and enters into a selfish struggle with other states and with its citizens. Therefore, the thinker believes, a third force is needed to unite society and the state. Only the monarchy can lay claim to the role of a reconciling third force. The unlimited power of the Dantean emperor - a ruler who had little in common with the absolute monarch of the national state of the 17th-18th centuries - is based on law, morality, divine sanction, and on the nature of the world order. In fact, it is more limited than any other power. The emperor stands above passions, he has no private interest, everything belongs to him and, therefore, nothing in particular, to which he could be partial. With certain reservations, one can compare this image with the Aristotelian monarch, with Plato's philosophers and guards, with the podesta (ruler of the Italian commune), but not with the monarch of the New Age. D. argues that the empire as a legal establishment precedes the one who exercises power, that is, the emperor, who, due to this, cannot divide the empire into parts, limit his power and transfer it by inheritance. Constantine is the first Christ. Emperor - committed, therefore, an illegal act when he gave the Church power over a large region in Italy. D. believed that this mistake of Constantine (the falsity of the “gift” (see Art. Gift of Constantine) was not yet known to D.) played its fatal role in the penetration of worldly interests into church life. D. emphasizes the emperor’s dependence on ideal principles, arguing that “it is not the citizens who exist for the sake of the consuls and not the people for the sake of the king, but on the contrary, the consuls for the sake of the citizens and the king for the sake of the people” (De monarchia. I 12.11). As the highest judge and legislator, the emperor is obliged to intervene in those disputes that cannot be resolved due to the equality of rights of the disputants (such are disputes between sovereign states), and his job is to take care of everyone and the state as a whole. If laws and power are not used for common benefit, then they lose their legal character, because the very nature of the law is perverted (Ibid. II 5. 2-3). Not only justice and order, but also freedom are the subject of concern for the emperor. Freedom is “the greatest gift laid down by God in human nature, for through it we find bliss here as people, and through it we find bliss there as gods” (Ibid. I 12.6). D. concludes that those living under the rule of a monarch are the most free. After all, freedom is the existence of people for their own sake, and not for something else; but this state can only be ensured by a monarch, who has no other interests other than fulfilling his duty. Only he can protect people from the perverted government. systems that subjugate the people. From view D., not only democracy, oligarchy and tyranny, but also monarchy, if it does not represent a worldwide empire, is a usurpation of power. A healthy form of power for D. is the coincidence of the universal and the individual in the person of the emperor. The spiritual support of the monarch should be a philosopher (Ibid. III 16); because otherwise the danger of arbitrariness and tyranny would be too great. The main tasks of the monarch are to protect freedom, establish relations between the political elements of the empire and establish peace. Only peace can give humanity that state that Scripture calls “the fullness of times” (Eph 1:10; Gal 4:4), that is, well-being and harmony. Only in a peaceful society can justice, legality and truth find a place for themselves - the social virtues that D. valued above all else. But peace is possible when a person extremely accurately reproduces the pattern set by God the world ruler, and for this it is necessary that he renounce self-interest, relying on the universal principle in himself. Monarchy, according to D., is the ideal system for such overcoming false individuality, since in it a person is subordinate to only one principle and this principle realizes, without sacrificing freedom, the universal ideal (De monarchia. I 8-9). “On Monarchy” is perhaps the first treatise on universal peace that the political thought of Europe has learned.
Peace and justice for D. not only social categories. These are also natural and supernatural (theological) concepts. The world was created as the embodiment of a good plan, the foresight of nature is not inferior to the foresight of man, and therefore natural processes and historical events as if they correspond to each other in their internal order. “...The order established by nature must be preserved by law” (Ibid. II 6.3), otherwise human society will fall out of the world order. An important corollary of these Dantean arguments was the idea of a radical separation of the functions of the pope and the emperor. D. takes an unprecedented position in the old dispute about the “two swords”. He does not agree with those who interpreted the Gospel text (Luke 22. 36-38) as an indication that Peter (the Church) has two swords (secular and spiritual power), of which he hands the secular sword to the emperor as a vassal. D., therefore, opposed the prevailing concept of theocracy in his time, which was justified, for example, by Thomas Aquinas. Thomas called on emperors to submit to the pope as to Christ Himself. D. insists that the emperor stands directly before God, receives sanction for power from Him and bears full responsibility. The Pope, from his point of view, is not the vicar of Christ, but of Peter. And although the monarch must show him respect similar to the respect of God the Son for God the Father, they are equal exponents of God's will.
D.'s teaching about Rome plays a special role in clarifying the status of the world monarch. D. glorifies the mission of Rome, connecting the earthly kingdom and the Heavenly Kingdom, which became, as it were, the social matter of the Incarnation, since its jurisdiction then extended to Palestine. He notes that at the time when Christ was born, peace and prosperity reigned in the empire (which indicated the ideal goal of the state), and draws attention to the simultaneity of the birth of the “Mary Root”, i.e. the lineage of the Virgin Mary, and the foundation Rome. D. sees in Rome the sanctified flesh of the state, which began its journey with conquest, but must end with the affirmation of the universal power of love. There is no doubt that D. did not imagine a world state centered in Rome as the dominance of the Italian nation, although he was proud of the remnants of the preserved continuity. Just as the chosenness of Israel was rethought by Christianity as the union of God with the spiritual “Israel”, with believers, so D. tries to rethink the mission of Rome as the ideal power of justice. Such an idealization was possible because the political structure of the world empire seemed to him in the form of an equal union of independent cities and kingdoms, in the internal affairs of which the emperor did not interfere, remaining the supreme guardian of the rule of law. D. not only defends the autonomy of secular power, but also protects the purity of the spiritual authority of the Church. After all, God builds His relationship with believers not on the force of the law, but on the basis of faith, giving people freedom. A clear distinction between spiritual and political power will, according to D., help protect against abuse. Spiritual authority reveals a meaningful world of truth and the path to salvation, but he should not embody these ideals by resorting to political power. The power of politics gives legal forms of action and the power to defend them, but cannot prescribe the choice of moral values. D.'s utopia differs sharply from the theocratic teachings of the blessed one. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas; it opposes the theories of the French. lawyers who fought for the principle of national independence of the state and did not recognize the world empire; Finally, in contrast to the purely political concepts of the separation of secular and spiritual power of Occam and Marsilius of Padua, it contains a positive religion. and a moral ideal, the image of a world monarch. Catholic The Church reacted to Op. “On the Monarchy” is much harsher than “ Divine Comedy": in 1329 it was condemned, and in 1554 it was included in the Index of Prohibited Books. Not enough tradition. for the Church and not innovative enough for French lawyers. king, this theory was forgotten, but in the 19th century. turned out to be in tune with conservative thought.
D.'s "Comedy" is a grandiose lit. a mystery telling about the author’s journey in 1300 through 3 afterlife worlds: hell, purgatory and paradise. D. creates unprecedented pictures in terms of artistic detail and symbolic richness of 9 circles of the infernal funnel, 9 levels of the mountain of purgatory, 9 heavenly worlds and the heavenly Rose in the Empyrean, from where D. contemplates the Holy One. Trinity. Led by successive guides - Virgil, Beatrice and Bernard of Clairvaux, the hero learns the structure of the world, the laws of posthumous retribution, meets and talks with numerous characters from history and modernity. During the journey-pilgrimage, the author-hero relives his life, cleansing and transforming. That. “Comedy”, as a symbol of wandering, shows both the path of historical humanity and the path of internal self-deepening and salvation. In the theological aspect, D.'s attempt to reconcile the opposing currents within the Catholic Church is interesting. Churches (for example, the Dominicans and Franciscans are depicted as 2 wheels, on the axis of which the chariot of the Church is established) (La Divina Commedia. Paradis. 11. 12) and transform earthly conflicts into harmonious round dances of thinkers. With unprecedented courage for the Middle Ages, D. combines in the mystical event he glorified the fate of a specific earthly person with the fate of history and the universe, while remaining within the framework of Christ. humanism.
If lit. The fate of the Comedy was triumphant, but its theological aspect was more than once questioned. But in the end it was generally accepted that the Comedy was in conformity with the dogmas and traditions of Catholicism. The Comedy was not included in the Index of Banned Books, and after a wave of criticism and attacks caused by the ideology of the Counter-Reformation, the card approach was established. Roberta Bellarmine, who in his work “On the Contradictions of the Christian Faith” (1613), leaving the heretical motives of D. in the shadows, interpreted the dubious passages of the “Comedy” in an orthodox spirit. "Comedy" is rightly considered not only an encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. spirituality, but also one of the greatest creations of Europe. civilization.
In Russian Danish culture enters the era of romanticism (together with the pan-European return of the great Italian from relative oblivion). Romantic consciousness associates its favorite themes with D.: the role of genius in history; national and global in literature; creation of modern epic; building an integral worldview based on artistic intuition; symbol as universal-synthetic means of expression. The romantics were impressed by moral pathos, political passionarity and deep sincere religiosity. D. V. A. Zhukovsky and K. N. Batyushkov - the pioneers of Russian Dantology - closely studied the “Comedy” and, as the researchers showed, considered its translation. Following them, P. A. Katenin made the first experience of commenting on the “Comedy” and in his translation experiments outlined the stylistic strategy of mixing colloquial language with book and “high” language, which the best Russians would subsequently follow. translators.
Since the 30s. XIX century Russian language is beginning to actively take shape. scientific dentistry. In the works of N. I. Nadezhdin (dissertation “On the origin, nature and fate of poetry called romantic”, 1830), S. P. Shevyrev (dissertation “Dante and his century”, 1833-1834), in the articles of N. A. Polevoy, A.V. Druzhinin reflected the heated controversy that was being waged at that time by the Russians. romantic aesthetics. The topics of debate went far beyond the scope of the aesthetic topic itself, and D.'s legacy allowed polemicists to make natural transitions from literature to politics and social history. Indicative in this regard are the controversies of Polevoy, Nadezhdin and Shevyrev, for the self-determination of whose position both the legacy of A. S. Pushkin and the legacy of D. Rus were equally relevant. academic science The works of the historian P. N. Kudryavtsev (“Dante, his century and life”, 1855-1856), linguists F. I. Buslaev and A. N. Veselovsky laid the foundations for the historical and cultural analysis of the phenomenon of D.
For Russian Literary works of D., starting with Pushkin and N.V. Gogol, become a constant resource of ideas, images, creative impulses, allusions and correlations. The artist who dared to take on the mission of a prophet and judge, who built a grandiose generalizing picture of the world through the means of poetry, turns out to be for Russians. writers are a kind of starting point in the landscape of world literature. In the works of the Golden Age we find both attempts to directly reproduce the poetics of D. (Dreams by A. N. Maikov), and its indirect reflection (for example, Notes from the House of the Dead and the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky).
A special era of the development of gold in Russia was the Silver Age and adjacent times. The romantic understanding of D. as a genius-seer, a wanderer to other worlds, preserved in symbolism in a “removed” form, generally gives way to the image of D. as a master theurgist, practitioner and politician, who does not turn away from the problems of his time. The lyrics of V. Ya. Bryusov, Vyach are permeated with Dantean motifs. I., A. A. Blok, A. Bely. Coming from Vl. S. Solovyov’s tradition of the philosophy of all-unity (E. N. Trubetskoy, S. L. Frank, S. N., L. P. Karsavin, priest Pavel Florensky, A. F. Losev) also constantly keeps D. in the field of its cultural consciousness. For Silver Age An expanded reading of Dante’s heritage, not limited to the Comedy, is very characteristic. Yes, Vl. Solovyov not only picks up D.'s Sophia motives, but also directly relies on the political teaching of his op. "About the monarchy." Vyach. Ivanov, as can be seen from his constant and systematic appeals to D.’s legacy, essentially considers the life of the poet, his scientific works, artistic creations, political asceticism. In the poem “Man” Vyach. Ivanov - with an obvious eye on the "Comedy" - undertakes his own experience of constructing a "supertext" about the fate of the world and humanity. For such thinkers of the Silver Age as Vl. Solovyov, Vyach. Ivanov, Ellis, D.S. Merezhkovsky, a well-known role in their sustained interest in D., in his “pre-Tridentine” religion. worldview, the opportunity to overcome the mediastinum between Orthodoxy and Catholicism also played a role. The impulse of the Silver Age lives on in subsequent decades. The Acmeists create their own Dante: the “Dantean layer” is obvious in the poetry of A. A. Akhmatova; one of the most insightful interpretations of Dante is given by O. E. Mandelstam (“Conversation about Dante”, 1933); The author of the famous translation of the Comedy, M. L. Lozinsky, also belonged to the circle of Acmeists. An impressive experience in coordinating the cosmology of D. and modern times. science is carried out by the priest. P. Florensky (“Imaginaries in Geometry”, 1922). A subtle analysis of Dante’s early work is given by A. M. Efros (“Young Dante”, 1934). D. appears as a character of some esoteric world history in A. Bely’s manuscript of the 20-30s. XX century “The history of the formation of a self-conscious soul” and in Merezhkovsky’s extensive work “Dante” (1939).
Works: Opere di Dante: testo critico della società dantesca italiana / A cura di M. Barbi et al. Firenze, 1921; Tutte le opere / A cura di F. Chiapelli. Mil., 1965; La Divina Commedia / A cura di D. Mattalia. Mil., 1986. Vol. 1-3; fav. rus. trans.: Collection. Op.: In 5 volumes / Transl. from Italian, commentary: M. L. Lozinsky. St. Petersburg; M., 1996; Collection Op.: In 2 vols. / Transl. from Italian, intro. Art. and commentary: M. L. Lozinsky. M., 2001; New Life / Transl. from Italian: A. Efros, commentary: S. Averintsev and A. Mikhailov. M., 1965, 1985; Small works. M., 1968; Monarchy / Transl. from Italian: V. P. Zubov, commentary: I. N. Golenishchev-Kutuzov. M., 1999; Divine Comedy / Trans. from Italian: M. L. Lozinsky. M., 2004; The same / Transl. from Italian: D. Minaev. M., 2006.
Lit.: Zaitsev B.K. Dante and his poem. M., 1922; Dunbar H. F. Symbolism in Medieval Thought and its Consummation in the Divine Comedy. New Haven, 1929; Efros A. M. Young Dante // Dante Alighieri. New life. M., 1934. P. 9-64; Ledig G. Philosophie der Strafe bei Dante und Dostojewski. Weimar, 1935; Dzhivelegov A.K. Dante Alighieri: Life and Creativity. M., 19462; Guardini R. Der Engel in Dantes Göttlicher Komödie. Münch., 19512; idem. Das Licht bei Dante. Münch., 1956; idem. Landschaft der Ewigkeit. Münch., 1958; Batkin L.M. Dante and his time. M., 1965; Dante and the Slavs. M., 1965; Elina N. G. Dante. M., 1965; Charity A. C. Events and Their Afterlife: The Dialectics of Christian Typology in the Bible and Dante. Camb., 1966; Golenishchev-Kutuzov I. N. Dante. M., 1967; aka. Dante's creativity and world culture. M., 1971; Mandelstam O. E. Conversation about Dante. M., 1967; Gilson E. Dante and Philosophy. Gloucester (Mass.), 1968; Alekseev M.P. First acquaintance with Dante in Russia // From classicism to romanticism: From the history of international. connections rus. liters. L., 1970. P. 6-62; Encyclopedia Dantesca. R., 1970-1976. Vol. 1-5; Blagoy D. D. Il gran "padre (Pushkin and Dante) // Dante readings. M., 1973. P. 9-64; Boccaccio D. Life of Dante // He. Small works. L., 1975. P. 519-572; Gabrieli F. Dante and Islam // Arab medieval culture and literature. M., 1978. P. 203-208; Losev A. F. Aesthetics of the Renaissance. M., 1978. P. 197-204; Andreev M. L. Time and eternity in the “Divine Comedy” // Dante readings. 1979. pp. 156-212; Belza I. F. Some problems of interpretation and commentary on the “Divine Comedy” // Ibid. pp. 34-73; he same. Dante's echoes of “The Bronze Horseman” // Ibid. 1982. pp. 170-182; Anderson W. Dante the Maker. L.; Boston, 1980; Boyde P. Dante Philomythes and Philosopher: Man in the Cosmos. Camb. , 1981; Nardi B. Dante e la cultura medievale. R., 1983; Ilyushin A. A. Above the line of the “Divine Comedy” // Dante readings. 1985. pp. 175-234; Shichalin Yu. A. On some images of the Neoplatonic origins in Dante // Western European medieval literature. M., 1985. pp. 98-100; Lotman Yu. M. Notes on artistic space // Works on sign systems. Tartu, 1986. Vol. 19. P. 25-43; Asoyan A. A. Dante and Russian literature of the 1820-1850s. Sverdlovsk, 1989; aka. “Honor the highest poet...”: The fate of Dante’s “Divine Comedy” in Russia. M., 1990; Dobrokhotov A. L. Dante Alighieri. M., 1990; Khlodovsky R.I. Anna Akhmatova and Dante // Dante readings. 1993. pp. 124-147; Zelinsky F. F. Homer - Virgil - Dante // Aka. From the life of ideas. M., 1995. T. 4: Revivalists. Vol. 1. pp. 58-79; Ivanov V.I. From rough notes about Dante // Vyacheslav Ivanov: Materials and research. M., 1996. P. 7-13; Tahoe-Godi E. A. Dante and K. K. Sluchevsky // Dante readings. 1996. pp. 69-94; Shishkin A. B. The flaming heart in the poetry of Vyacheslav Ivanov and Dante’s vision of “The Blessed Wife” // Ibid. pp. 95-114; Merezhkovsky D. S. Dante. Tomsk, 1997; Auerbach E. Dante - poet of the earthly world. M., 2004; Sergeev K.V. Theater of Fate of Dante Alighieri: Introduction. into the practical anatomy of genius. M., 2004; Eliot T. S. Dante. What does Dante mean to me? // He. Favorites. M., 2004. T. 1/2: Religion, culture, literature. pp. 296-315.
