Coursework: Alcohols

Introduction........................................................ ........................................................ ............... 2

Chapter I. Properties of alcohols.................................................... ........................... 5

1.1. Physical properties alcohols........................................................ .................... 5

1.2. Chemical properties alcohols........................................................ ................... 6

1.2.1. Interaction of alcohols with alkali metals.7

1.2.2. Replacement of the hydroxyl group of an alcohol with a halogen.8

1.2.3. Dehydration of alcohols (elimination of water)..................................... 9

1.2.4. Formation of alcohol esters.................................... 10

1.2.5. Dehydrogenation of alcohols and oxidation.................................. 10

Chapter 2. Methods for producing alcohols.................................................... .. 12

2.1. Production of ethyl alcohol................................................................... ................ 12

2.2. The process of obtaining methyl alcohol.................................................... ... 14

2.3. Methods for obtaining other alcohols.................................................. ............. 15

Chapter 3. Use of alcohols.................................................... ................... 16

Conclusion................................................. ........................................................ .... 19

Bibliography................................................ ..................................... 20

Alcohols are called organic matter, whose molecules contain one or more functional hydroxyl groups connected to a hydrocarbon radical.

They can therefore be considered as derivatives of hydrocarbons, in the molecules of which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by hydroxyl groups.

According to the position of the hydroxyl group, alcohols are divided into: primary - with a hydroxyl group at the final link of the chain of carbon atoms, which, in addition, has two hydrogen atoms (R-CH 2 -OH); secondary, in which the hydroxyl is attached to a carbon atom connected, in addition to the OH group, with one hydrogen atom, and tertiary, in which the hydroxyl is connected to a carbon not containing hydrogen atoms [(R)C-OH] (R-radical: CH 3, C 2 H 5, etc.)

Depending on the nature of the hydrocarbon radical, alcohols are divided into aliphatic, alicyclic and aromatic. Unlike halogen derivatives, aromatic alcohols have a hydroxyl group that is not directly bonded to the carbon atom of the aromatic ring.

According to the substitutive nomenclature, the names of alcohols are composed of the name of the parent hydrocarbon with the addition of a suffix –ol. If there are several hydroxyl groups in the molecule, then use the multiplying prefix: di-(ethanediol-1,2), three-(propanetriol-1,2,3), etc. Numbering of the main chain begins from the end closest to which the hydroxyl group is located. According to radical-functional nomenclature, the name is derived from the name of the hydrocarbon radical associated with the hydroxyl group, with the addition of the word alcohol .

The structural isomerism of alcohols is determined by the isomerism of the carbon skeleton and the isomerism of the position of the hydroxyl group.

Let's consider isomerism using the example of butyl alcohols.

Depending on the structure of the carbon skeleton, two alcohols will be isomers - derivatives of butane and isobutane:

CH 3 – CH 2 – CH 2 –CH 2 – OH CH 3 – CH – CH 2 – OH

Depending on the position of the hydroxyl group on either carbon skeleton, two more isomeric alcohols are possible:

CH 3 – CH – CH 2 –CH 3 H 3 C – C – CH 3

The number of structural isomers in the homologous series of alcohols increases rapidly. For example, based on butane there are 4 isomers, pentane - 8, and decane - already 567.

The physical properties of alcohols depend significantly on the structure of the hydrocarbon radical and the position of the hydroxyl group. The first representatives of the homologous series of alcohols are liquids, while higher alcohols are solids.

Methanol, ethanol and propanol are mixed with water in all proportions. With increasing molecular weight, the solubility of alcohols in water decreases sharply, so, starting with hexyl alcohol, monohydric alcohols are practically insoluble. Higher alcohols are insoluble in water. The solubility of alcohols with a branched structure is higher than that of alcohols with an unbranched, normal structure. Lower alcohols have a characteristic alcoholic odor; the odor of middle homologs is strong and often unpleasant. Higher alcohols are practically odorless. Tertiary alcohols have a special, characteristic musty odor.

Lower glycols are viscous, colorless, odorless liquids; highly soluble in water and ethanol, have a sweet taste.

With the introduction of a second hydroxyl group into the molecule, the relative density and boiling point of alcohols increases. For example, the density of ethylene glycol at 0°C is 1.13, and that of ethyl alcohol is 0.81.

Alcohols have abnormally high boiling points compared to many classes of organic compounds and than would be expected based on their molecular weights (Table 1).

Table 1.

Physical properties of alcohols.

Individual representatives		Physical properties
Name	structural formula	mp., °С	bp, °C
Monatomic
Methanol (methyl)	CH 3 OH	-97	64,5
Ethanol (ethyl)	CH 3 CH 2 OH	-115	78
Propanol-1	CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 OH	-127	97
Propanol-2	CH 3 CH(OH)CH 3	-86	82,5
Butanol-1	CH 3 (CH 2) 2 CH 2 OH	-80	118
2-Methylpropanol-1	(CH 3) 2 CHCH 2 OH	-108	108
Butanol-2	CH 3 CH(OH)CH 2 CH 3	-114	99,5
Diatomic
Ethanediol-1,2 (ethylene glycol)	NOCH 2 CH 2 OH	-17	199
Triatomic
Propanetriol-1,2,3 (glycerol)	HOCH 2 CH(OH)CH 2 OH	20	290

This is explained by the structural features of alcohols - with the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonds according to the scheme:

Branched alcohols boil lower than normal alcohols of the same molecular weight; Primary alcohols boil above their secondary and tertiary isomers.

Like all oxygen-containing compounds, the chemical properties

alcohols are determined primarily by functional groups and, in

to a certain extent, the structure of the radical.

Characteristic feature The hydroxyl group of alcohols is the mobility of the hydrogen atom, which is explained by the electronic structure of the hydroxyl group. Hence the ability of alcohols to undergo certain substitution reactions, for example, with alkali metals. On the other hand, the nature of the bond between carbon and oxygen is also important. Due to the greater electronegativity of oxygen compared to carbon, the carbon-oxygen bond is also somewhat polarized, with a partial positive charge on the carbon atom and a negative charge on the oxygen. However, this polarization does not lead to dissociation into ions; alcohols are not electrolytes, but are neutral compounds that do not change the color of the indicators, but they have a certain electric dipole moment.

Alcohols are amphoteric compounds, that is, they can exhibit both the properties of acids and the properties of bases.

1.2.1. Interaction of alcohols with alkali metals.

Alcohols, like acids, interact with active metals (K, Na, Ca). When the hydrogen atom of the hydroxyl group is replaced by a metal, compounds called alkoxides are formed (from the name alcohols - alcohols):

2R – OH + 2Na 2R – ONa + H 2

The names of alcoholates are derived from the names of the corresponding alcohols, for example,

2C 2 H 5 OH + 2Na 2C 2 H 5 – ONa + H 2

Lower alcohols react violently with sodium. With weakening acidic properties in middle homologues the reaction slows down. Higher alcohols form alcoholates only when heated.

Alcoholates are easily hydrolyzed by water:

C 2 H 5 – ONa + HOH C 2 H 5 - OH + NaOH

Unlike alcohols, alcoholates are solids that are highly soluble in the corresponding alcohols.

Alcoholates of metals other than alkali are also known, but they are formed indirectly. Thus, alkaline earth metals do not react directly with alcohols. But alcoholates of alkaline earth metals, as well as Mg, Zn, Cd, Al and other metals that form reactive organometallic compounds, can be obtained by the action of alcohol on such organometallic compounds.

1.2.2. Replacement of the hydroxyl group of an alcohol with a halogen.

The hydroxyl group of alcohols can be replaced by a halogen by the action of hydrohalic acids, halogen phosphorus compounds or thionyl chloride, for example,

R – OH + HCl RCl + HOH

Alcohol

It is most convenient to use thionyl chloride to replace the hydroxyl group; The use of halogen phosphorus compounds is complicated by the formation of by-products. The water formed during this reaction decomposes the alkyl halide into alcohol and hydrogen halide, so the reaction is reversible. For it to be successful, it is necessary that the starting products contain a minimum amount of water. Zinc chloride, calcium chloride, and sulfuric acid are used as water-removing agents.

This reaction proceeds with splitting covalent bond, which can be represented by the equality

R: OH + H: Cl R - Cl + H 2 O

The rate of this reaction increases from primary to tertiary alcohols, and it also depends on the halogen: it is greatest for iodine, least for chlorine.

1.2.3. Dehydration of alcohols (removal of water).

Depending on the dehydration conditions, olefins or ethers are formed.

Olefins (ethylene hydrocarbons) are formed by heating alcohol (except methyl alcohol) with an excess of concentrated sulfuric acid, as well as by passing alcohol vapor over aluminum oxide at 350° - 450°. In this case, intramolecular elimination of water occurs, that is, H + and OH – are subtracted from the same alcohol molecule, for example:

CH 2 – CH 2 CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2 O or C 2 H 5 OH + CH 3 COOH C 2 H 5 COOCH 3 + H 2 O

ROH + SO 2 SO 2 +H 2 O

This kind of interaction of alcohol with acids is called an esterification reaction. The rate of esterification depends on the strength of the acid and the nature of the alcohol: with increasing acid strength it increases, primary alcohols react faster than secondary ones, secondary alcohols react faster than tertiary ones. Esterification of alcohols with carboxylic acids is accelerated by the addition of strong mineral acids. the reaction is reversible, the reverse reaction is called hydrolysis. Esters are also obtained by the action of acid halides and acid anhydrides on alcohols.

1.2.5. Dehydrogenation of alcohols and oxidation.

The formation of different products in dehydrogenation and oxidation reactions is the most important property that allows us to distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols.

When vapors of a primary or secondary, but not tertiary, alcohol are passed over metallic copper at elevated temperatures, two hydrogen atoms are released and the primary alcohol is converted into an aldehyde; secondary alcohols give ketones under these conditions.

CH 3 CH 2 OH ® CH 3 CHO + H 2 ; CH 3 CH(OH)CH 3 ® CH 3 COCH 3 + H 2 ;

tertiary alcohols do not dehydrogenate under the same conditions.

The same difference is exhibited by primary and secondary alcohols during oxidation, which can be carried out “wet”, for example, by the action of chromic acid, or catalytically, with an oxidation catalyst

Metallic copper also serves as an oxidizing agent: oxygen from the air:

RCH 2 OH + O ® R-COH + H 2 O

CHOH + O ®C=O + H 2 O

In their free form, many alcohols are contained in volatile essential oils of plants and, at the same time, together with other compounds, they determine the smell of many flower essences, for example, rose oil, etc. In addition, alcohols are found in the form of esters in many natural compounds - in wax, essential and fatty oils, animal fats. The most common of the alcohols found in natural products is glycerin - an essential component of all fats, which still serve as the main source of its production. Among the compounds that are very common in nature are polyhydric aldehyde and ketone alcohols, grouped under common name sugars The synthesis of technically important alcohols is discussed below.

Hydration processes are interactions with water. The addition of water during technological processes can be carried out using two methods:

1. The direct hydration method is carried out through the direct interaction of water and the raw materials used for production. This process is carried out in the presence of catalysts. The more carbon atoms there are in the chain, the faster the hydration process occurs.

2. The indirect method of hydration is carried out using the formation of intermediate reaction products in the presence of sulfuric acid. And then the created intermediate products undergo hydrolysis reactions.

In modern production of ethyl alcohol, the method of direct hydration of ethylene is used:

CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2 O « C 2 H 5 OH – Q

The production is carried out in shelf-type contact devices. The alcohol is separated from the reaction by-products in a separator, and rectification is used for final purification.

The reaction begins with an attack by a hydrogen ion on the carbon atom that is bonded to more hydrogen atoms and is therefore more electronegative than the neighboring carbon. After this, water is added to the neighboring carbon, releasing H +. This method is used to prepare ethyl, sec-propyl and tert-butyl alcohols on an industrial scale.

To obtain ethyl alcohol, various sugary substances have long been used, for example, grape sugar, or glucose, which is converted into ethyl alcohol by “fermentation” caused by the action of enzymes produced by yeast fungi.

C 6 H 12 O 6 ® 2C 2 H 5 OH + 2CO 2

Glucose is found in free form, for example, in grape juice, the fermentation of which produces grape wine with an alcohol content of 8 to 16%.

The starting product for producing alcohol can be the polysaccharide starch, contained, for example, in potato tubers, grains of rye, wheat, and corn. To convert it into sugary substances (glucose), starch is first subjected to hydrolysis. To do this, flour or chopped potatoes are boiled hot water and after cooling, add malt - sprouted, then dried and ground barley grains with water. Malt contains diastase (a complex mixture of enzymes), which acts catalytically on the process of starch saccharification. After saccharification is completed, yeast is added to the resulting liquid, under the action of which the enzyme produces alcohol. It is distilled and then purified by repeated distillation.

Currently, another polysaccharide, cellulose (fiber), which forms the bulk of wood, is also subjected to saccharification. To do this, cellulose is subjected to hydrolysis in the presence of acids (for example, sawdust at 150 -170°C is treated with 0.1 - 5% sulfuric acid under a pressure of 0.7 - 1.5 MPa). The product thus obtained also contains glucose and is fermented into alcohol using yeast. From 5500 tons of dry sawdust (waste from a sawmill with average productivity per year) you can get 790 tons of alcohol (calculated at 100%). This makes it possible to save about 3,000 tons of grain or 10,000 tons of potatoes.

The most important reaction of this type is the interaction of carbon monoxide and hydrogen at 400°C under a pressure of 20 - 30 MPa in the presence of a mixed catalyst consisting of copper oxide, chromium, aluminum, etc.

CO + 2H 2 « CH 3 OH – Q

Methyl alcohol is produced in shelf-type contact devices. Along with the formation of methyl alcohol, there are processes of formation of reaction by-products, therefore, after the process, the reaction products must be separated. To separate methanol, a refrigerator-condenser is used, and then the alcohol is further purified using multiple rectification.

Almost all methanol (CH 3 OH) is produced industrially using this method; In addition, under other conditions, mixtures of more complex alcohols can be obtained. Methyl alcohol is also formed during the dry distillation of wood, which is why it is also called wood alcohol.

Hydrolysis of halogen derivatives when heated with water or aqueous alkali solution

CH 3 – СНВr – CH 3 + H 2 O ® CH 3 – CH(OH) – CH 3 + HBr

primary and secondary alcohols are obtained, tertiary haloalkyls form olefins in this reaction;

Hydrolysis of esters, mainly natural (fats, waxes);

Oxidation of saturated hydrocarbons at 100° - 300° and pressure 15 - 50 atm.

Olefins are converted by oxidation into cyclic oxides, which, when

Glycols provide hydration, and this is how ethylene glycol is produced industrially:

H 2 O

ABOUT

CH 2 = CH 2 ® CH 2 – CH 2 ® NOCH 2 – CH 2 OH;

There are methods that have mainly laboratory

application; some of them are practiced in fine industrial synthesis, for example in the production of small quantities of valuable alcohols used in perfumery. These methods include aldol condensation or the Grignard reaction. Thus, according to the method of chemist P.P. Shorygin, phenylethyl alcohol is obtained from ethylene oxide and phenylmagnesium halide - a valuable fragrant substance with the smell of roses.

Due to the diversity of properties of alcohols different structures the scope of their application is very extensive. Alcohols – wood, wine and fusel oils – for a long time served as the main source of raw materials for the production of acyclic (fatty) compounds. Currently, most organic raw materials are supplied by the petrochemical industry, in particular in the form of olefins and paraffinic hydrocarbons. The simplest alcohols (methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl) in large quantities are consumed as such, as well as in the form of esters of acetic acid, as solvents in paint and varnish production, and higher alcohols, starting with butyl, in the form of esters of phthalic, sebacic and other dibasic acids - as plasticizers.

Methanol serves as a raw material for the production of formaldehyde, from which synthetic resins are prepared, used in huge quantities in the production of phenol-formaldehyde plastic materials; methanol serves as an intermediate for the production of methyl acetate, methyl and dimethyl aniline, methylamines and many dyes, pharmaceuticals, fragrances and other substances. . Methanol is a good solvent and is widely used in the paint and varnish industry. In the oil refining industry, it is used as an alkali solvent in the purification of gasoline, as well as in the separation of toluene by azeotropic rectification.

Ethanol is used in ethyl liquid as an additive to fuels for carburetor internal combustion engines. Ethyl alcohol is consumed in large quantities in the production of divinyl, for the production of one of the most important insecticides, DDT. It is widely used as a solvent in the production of pharmaceuticals, fragrances, dyes and other substances. Ethyl alcohol is a good antiseptic.

Ethylene glycol is successfully used to prepare antifreeze. It is hygroscopic, therefore it is used in the manufacture of printing inks (textile, printing and stamping). Ethylene glycol nitrate is a strong explosive that replaces nitroglycerin to a certain extent.

Diethylene glycol - used as a solvent and for filling hydraulic brake devices; in the textile industry it is used in finishing and dyeing fabrics.

Glycerin - used in large quantities in the chemical, food (for the production of confectionery, liqueurs, soft drinks, etc.), textile and printing industries (added to printing ink to prevent drying), as well as in other industries - the production of plastics and varnishes, explosives and gunpowders, cosmetics and medicines, and also as antifreeze.

Big practical significance has a reaction of catalytic dehydrogenation and dehydration of wine alcohol, developed by the Russian chemist S.V. Lebedev and proceeding according to the scheme:

2C 2 H 5 OH ® 2H 2 O+H 2 +C 4 H 6;

the resulting butadiene CH 2 =CH-CH=CH 2 -1,3 is the raw material for the production of synthetic rubber.

Some aromatic alcohols, having long side chains in the form of their sulfonated derivatives, serve as detergents and emulsifying agents. Many alcohols, for example, linalool, terpineol, etc., are valuable aromatic substances and are widely used in perfumery. The so-called nitroglycerin and nitroglycols, as well as some other esters nitric acid di-, tri- and polyhydric alcohols are used in mining and road construction as explosives. Alcohols are necessary in the production of medicines, in the food industry, perfumes, etc.

Alcohols may have negative impact on the body. Methyl alcohol is especially poisonous: 5–10 ml of alcohol causes blindness and severe poisoning of the body, and 30 ml can be fatal.

Ethyl alcohol is a drug. When taken orally, due to its high solubility, it is quickly absorbed into the blood and has a stimulating effect on the body. Under the influence of alcohol, a person’s attention weakens, his reaction is inhibited, coordination is impaired, swagger, rudeness in behavior appear, etc. All this makes him unpleasant and unacceptable to society. But the consequences of alcohol consumption can be deeper. With frequent consumption, addiction appears, addiction to it and, ultimately, a serious illness - alcoholism. Alcohol affects the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract, which can lead to gastritis, gastric ulcers, and duodenal ulcers. The liver, where the destruction of alcohol should occur, cannot cope with the load, begins to degenerate, resulting in cirrhosis. Penetrating into the brain, alcohol has a toxic effect on nerve cells, which manifests itself in impaired consciousness, speech, mental abilities, the appearance of mental disorders and leads to personality degradation.

Alcohol is especially dangerous for young people, since metabolic processes occur intensively in a growing body, and they are especially sensitive to toxic effects. Therefore, young people may develop alcoholism faster than adults.

1. Glinka N.L. General chemistry. – L.: Chemistry, 1978. – 720 p.

2. Dzhatdoeva M.R. Theoretical basis progressive technologies. Chemical section. – Essentuki: EGIEiM, 1998. – 78 p.

3. Zurabyan S.E., Kolesnik Yu.A., Kost A.A. Organic chemistry: Textbook. – M.: Medicine, 1989. - 432 p.

4. Metlin Yu.G., Tretyakov Yu.D. Fundamentals of general chemistry. – M.: Education, 1980. – 157 p.

5. Nesmeyanov A.N., Nesmeyanov N.A. The beginnings of organic chemistry. - M.: Chemistry, 1974. - 624 p.

Alcohols are complex organic compounds, hydrocarbons, necessarily containing one or more hydroxyls (OH- groups) associated with a hydrocarbon radical.

History of discovery

According to historians, already 8 centuries BC, people were drinking drinks containing ethyl alcohol. They were obtained by fermenting fruit or honey. In its pure form, ethanol was isolated from wine by the Arabs around the 6th-7th centuries, and by Europeans five centuries later. In the 17th century, methanol was obtained by distilling wood, and in the 19th century, chemists discovered that alcohols are a whole category of organic substances.

Classification

Based on the number of hydroxyls, alcohols are divided into one-, two-, three-, and polyhydric. For example, monohydric ethanol; trihydric glycerol.
- Based on the number of radicals associated with the carbon atom connected to the OH- group, alcohols are divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary.
- Based on the nature of the radical bonds, alcohols are saturated, unsaturated, or aromatic. In aromatic alcohols, the hydroxyl is not connected directly to the benzene ring, but through other radical(s).
- Compounds in which OH- is directly linked to the benzene ring are considered a separate class of phenols.

Properties

Depending on how many hydrocarbon radicals are in the molecule, alcohols can be liquid, viscous, or solid. Water solubility decreases with increasing number of radicals.

The simplest alcohols are mixed with water in any proportions. If the molecule contains more than 9 radicals, then they do not dissolve in water at all. All alcohols dissolve well in organic solvents.
- Alcohols burn, releasing large amounts of energy.
- React with metals, resulting in the formation of salts - alcoholates.
- Interact with bases, exhibiting the qualities of weak acids.
- React with acids and anhydrides, exhibiting basic properties. The reactions result in esters.
- Exposure to strong oxidizing agents leads to the formation of aldehydes or ketones (depending on the type of alcohol).
- Under certain conditions, ethers, alkenes (compounds with a double bond), halohydrocarbons, amines (hydrocarbons derived from ammonia) are obtained from alcohols.

Alcohols are toxic to human body, some are poisonous (methylene, ethylene glycol). Ethylene has a narcotic effect. Alcohol vapors are also dangerous, so work with alcohol-based solvents must be carried out in compliance with safety precautions.

However, alcohols participate in the natural metabolism of plants, animals and humans. The category of alcohols includes such vital substances as vitamins A and D, steroid hormones estradiol and cortisol. More than half of the lipids that supply energy to our body are based on glycerol.

Application

In organic synthesis.
- Biofuels, fuel additives, brake fluid ingredient, hydraulic fluids.
- Solvents.
- Raw materials for the production of surfactants, polymers, pesticides, antifreeze, explosives and toxic substances, household chemicals.
- Fragrant substances for perfumery. Included in cosmetic and medical products.
- Base of alcoholic beverages, solvent for essences; sweetener (mannitol, etc.); coloring (lutein), flavoring (menthol).

In our store you can buy different types of alcohols.

Butyl alcohol

Monohydric alcohol. Used as a solvent; plasticizer at production of polymers; formaldehyde resin modifier; raw materials for organic synthesis and production of fragrant substances for perfumery; fuel additives.

Furfuryl alcohol

Monohydric alcohol. In demand for the polymerization of resins and plastics, as a solvent and film former in paint and varnish products; raw materials for organic synthesis; binding and compacting agent in the production of polymer concrete.

Isopropyl alcohol (2-propanol)

Secondary monohydric alcohol. It is actively used in medicine, metallurgy, and the chemical industry. A substitute for ethanol in perfumes, cosmetics, disinfectants, household chemicals, antifreeze, and cleaners.

Ethylene glycol

Dihydric alcohol. Used in the production of polymers; paints for printing houses and textile production; is part of antifreeze, brake fluids, coolants. Used for drying gases; as a raw material for organic synthesis; solvent; a means for cryogenic “freezing” of living organisms.

Glycerol

Trihydric alcohol. In demand in cosmetology, food industry, medicine, as a raw material in org. synthesis; for the production of nitroglycerin explosive. It is used in agriculture, electrical engineering, textile, paper, leather, tobacco, paint and varnish industries, in the production of plastics and household chemicals.

Mannitol

Hexahydric (polyhydric) alcohol. Used as a food additive; raw materials for the manufacture of varnishes, paints, drying oils, resins; is part of surfactants and perfume products.

By the middle of the 19th century, alcohol production in Russia reached its peak, and Russian vodka, thanks to its high organoleptic qualities, won worldwide fame and popularity on a par with French cognac and Scotch whiskey. Features of the technology, such as the composition of the mash, the conditions for preparing raw materials, the ratio of grain, water, malt and yeast, as well as the modes of water-heat treatment, saccharification, fermentation and distillation, have always been the subject of searches and continuous improvement by Russian distillers. Analysis of literary data from the 18th-19th centuries on distillation allowed us to determine the main features of this technology.

The basis of classical alcohol technology was primarily: the use of high-quality rye grain with a small addition (up to 15%) of other grain crops, deep purification of raw materials, low-temperature (not higher than 60...70 ° C) water-heat treatment of the batch, regulated fermentation, providing a certain composition and amount of natural impurities.

Due to the absence of “hard” methods of boiling raw materials, special attention was paid to the quality of grain and methods of its purification.

Both dry cleaning of weeds, grains and mineral impurities was carried out (on the equipment of flour mills), as well as deeper cleaning, including washing. Grain with signs of defects was not allowed for processing, since there were no methods to combat infection.

For example, in Kropotkin’s book on distilling for 1868. we read: “For a greater yield of alcohol and to obtain a product that is purer in taste and smell, bread grains must be thoroughly cleaned before grinding, since impurities mixed with bread have a harmful effect during the preparation of the wort and during its fermentation, and substances are obtained , giving the alcohol a very nasty taste and smell, the yield of alcohol itself is significantly reduced.”

But today, in conditions of fierce competition, in order to reduce production costs, distilleries often process low-quality feed grains that are unsuitable for processing in other sectors of the food industry. In certain periods, processing of defective grain is allowed.

At the same time, part of the toxic substances adsorbed by the grain is not destroyed during water-heat treatment, but goes into the wort, which leads to a slowdown in the fermentation process, inhibition of the growth and development of yeast, and the accumulation in the mash of impurities unusual for alcoholic fermentation, which are difficult to separate during rectification and worsen the organoleptic characteristics of alcohol.

Another feature of modern alcohol production is the boiling of raw materials under pressure at high temperatures, under the influence of which the processes of oxidation, melanoid formation and hydrolysis are activated, which leads to the formation of various toxic impurities and loss of sugars.

All these factors have led to a trend where, using complex multi-column mash distillation units, all impurities are removed from mash of almost any quality during the distillation process and highly purified alcohol is obtained.

Alcoholic drinks made from such alcohol do not always meet consumer requirements in terms of quality. But the most important thing is that this technology is fundamentally different from the traditional classical principles of producing alcohol for Russian vodka.

All this may lead to the fact that modern alcohol produced in Russia may lose touch with the historical brand “Russian vodka”, the influence of which still remains due to inertia.

Until 1917, the domestic alcohol industry was represented by small factories with a capacity of about 22 thousand dal of alcohol per year. Soviet period characterized by the emergence of large enterprises with a capacity of 6,000 - 12,000 dal per day. In 1980, about 400 large factories operated in the USSR, and alcohol production amounted to 200 million decaliters. Further, alcohol production steadily decreased, especially during the periods of perestroika and economic crises. Also, the decline in production was due to the tightening of industry legislation, an increase in the cost of licenses, the establishment of minimum thresholds for authorized capital for alcohol producers, and the introduction of a requirement for the complete recycling of alcohol production waste. But the main reason for the decline is the large shadow turnover of alcohol, which makes legal production less profitable.

Index	Classic technology of the 19th century	Modern technology
Raw materials and their quality	Conditioned rye with a small (5-15%) addition of other grains. No signs of defects	Low-quality feed grain (wheat, rye, barley, corn, etc.). In certain periods, it is allowed to process grain with varying degrees of defectiveness
Raw material purification	Dry cleaning of flour mill equipment, grain washing	Dry cleaning from weeds (magnetic minerals, etc.) and grain impurities (broken, sprouted, frost-damaged, crushed grains)
Water-heat treatment	“Soft”, at a temperature of 60...80 °C with preliminary soaking of the grain	“Hard” at a temperature of 120...140 °C and a pressure of 0.4-0.6 MPa
Enzyme preparations	Malt, grain's own enzyme system	Enzyme preparations of microbial origin, varying degrees of purification and concentration
Fermentation	Periodic fermentation using pure yeast culture, initial fermentation temperature 20...22 °C, wort concentration up to 22% DM, fermentation duration 3-5 days	Periodic or continuous fermentation using special alcoholic yeast races (XII, Y-717, etc.). Fermentation temperature 30...35 °C, duration 48-72 hours
Distillation	Simple 2- and 3-fold distillation. The resulting alcohol is characterized by the presence of impurities natural for alcoholic fermentation	Carried out in 5-6 column distillation units to produce highly purified alcohol

The technology for producing alcohol refers to biotechnology, since production involves the use of catalysts (enzymes) of biological origin. With the proper approach, alcohol production is safe and waste-free: in addition to alcohol, the production produces carbon dioxide, stillage, ester-aldehyde fraction, and fusel oils.

It has been established that after alcohol therapy the number of monocytic cells increases by 8-10%. In addition, alcohol reduces the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, since 95% of the total amount of alcohol is burned in the body, producing up to 7 calories for every gram of alcohol (V.I. Skvortsov). Reducing the breakdown of proteins and fats in the body, on the one hand, and the combustion of alcohol to carbon dioxide and water, on the other, help normalize the disturbed alkaline-acid balance and metabolism.

As a result of alcohol therapy, the body's resistance to infection increases, weight loss stops, the inflammatory process subsides, the temperature in febrile patients decreases, the erythrocyte sedimentation reaction slows down and leukocytosis decreases.

For intravenous injections, use 33% solutions of rectified alcohol prepared in isotonic sodium chloride solution, since the introduction of higher concentrations of alcohol can cause denaturation of proteins in the blood serum. Alcohol solutions in distilled water should not be used, as they cause collapse phenomena in horses (personal observations). For a single intravenous injection of horses, take 125-175 ml of rectified alcohol. To avoid the development of thrombophlebitis, collapse and shock, alcohol solutions must be injected into the vein slowly. Inject daily or 2 times a day, depending on comparison. If the clinical effect does not occur after 3-5 injections of alcohol, further use of alcohol should be considered useless.

Indications for intravenous injections of alcohol include progressive inflammatory edema, acute purulent processes and a preseptic state. In horses, after alcohol therapy, body temperature quickly decreases, general condition improves, appetite sharply increases and local reparative processes accelerate (K. A. Fomin). Treatment with intravenous alcohol injections is a type of active therapy. It can be used only in the absence of blockade of the reticuloendothelial system.

Good results are also obtained by alcohol with the addition of camphor and glucose according to Kadykov’s Arabic script (Rр.: Camphorae tritae 4.0; Spiritus vini rectificati 300.0; Glucosi 60.0; Sol Natrii chlorati 0.8% - 700.0. M. f Solutio. Sterilisetur! D. S. Administer 230-300 ml intravenously to the horse, 2 times daily).

Intravenous injections of alcohol are the best prophylactic against the development of metastatic foci in the lung tissue during acute purulent and gangrenous processes. Alcohol therapy in combination with novarsenol or autohemotherapy should be widely used in the treatment of pulmonary abscesses. The therapeutic effectiveness of alcohol therapy depends on the timing of its use. The earlier intravenous alcohol is administered, the better the results.

Alcohol treatment should be discontinued as soon as myopenia is detected, indicating non-irritation of the reticuloendothelial system. Likewise, the presence of pronounced monopenia before intravenous administration of alcohol serves as a direct contraindication for its use. It must be remembered that a sharp depression of the reticuloendothelial system, caused by waste products of bacteria and the breakdown of tissue protein, can result in paralysis of this system after the introduction of alcohol. Alcohol therapy is also contraindicated in case of organic damage to the heart, kidneys and anemia. Long-term administration of alcohol is harmful to the liver. To avoid the development of parenchymal jaundice, it is recommended to administer small doses of insulin simultaneously with an alcohol solution.

End of work -

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Pre-anteptic period
At a time when bacteriological science did not yet exist and surgeons had no idea about the microbes that are the real cause of suppuration of accidental and surgical wounds, surgical

Antiseptic period
Pasteur's research established that the doctrine of putrefactive properties atmospheric air wrong. Air oxygen, which was considered the main causative agent of suppuration processes, in itself does not

Aseptic period
Asepsis in modern understanding is a combination of various methods and techniques aimed at creating germ-free, sterile conditions for all surgical work (S. S. Girgolav). IN

Surgical disciplines
Currently, in veterinary universities and faculties, veterinary surgery is divided into four independent disciplines- for operative surgery with topographic anatomy, general surgery, hour

Surgical reflexes
Modern surgery is not only a broad science, but also a very delicate art. In addition to special knowledge and clinical experience, the surgeon must have developed conventional surgical skills.

Surgical clinics
The doctor has to constantly observe that the same disease occurs in different animals with individual differences. Classic, pronounced symptoms of a particular disease occur

Surgical infection
ESSENCE OF SURGICAL INFECTION Infection is understood as the active introduction of pathogenic microbes into the tissues of the body, in which they multiply and cause, as a result of their vital activity,

Pathogens of suppuration
The most common causative agents of pyogenic infection in animals are staphylococci, streptococci, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, necrosis bacilli and cryptococcus. Staphylococcus - sharoo

Dormant infection
Pathogenic microbes that cause an inflammatory process in the body can remain for a long time at the site of their initial introduction or in regional lymph nodes in a hidden, dormant system

Inflammatory processes
Inflammation is predominantly a local reflex manifestation general reaction organism, resulting from exposure to microbes and various pathogenic irritations

Forms of inflammation
Serous inflammation is observed with closed injuries, burns, after the use of vesicants, and with infection with low virulent microbes. Serous inflammation is characterized by the formation

Outcomes of inflammation
The most favorable outcome of inflammation is restitutio ad integrum, i.e. complete restoration of tissue in the damaged area. It is possible in cases where the cause of inflammation, inflammatory

Inflammatory swelling
The impregnation of loose connective tissue with serous inflammatory exudate is called inflammatory edema. Inflammatory exudate has a specific gravity above 1,018 (average 1,022), acidic

Infiltrates
When the exudate with its diverse and often continuing to multiply cells is distributed between tissue elements, the cellular accumulations formed in the tissue are called inflammatory infiltration.

Inflammatory proliferation
Inflammatory proliferation develops during a prolonged, chronic inflammatory process and is characterized by abundant proliferation of cellular elements of local tissue with mild symptoms

Cold treatments
Cooling a particular area of ​​the body causes local vasoconstriction and a decrease in blood flow, as a result of which bleeding stops, the development of the inflammatory process and the mind slows down.

Hydrothermotherapy
Hydrothermotherapy is a type of hydrotherapy and aims to warm the diseased area using water. Thermal water procedures include: Prisnitsev wraps, warming

Steam therapy
Hot steam treatment is currently widespread. Many veterinary hospitals are equipped with special installations - steam showers (vaporizers). They serve to influence

Thermotherapy
An electric dry-air shower (hair dryer) consists of an electric motor driving a rotational mechanism and a spiral heated by electric current. The rotation mechanism is enclosed in the square

Paraffin treatment
Paraffin therapy is used for closed injuries of bones and joints in subacute and chronic cases, for slowly healing wounds, callous and trophic ulcers, neuralgia and neuritis, for

Phototherapy
Sun treatment (heliotherapy) There are general sun exposure - sunbathing and sun-air baths. The animal is exposed to the first case of direct sunlight

Ostiofolliculitis
Ostiofolliculitis Ostiofolliculitis is an inflammatory purulent process in the area of ​​the outer end of the hair follicle - the mouth of the follicle (ostium folliculi), from which the hair comes out.

Furunculus
Furuncle (boil) is an acute purulent inflammation of the hair follicle and sebaceous gland with the connective tissue immediately surrounding them. A boil develops as a result of a staphylococcal infection

Furunculosis
Furunculosis This disease is expressed by the development of a large number of boils. It can occur in acute or, more often, in chronic form. Reasonsfurun

Carbuncle
Carbunculus With a carbuncle, infection, purulent inflammation and subsequent necrosis of several sebaceous glands with hair follicles located close to each other occur. Purulent in

Etiology of abscesses
Abscesses develop most often as a result of tissue infection with staphylococci and streptococci, blue-green pus bacillus, E. coli and putrefactive microbes. In pus can be found

Development of abscesses
At the beginning of the development of the purulent process, an inflammatory infiltrate appears, which is an accumulation at the site of infection large quantity cellular elements, mainly segmented leu

Abscessus calidus
The development of a hot abscess is characterized by acute local inflammatory phenomena, rapid formation and acute course. With an abscess in the skin or subcutaneous tissue, the most important signs are acute

Diagnosis of abscesses
When recognizing abscesses, you need to pay attention to the following symptoms. Local increase in temperature is the result of local hyperemia, which always accompanies the formation of an abscess

Treatment
Any abscess, regardless of its size, age of development, etiology and location, almost never resolves on its own. The presence in the abscess of a pyogenic membrane consisting of granules

Etiology of phlegmon
Cellulitis occurs: 1) independently after puncture and other wounds of the skin and underlying tissues, intramuscular and subcutaneous injections of various solutions without aseptic technique or after steam

Pathogenesis of phlegmon
Phlogmonosis process indicates a progressive infection. The main factors determining its development are the high virulence of microbes and the reduced resistance of the sick animal. Arose

Serous and purulent phlegmon
Serous phlegmon occurs mainly in horses after minor violations of the integrity of the skin, puncture wounds and so-called “notches”. Its characteristic feature is serous edema

Subfascial phlegmon
It develops most often with purulent-necrotic processes in the withers and back, complicated fractures, stab and gunshot wounds. Cellulitis under the fascia spinotransversalis in the withers area

Intermuscular phlegmon
It is observed in open fractures, gunshot wounds from shell fragments, osteomyelitis, purulent tendovaginitis and arthritis, due to rough examination of wound canals, as well as during

Treatment
The sick animal is given complete rest. The affected area of ​​the body, the affected limb, if they are dirty, wash with soap and water and wipe with a clean towel. Place of initial introduction of infection

Elephantiasis
Elephantiasis Elephantiasis is an ugly diffuse thickening of any part of the animal's body caused by fibromatosis or hypertrophy and sclerosis of the skin, subcutaneous tissue and stasis.

Etiology of sepsis
The specific causative agents of sepsis are unknown. With reduced body resistance, sepsis can be caused by various representatives of putrefactive and gas infections, even ordinary

Pathogenesis of sepsis
The development of sepsis is possible in the presence of a septic focus, i.e. local pathological process that arose as a result of the introduction into the tissue of a sick animal of pyogenic, putrefactive, gas or mixture

Changes in the primary septic focus
According to the nature of the primary lesion, the time of development of the septic process and the characteristics of its clinical manifestations, changes in the septic focus may be different. It is known

Preseptic state
In the presence of cellular and humoral protective factors in the patient, the infection emanating from the septic focus for some time has the character of a rapidly occurring local inflammatory process. Organi

Pyemia, sepsis with metastases
Pyaemia Pyaemia is a relatively benign sepsis, in which, on the one hand, there is a harmonious combination of normal exudative and histiocytic reactions with degenerative and

Septicemia, sepsis without metastases
Septicaemia General poisoning of the body with waste products of microbes and toxic chemical compounds formed during tissue breakdown is called septicemia, or sepsis

Treatment of sepsis
Treatment of septic sick animals is one of the most difficult problems of clinical surgery. The doctor has a huge number of methods and means at his disposal, but none of them is

Pathogenetic therapy
One etiological treatment is often ineffective, since after eliminating the initial stimulus - the “cause” of the disease - the latter continues. In the vast majority of cases you require

Perineural injections of novocaine
These injections are widely used in veterinary surgical practice during operations, as well as in the diagnosis of diseases of the limbs and for therapeutic purposes. There are cases when, after diagnosing

Intravascular (intravenous ii intraarterial) injections of novocaine
The vascular system is abundantly supplied with sensory receptor and chemical nerve devices, thanks to the irritation of which physiologically necessary impulses are sent to the central parts of the brain.

Intra-arterial injections
More often they use injections of novocaine with penicillin into the arterial vessels of the extremities. In a 0.5% sterile aqueous solution of novocaine, dissolve the required amount of penicillin, add 4% -n

Sleep therapy, or sleep protective inhibition
Sleep therapy is one of the best methods pathogenetic therapy. Sleep therapy helps normalize the processes of higher nervous activity. It creates the best conditions for restoration

Bromine treatment
In the figurative expression of Academician I.P. Pavlov, “...the highest nervous activity is in the hands of bromine." Numerous experimental and clinical observations of I. P. Pavlov and his colleagues

Glucose
Glycogen serves as a normal source of liver cell function and protection from harmful agents. Liver cells have the ability to neutralize bacterial toxins only if they

Calcium therapy
With progressive purulent infection and the septic process, mineral metabolism is disrupted; this is expressed primarily by a decrease in calcium in the blood serum. The worse the patient’s self-defense and the more severe the

Blood transfusion
Indications: Blood is transfused in order to mobilize the patient’s protective reserve forces, detoxify various toxic waste products of microbes and decompose tissue protein, n

Hydrocarbonate therapy
It is known that any infection is accompanied by intoxication of the body with toxic products of microbial activity and the breakdown of tissue protein. The stronger the virulence of microbes, the more death

Autohemotherapy
Autothemotherapy is a type of active, or irritating, therapy. It is an autoprotein therapy combined with autoserotherapy and autovaccination. Action of the injectable

Etiology of anaerobic infection
Pathogens. The gas gangrene bacillus (Bacillus perfringes, syn. Cloctridium Welchii) is constantly found in the intestines of animals and humans, in manure and

Pathogenesis of anaerobic infection
The causative agents of anaerobic infection, being permanent inhabitants of the intestines, do not have a pathogenic effect in the normal state of the animal body. The toxic products they produce

Anaerobic (gas) gangrene
The usual causative agents of gas gangrene are anaerobes from the “group of four”, sometimes in association with the causative agents of putrefactive infection - anaerobic saprophytes (B. putrificus, B. sporogenes).

Anaerobic (gas) phlegmon
It occurs when the wound is infected with anaerobes in association with pyogenic microbes, for example, gas gangrene bacilli with streptococcus, develops in the subcutaneous loose tissue, subfascially

Malignant edema
This disease is an acute wound infection accompanied by serous-hemorrhagic swelling of tissues with the formation of a small amount of gas. The causative agents of malignant edema are

Anaerobic sepsis
It is characterized by strong degeneration internal organs, primarily the heart, liver and kidneys. Clinical symptoms of anaerobic sepsis are expressed extremely depressively

Tetanus
Tetanus Tetanus is one of the extremely severe wound complications. Horses, goats, rams and pigs are most susceptible to tetanus infection. The greatest resistance to this infection

Putrid infection
Infectio putrida It is characterized by the development of putrefactive tissue decay with the formation of a smelly exudate, initially serous-bloody, and a chocolate-colored atom - ichor.

Surgical brucellosis
Brucellosis infection in animals, in particular in horses, is a source of development of a wide variety of surgical diseases. Variety of clinical manifestations, specific ways to resolve them

Actinomycosis
Actinomycosis is a specific infectious disease characterized by the development of an inflammatory granuloma, the so-called actinomycosis. Etiology. Pathogen

Streptotrichosis in dogs
Clinical signs. In dogs, streptotrichosis is characterized by the development of diffuse or limited phlegmon with the formation of skin and subcutaneous abscesses, leaving behind many

Botryomycosis
Botriomycosis is a chronic infectious disease accompanied by the development of infectious granuloma, or so-called botriomycoma. Etiology. Excites

Types of wounds
Puncture wound (Vulnus punctum). The wound can be a puncture wound when injured by any long, narrow, pointed object - a trocar, an awl, a nail, a needle, a pitchfork, a bayonet, a sharpened stick

Capillary, venous, arterial and parenchymal bleeding
Depending on the morphological structure of the damaged vessel and the nature of the outpouring of blood, capillary, venous, arterial and parenchymal bleeding are distinguished. Capillary to

Primary and secondary bleeding
Primary bleeding. Clinical experience has shown that bleeding can appear immediately after damage to the vessel or after some time. Vary by time of origin

Septic bleeding
It occurs during septic processes, due to degenerative and destructive changes in blood vessels and paresis of vasoconstrictors, the reduced ability of septic patients to produce

Repeated bleeding
The causes of repeated bleeding are various factors that contribute to the disruption of the integrity of the blood clot: increased fragility of the vascular wall; decreased tendency to thrombus formation with insufficiency

Self-stop bleeding
Bleeding after injury to blood vessels often stops on its own, due to coagulation of the spilled blood and the formation of blood clots in the damaged vessels. Blood clotting (thrombus) occurs through

Provisional bleeding control
Application of a tourniquet. Of all the methods of provisional bleeding control, circular tightening of a limb with a tourniquet is the best in terms of speed and effectiveness. About

Wound tamponade
The hemostatic effect of the tampon is based on squeezing damaged vessels and accelerating the formation of end blood clots due to the accumulation of a large amount of thrombokinase during the destruction of the blood.

Pressure bandage
A pressure bandage is widely used for bleeding from the venous plexuses and trunks, small arteries and cavernous bodies. A pressure bandage is one of the most commonly used means of stopping

Clamp a demeure
Ligation of a deep vessel in an infected wound with edematous tissue, fragile, and easily bleeding vessels is associated with great difficulties and the danger of mobilizing infection, since

Ligation of a vessel in a wound
This method of stopping bleeding is the most radical. The ligature operation should be as bloodless as possible. To do this, apply a preliminary tourniquet, if possible, or apply pressure

Gmostatic agents of local action
Agents that accelerate the formation of a blood clot These include calcined plasma, hemostol, thrombin, autocytivocoll, clouden, coagulene, monetol, tuffon and catgut. To the same group

Agents that constrict blood vessels
This group includes: adrenaline and other adrenal drugs, stinging nettle extract, hydrogen peroxide, alcohol, alum, tannin, turpentine. Adrenaline wide

Physical means to stop bleeding
These include: cold and hot water, water vapor and carbonizing agents - electrocoagulation and thermocautery. I use cold water or a rubber bag with ice

General hemostatic agents
Agents that constrict blood vessels This group includes adrenaline, adrenaline, ephedrine, stipticine, ergotine, ergot, hydrastine, liquid extract of water pepper. Adrenalone

Blood clotting agents
This group includes calcium chloride, calcified and citrated blood, blood serum, blood plasma, vitamin K, Vicasol and Sangostop. Calcium chloride is consumed in a 10% aqueous solution

Traumatic shock
Shock is a complex neurodystrophic symptom complex of disorders of the nerve centers of hemodynamics and metabolism, resulting from overstimulation of the nervous system after severe trauma.

Biology of the wound process
First phase general characteristics Morphological changes Bio-physico-chemical changes Colloid-chemical changes

Enzymes
The body, through various enzymes, is constantly fighting against the intoxication that threatens it with the toxic products of decaying tissue protein. Enzymes are found in every cell and tissue and

Paranecrosis
The reversible state of cells close to necrosis is called paranecrosis; It can be achieved by timely elimination of the harmful agent and the creation of conditions favorable for life.

Second phase of wound healing
This phase is characterized by the development of restorative, regenerative processes, compaction, tissue dehydration, and the gradual disappearance of acute inflammatory phenomena. Active wound reaction with

Second phase
general characteristics Morphological characteristics Changes immunogenesis Bio-physico-chemical Collo

Third phase of wound healing
The final healing of any granulating wound occurs through scarring and

Sanatio per primam intentwnem
This type of healing is the most perfect. It is characterized by fusion of the edges and walls of the wound without the formation of macroscopically visible intermediate tissue and clinical symptoms of inflammation

Healing by secondary intention
Sanatio per secundam intentionem, sea sanatio per granulationem As the name indicates, wound healing occurs through the development of granulation tissue, which performs fasting

Granulation tissue
Development of granulation tissue After 2 days, in certain areas of the wound, free from necrotic tissue and blood clots, pink-red nodules - granules the size of

Reasons for the development of granulation tissue
The true reasons for the development of granulations at the site of dead cells and tissue have not been precisely established. The main stimulators of division and growth of preserved

Biological significance of granulation tissue
Granulation tissue is of great importance. It serves: 1) to protect the body from the spread of infection around the brine; 2) to reject dead tissue from living tissue; 3) for filling cavities

Healing a wound under a scab
Compared to the described forms of healing, this type is nonspecific. It approaches wound healing by primary or secondary intention.

Wound contamination, wound infection, wound microflora
Together with the damaging object, as well as from the air, microbes are introduced into the wound. The number, species composition and pathogenicity of these microbes are varied. The animal's body can have good growth

Wound treatment
The body's successful fight against wound infection is facilitated by the elimination of the main source of infection and intoxication, as well as the stimulation of immunobiological reactions. The experience of surgeons of the First World War

Mechanical antisepsis of wounds
Mechanical antisepsis is achieved by surgical treatment of the wound. It is a complex of surgical techniques aimed at widening the wound and removing crushed tissue

Cutting and excision of wounds
Dissection of the wound. In modern surgery, this term defines one of the physical and mechanical methods of primary treatment of wounds, which consists in expanding, opening the wound, sometimes with

Open wound treatment method
Treatment of wounds without dressings or under a frame bandage is called open. This method is widely used in the treatment of wounds with profuse discharge of pus, anaerobic and putrefactive infections and suspected

Drainage of wounds
Wounds are drained when inflammatory exudate is retained in them. Gauze strips or rubber tubes are used as drainage. Gauze drainage has capillary

Drainage-free method of treating wounds
Clinical observations have shown that treatment of infected wounds using drainages does not always give positive results. In some cases, drainages slow down the healing process, and in others they serve

Rest the wound
In the first 5-6 days after injury, the strength of internal adhesion of the cellular elements that appear in the wound is negligible. Newly formed cells are unable to resist any kind of mechanical action.

Means for the treatment of infected wounds in the first phase of healing
In the first stage of healing of an inflamed, purulent wound, agents should be used that help normalize enzymatic processes, enhance lymphatic drainage (lymphatic flushing) of the wound, and cause swelling

pH of medicinal substances
Name of substance Concentration (in %) pH Acidic solutions Hydrochloric acid Old purified turpentine Old purified

Sulfonamide therapy
There are more than 3,500 sulfonamide drugs, of which 500 are noted as effective and about 60 drugs as highly effective. In veterinary surgical practice they use: red and white

Methods and means that increase the effect of sulfonamide drugs
The activity of sulfonamide drugs increases sharply with an increase in the temperature of the solutions used to 39°. The combination of sulfonamide drugs with oxidizing agents and halogens (manganese

Means for the treatment of inflamed wounds in the third phase of healing
In this phase, agents are usually used that dry out and accelerate the growth of the skin epithelium. The best of them are: zinc and xeroform ointments with infusion or tincture of digitalis, zinc salicylic

Cytological analysis of wound surface prints in horses
This method was first proposed by Pokrovskaya and Makarov. Systematic studies of fingerprints reflect the reactive, immunobiological forces of the body and regenerative-restorative functions.

Oxidative therapy
It has long been known that boric acid (a 3% solution of which has a pH = 4.12), which is not bactericidal for pyogenic staphylo-streptococci and Escherichia coli, has a detrimental effect on blue pus bacillus (

Hydrogen peroxide
The following hydrogen peroxide preparations are used for medicinal purposes. 1) Perhydrol - 30% hydrogen peroxide. Each part by volume of perhydrol contains 100 parts by volume of oxygen. EU

Turpentine
Turpentine is an ancient remedy for treating wounds. It is simple, cheap and useful for putrefactive and anaerobic infections. Old purified turpentine has a pH = 1.48, and old purified turpentine with

Potassium permanganate
Potassium permanganate contains 24.7% potassium, 34.8% manganese and 40.5% oxygen. It has the appearance of dark purple crystals with a faint metallic luster; in water at 20° it dissolves in amounts from

Iodoform
Iodoform (triiodomethane) contains 96.7% iodine. The antiseptic effect of iodoform is determined by the slow elimination of iodine under the influence of microbial waste products and purulent discharge.

Biological methods of wound treatment
Biological antiseptics is carried out by using agents of plant, animal or bacterial origin, the task of which is to increase the autoantiseptic defenses of the body

Penicillin
In 1871, the Russian scientist V. A. Manassein discovered for the first time the antimicrobial properties of green mold Penicillium glaucum, and in 1872 A. G. Polotebnov successfully used the culture of green mold for treatment

Streptomycin
This antibiotic is extracted from the radiant fungus - gray streptomycete, which lives in oral cavity chickens and in heavily manured soil. Krainsky in 1914 first described the morphological and physiological

Levomycetin
This antibiotic was first isolated from the radiant fungus Streptomyces venezuelae in 1947. In 1949, Soviet scientists at the Institute of Biological and Medical Lines developed a method for obtaining inorganic

Phytoncides
Antibiotics of plant origin include volatile bactericidal substances of unknown chemical nature, the so-called phytoncides, discovered by the Soviet biologist B.P. Tokin in 1928-1930

Antireticular cytotoxic serum
Antireticular cytotoxic serum (ACS) by Academician A. A. Bogomolets is obtained by hypoimmunization of a horse with the spleen of a rabbit or by hyperimmunization of a rabbit with the spleen of a horse (A.

Tissue therapy
It involves implantation of preserved tissue; was first proposed in 1933 by academician V.P. Filatov. Indications for tissue therapy are slow healing wounds, ulcers

Physical methods of treating wounds
Physiotherapy of wounds is used only in the general complex of therapeutic measures to directly influence the wound process, as well as the diseased body as a whole. Pre-surgical treatment

Complex treatment
Severe wound complications sometimes occur despite correct and scientifically based local treatment of traumatic injuries, if the attending physician focuses his attention on the primary wound

Secondary seams
Sutures placed on granulating wounds are called secondary. Experience has shown that secondary sutures limit the development of scar tissue, accelerate wound healing by 2-3 times and improve functional function.

Hypovitaminosis
A decrease in the body's resistance to infection and impaired tissue regeneration sometimes occur due to a lack of vitamins A, B17 C, D, E and PP in the body. Studying local pathological

Wound exhaustion
Wound exhaustion occurs in the presence of a primary extensive purulent focus with a large absorption surface, causing long-term poisoning of the body with the breakdown products of tissue protein and life

Nutritional emaciation
Wound exhaustion is not simple nutritional emaciation, although in both processes the animal experiences a drop in body weight. Their main difference is that with wound tissue depletion

Thermal burns
All burns caused by high temperatures beyond the physiological endurance of living tissues are called thermal. Most often they develop as a result of direct

Chemical burns
They are caused by acids, caustic alkalis, quicklime, bromine and some toxic substances such as mustard gas. Chemical burns in animals occur most often in cases where during a protractor

Thermochemical burns
Phosphorus burns occur when exposed to a self-igniting liquid (ampoules, hand phosphorus grenades) or when fired by mines and shells containing solid phosphorus. Phosphorus is capable of igniting

Frostbite
Congelatio Frostbite is the name given to local changes in tissue caused by the effects of cold. If in frostbitten tissues water turns into ice and they become hard, then this is their condition

Gangrene
Gangraena Gangrene is a type of necrosis. Gangrene is a pathological process characterized by the death of tissue under the influence of environmental factors.

Dry gangrene. Dry necrosis
Gangraena sicca Etiology. This disease occurs when, under the influence of certain chemical and physical factors, the following occurs: 1) arterial inflow stops

Wet gangrene
Gangraena humida Etiology. Wet gangrene occurs more often in animals than dry gangrene. Its occurrence is associated with

Simple ulcer
Ulcus simplex A simple ulcer occurs most often after the opening of abscesses, boils, abscessing phlegmons, festering hematomas, due to scratching, burns and after bedsores. Every ulcer

Edema ulcer
Ulcus oedematosum An edematous ulcer occurs most often in horses due to tissue malnutrition due to a disorder of blood circulation in the area of ​​the granulating defect. For example, by squeezing

Inflamed ulcer
Ulcus inflammatorium An inflamed ulcer is observed relatively often in animals. It is a consequence of the development of local infection, prolonged mechanical irritation, the action of chemical

Gangrenous ulcer
Ulcus gangraenosum Gangrenous ulcer occurs most often after severe frostbite, with general blood poisoning (sepsis), diabetes, gangrenous dermatitis and wet gangrene. Most common

Decubital ulcer. Bedsore
Decubitus A bedsore is a gangrene of the skin caused by poor circulation due to pressure. It develops most often: 1) in emaciated animals forced to lie for a long time

Irritated ulcer
Ulcus erethicum Irritated ulcers are rare. The reasons for the development of these ulcers are still unknown. Since granulation nerves do not contain nerves, one can only assume that pain sensations

Fungal or fungal ulcer
Ulcus fungosum A mushroom-shaped ulcer is characterized by the development of uneven, tuberous, various shapes and the size of granulations. They are bluish-red in color, soft in texture and bleed easily.

Purulent fistula
Fistula purulenta Purulent fistulas are most often observed in animals. They are formed as a result of a local inflammatory purulent process, with retention of pus, when deep into the tissues

Feather grass fistula
This disease is often observed in horses fed feather grass or grazing on feather grass pastures. Fruits and awns of feather grass, due to wasps

Fecal fistula
Recognition of this disease does not present any difficulties if the fistula discharge has a typical fecal odor, and a probe inserted into the fistula enters the cavity. Clinical experience has shown that

Callous ulcer
Ulcus callosum The most common causes of callus ulcers are: 1) irrational use of potent chemicals, easily causing death granulation cells

Atonic ulcer
Ulcus atonicum Atonic ulcer develops due to severe general diseases, after chemical burns, due to local spasm or vascular thrombosis, as a result of insufficient blood flow

Neurotrophic ulcer
Ulens neurotrophicum. By trophism we mean the nutrition of tissues, in particular the integument, therefore any ulcer that develops as a result of tissue nutritional disturbances, regardless of the reasons, is caused

Infectious ulcer
Infectious ulcers in enzootic lymphangitis are of greatest practical interest. Lymphangitic ulcers have different locations, shapes and sizes. They usually race

Neoplasmic ulcer
A neoplastic ulcer occurs as a result of the disintegration of a malignant tumor, most often: cancer, melanosarcoma or a mixed tumor, for example, adeno-fibro-chondro-carcinoma. Characteristics

Foreign bodies
Foreign bodies can enter the body of animals during wounds, with food, and as a result of deliberate or accidental leaving by surgeons in a wound or anatomical cavity during operations.

Local tissue reaction to foreign bodies
The tissue reaction to an embedded foreign body depends on the location and degree of contamination of the foreign body, its size, shape and chemical composition, nature of damage and properties of organ tissue

Functional and other disorders caused by foreign bodies
Foreign bodies are often a source of life-threatening functional disorders (breathing, swallowing), progressive aerobic and anaerobic infections, peritonitis and sepsis. An example would be

Migration
Foreign bodies embedded in tissue usually remain in the wound. However, in the future, their movement is not very uncommon. For example, in purulently inflamed wound canals, purulent fistulas or

Removal of foreign bodies
Despite the obvious danger of leaving foreign bodies in the wound, the question of the timing of their removal has not yet been finally resolved. There is no consensus. Some authors consider it necessary to remove during primary

Soft tissue bruise
Soft tissues are quickly compressed between soft tissue (bone) and a bruising blunt object. However, the skin, due to its elasticity, remains intact. Less resistant ones are damaged more deeply

Bone bruise
More often, isolated bruises of the periosteum without damage to the bone itself are observed. They are found in places where, due to the lack of muscle tissue, the bones are located superficially. Most often in horses

Bruised joint
The joints that are not protected by muscles are mainly affected by bruises: the knee, wrist and fetlock. Soft tissues surrounding the joint - skin, subcutaneous tissue, mucous bursae and tendon moisture

Haematoma
A hematoma, or blood tumor, is a special type of hemorrhage in which blood flowing from the vessels pushes apart the surrounding tissue and forms a cavity filled with blood. Hematomas

Pulsatile hematoma
It develops when large arteries are injured by piercing objects and small metal fragments of a projectile, when the narrow wound channel closes due to different contractility of the soft tissues, and

Lymphcextravasat
Lymphatic extravasation (traumatic skin detachment) is the accumulation of lymph in any part of the body due to rupture of lymphatic vessels without compromising the integrity of the skin. Etiology

Dermatitis traumatica
It develops as a result of mechanical irritation of the skin (friction, scratching, rough massage, pressure from a harness, etc.). The localization of lesions varies. However, in horses, the skin in the area of ​​the fetlock, back, and chest

Dermatitis medicamentosa
Etiology. It appears in animals most often after the external use of chemicals to disinfect the skin during surgical operations or for therapeutic purposes. So, for example, m

Dermatitis verrucosa
Chronic hyperplastic inflammation of the skin with the formation of warty growths is called verrucous dermatitis. This disease occurs almost exclusively in horses of heavy breeds -

Dermatitis gangraenosa. Necrobacillosis
Dermatitis accompanied by moist necrosis of the skin is called hagrenous. The causative agent of this disease is the anaerobic microbe Bacillus iiecrophorus - necrosis stick. She doesn't wear makeup on the Gram

Phlebitis
Phlebitis is inflammation of the veins without the formation of a blood clot. If the inflammation is limited to the perivenous loose tissue and the adventitia of the vessel itself, then it is called neriphlebitis (Periphlebitis). Defeat

Lymphangitis
Lymphangoitis Inflammation of the lymphatic vessels is called lymphangoitis. Depending on the nature of pathological changes in the lymphatic vessels, they are distinguished: simple

Lymphonodulitis
Lympkonodiilitis Inflammation of the lymph nodes is called lymphonodulitis. Lymph nodes are formations that play a huge protective role in the fight against organ

Brief anatomical and physiological information
The peripheral nerves include pulpy and non-pulpate, mainly vegetative fibers. In the pulp fibers, axons - axial cylinders - are surrounded by a myelin sheath consisting of lipoids

Nerve bruise
It occurs when an animal falls, falls roughly onto hard ground, is hit by a stick, a hoof, a shell fragment, or other injuries. When bruised, the nerve trunk retains its anatomical continuity

Nerve stretch and rupture
When force is applied parallel to the axis of the nerve, it is stretched beyond the limits of its elasticity or is torn. During sprains, ruptures of individual nerve bundles or fibers are found, and these ruptures are

Nerve regeneration
Traumatic damage to the peripheral nerves will lead to the development of degenerative processes with a subsequent increase in the activity of Schwann elements of the peripheral segment and the growth of axial centers

Neuroitis
Etiology. Inflammation of the nerve - neuritis - is a consequence of mechanical damage, intoxication or wound infection. According to the etiological characteristics, traumatic injuries are distinguished

Muscle wounds
Any open, more or less deep damage to soft tissue is accompanied by a violation of the integrity of the muscles. Muscle wounds are classified according to the type of wounding weapon, the nature of the damage and the

Muscle bruises
Etiology. This disease is observed in animals after being hit by a stick, a cow's horn, a horse's hoof, a fall, or bone fractures. Pathological and anatomical changes in

Muscle tears
Violation of the integrity of a muscle without damaging the skin is called a tear. There are spontaneous, or independent, and traumatic muscle ruptures. Etiology. Spontaneous bursts

Myositis purulenta
Etiology. Purulent myositis is most often caused by pyogenic microbes - staphylococci and streptococci, Escherichia coli, which enter the muscle tissue during wounds, phlegmon, intravenous

Myositis parenchymatosa
It occurs in horses, less commonly in cows and dogs. The affected muscles, due to cloudy swelling and waxy degeneration, have a brick-red or gray cloudy color, reminiscent of the color of half-wax

Myositis chronica ossificans
This disease is observed mainly in horses, occasionally in pigs, cows and dogs. There are traumatic myositis ossificans and neurotic myositis ossificans. Etiolo

Myositis rheumatica
Rheumatism is a hyperergic neurodystrophic process that occurs as a result of exposure to nervous system hemolytic streptococcus, why most researchers

Rheumathismus articulorum
Articular rheumatism is characterized by multiple lesions of symmetrical joints, an acute process (at the beginning), fever, accelerated erythrocyte sedimentation reaction and, in some cases, the development

Myopathosis
Non-inflammatory muscle diseases caused by impaired coordination of muscle contractions or muscle fibers in muscle bundles, individual muscles or groups of them are called myopathosis

Fascicular focal myopathosis
It is characterized by impaired coordination of contractions of individual bundles within the muscle, as well as the muscle as a whole. Clinical signs. A characteristic feature of this disease is

Muscle atrophy
A decrease in muscle volume is a symptom of various pathological conditions. There are simple and degenerative, limited and general muscle atrophy. Simple muscular atrophy of the hara

Tendon wounds
Tendon wounds are seen in horses, dogs and cows on the lower limbs. Cut, stab and chopped wounds are more common, less often bruised, crushed and gunshot wounds. Sigi tendons

Tendon ruptures
They occur most often in horses after sudden sudden movements, due to excessive tension of the tendons when carrying heavy loads, during jumping and galloping, after gunshot wounds, dir.

Tendinitis
Tendinitis develops as a result of increased stress on the tendons during galloping, jumping or heavy work, bruises and open injuries. Predisposing causes of tendonitis are:

Tendinitis aseptica acuta
Etiology. It occurs in most cases as a result of fascicular ruptures or ruptures of the tendon and subsequent reactive aseptic inflammation in the area of ​​injury.

Tendovaginitis
Tenosynovitis is an inflammation of the tendon and tendon sheath. This disease is most common in horses. It arises in

Tendcvaginitis serosa acuta
Etiology. This disease develops in horses due to overstrain and injury to the tendons, less commonly with influenza, rheumatism, brucellosis and brucellosis. Pathological from

Tendcvaginitis serofibriMosa acnta. Tendcvaginitis fibrinosa acuta
They are characterized by the presence of fibrin in the exudate. With fibrinous tendovaginitis, the cavity of the tendon sheath contains more fibrin than the liquid part of the exudate; with serous-fibrinous it is observed

Tendcvaginitis purulenta acuta
Etiology. Acute purulent tenosynovitis occurs after penetrating wounds of the tendon sheath, due to the transition of the purulent process from the surrounding soft tissues, as well as hematogenes

Tendovaginitis serosa chronica. Well drops tendovaginalis
Etiology. This disease develops from acute aseptic tendovaginitis or as a result of repeated weak mechanical irritations, repeated overstrain of the tendon or on the

Tendovagini tis stenonann
It is a type of fibrous tendovaginitis. Etiology. Repeated mechanical damage and chronic regeneration predispose to the development of stenosing tenosynovitis.

Tendon regeneration
The tendon tissue as such remains passive during the regeneration process. Reactive changes are observed in the connective tissue surrounding the tendon (peritenon externum, paratenon) and interfascicle

Conlractura
Contracture - reduction - is called a more or less persistent forced position of any part of the body, most often the limbs, associated with limited mobility of the joint. Class

Tendogenic contracture
It can be congenital and acquired. Congenital tendon contracture is based on shortening of the flexor tendons due to abnormal position of the fetus in the uterus, or insufficient development of the fetus.

Scar contracture
It owes its origin to the purulent melting of subcutaneous, intermuscular, paraarticular and interfascicular loose tissue, necrosis of muscles and fascia with their subsequent replacement by scar tissue

Reflex or pain contracture
It is characterized by involuntary muscle contraction that occurs reflexively as a result of prolonged irritation of sensory nerves or their endings in the area of ​​traumatic injury.

Paralytic contracture
It occurs after prolonged paresis and paralysis of the motor nerves. Loss of function of the paralyzed muscle group causes a reduction in the remaining antagonists, which are subsequently weakened.

Brief information about burzas
Bursas, or mucous bursae, are closed, blind sacs that are formed from loose connective tissue by stretching and displacing its fibers under the influence of contractions of muscle tissue

Periostitis serosa
Pathological and anatomical changes are characterized by small hemorrhages in the skin and loose tissue, the presence of serous inflammatory exudate in the latter and periosteum. Clinical

Periostitis purulenta
It is characterized by impregnation of the periosteum with serous-purulent exudate, followed by purulent melting of it, the formation of a subperiosteal abscess and purulent fistulas. Etiology

Periostitis chronica fibrosa
Etiology. It develops under conditions of chronic, often very long-term, irritation of the superficial and middle layer of the periosteum. This irritation may be caused by frequent repetition

Periostitis ossificans
This disease is characterized by the deposition of lime salts followed by the formation of bone tissue in the inflamed periosteum. Etiology. Periostitis ossificans

Osteoperiostosis ossificans loxica
Toxic ossifying periostosis (acropachia) is characterized by the development of multiple ossifying osteoperiostosis, most often of long tubular bones. Dogs are predominantly affected. From

Osteoporosis
Rice. 83. Acropachia of the large metacarpal bone of the horse. Osteoporosis is a bone pathological process in which

Osteosclerosis. Oslitis condensans
Osteosclerosis is the direct opposite of osteoporosis - rarefied osteitis. With osteosclerosis, bone compaction occurs. Sclerotic bone does not have a spongy structure. Haversovy and foul

Osieodystrophia fibrosa. Oslitis fibrosa
Fibrous osteodietrophy is the progressive decalcification of bones with tumor-like growth of osteoid tissue in them. This disease is observed in farm animals.

Bone necrosis
Etiology. Necrosis - necrosis - bones can be caused by mechanical (traumatic), bacterial-toxic, physical

Etiology of fractures
The causes of bone fractures are producing and predisposing. The producing causes of fractures are various mechanical forces, in which elasticity is insufficient

Fracturae incompletae
Incomplete fractures are divided into the following forms. Cracks (Fissurae) - when the bone splits, the periosteum remains intact in most cases. Cracks appear

Gunshot fractures
Based on the type of wound, they are divided into bullet and fragmentation; both of them can be through, blind, with the presence of metal fragments in soft tissues or bone tissue. Firearms

Clinical signs of fractures
The main clinical signs that guide the diagnosis of fractures are: 1) dysfunction; 2) deformation; 3) bone mobility throughout; 4) bone crepitus; 5 B

Prognosis for fractures
The prognosis depends on the age, type of animal, location of the fracture and the degree of damage to blood vessels and tissues, the time and nature of medical care, wound complications and other factors. The young are alive

First aid
For closed fractures, temporary immobilization of the limb is used and

Conservative treatment of fractures
This method of treating fractures is the main one. His task is to straighten the fragments, hold them in the correct position until a bone callus forms and prevent deformation from functional load.

Treatment of open fractures
Experience has shown that many open fractures in horses, previously considered incurable, can heal with the animal restored to performance if treated early by a qualified surgeon.

Surgical treatment of fractures
Surgical treatment is necessary if it is impossible to reduce fragments, interposition of soft tissues between them, a tendency to rapid displacement of reduced fragments, malunion,

Functional therapy
Treatment of gunshot fractures through limb immobilization in combination with functional therapy makes it possible to restore the animal’s performance much faster and better than before.

Healing of fractures
After a fracture, the bone is restored through the formation of a callus. The main source of bone regeneration are osteogenic elements in the cambial layer of the periosteum, bone marrow

Complications during fracture healing
Open fractures are more likely to be complicated. The most dangerous complications in terms of consequences are: purulent processes with the formation of large streaks, often descending far down the intermuscular tissue

Osteomyelitis
Osteomyelitis is an inflammation of the bone marrow. Etiology. Purulent osteomyelitis occurs due to staphylococcal or mixed infection of the bone marrow. I predispose

Hematogenous, or metastatic, osteomyelitis
The localization of metastatic osteomyelitis is often caused by a bone bruise, which creates a place of least resistance to the penetration and proliferation of bacteria in the damaged area of ​​bone tissue

Wound osteomyelitis
Etiology. Wound osteomyelitis occurs as a result of infected open, often gunshot, bone fractures and wounds.

Brief anatomical and physiological information
The joint capsule (capsula articularis) consists of two membranes - the outer fibrous (stratum fibrosum) and the inner synovial (stratum synovialc). Outer shell of the joint capsule

Joint injuries
Classification. Injuries to the joints vary: 1) according to the type of wounding weapon - chipped, cut, chopped, bruised and gunshot; 2) in relation to the joint cavity

Haemarthrosis
Etiology. Hemarthrosis - bleeding into the joint - occurs with bruises, distortions, dislocations and intra-articular bone fractures due to rupture of the capsular ligament vessels. Gemartr

Distorsio
Distortion is understood as a short-term abnormal position of the articular surfaces resulting from stretching, tearing or partial rupture of the bursa capsule and auxiliary ligaments of the joint.

Luxatio
A dislocation is a joint injury in which there is a long-term displacement of the articular ends of the bones, partially or completely disrupting their mutual contact. Classification

Synovitis serosa acuta
It is most often observed in horses, cows and dogs. Etiology. In horses, serous synovitis occurs as a result of injury, overwork during early use, in acute

Synovitis serosa chronica. Hydrarthrosis. Hydrops articuli
Etiology. Hydrarthrosis usually develops from acute synovitis, but can also occur independently. The most common causes of this disease are: repeated bruises and sprains

Synovitis purulenta et Arthritis purulenta
Purulent synovitis is understood as an inflammatory purulent process of the synovial membrane of the joint. Purulent arthritis is a purulent inflammation of the joint affecting all layers of the capsular ligament

Purulent arthritis and capsular phlegmon
The development of purulent arthritis is usually preceded by purulent synovitis. Retention of purulent exudate in the joint cavity, virulent infection, delayed or irrational treatment, suppression of immunobiological

Phlegmone paraarticularis
It develops as a result of the breakthrough of pus from the joint during empyema or from phlegmonous abscesses of the capsular ligament into the paraarticular loose tissue, or when a purulent process spreads from the surrounding area.

Arthritis chronica deformans
Arthritis deformans is a chronic productive inflammation of a joint, which becomes disfigured and loses mobility. A characteristic feature of this inflammation is the combination of atr

Fibrositis periarticularis
This disease occurs most often in horses as a result of chronic inflammatory processes in the soft tissues surrounding the joint. It is characterized by inflammatory hyperplasia of the connective tissue

Periarthritis chronica ossificans
Pariarthritis is a chronic inflammatory process outside the synovium of the joint, in the fibrous layer of the joint capsule, auxiliary ligaments and periosteum of the articular bones. There are chro

Ankylosis
Ankylosis is the immobility of a joint as a result of inflammatory changes in it or around its circumference. Classification and etiology. Depending on the structure that developed

Arthrosis
Arthrosis is a chronic non-inflammatory disease of the joint, accompanied by the development of degenerative changes in articular cartilage and regenerative processes in the periosteum and bone.

Tumors
A tumor (Neoplasma), or neoplasm, is a pathological growth of tissue in which it receives a stimulus for its growth in its own cells (N. N. Petrov). She arose

Dermatoma
Dermatomes, or dermoid cysts, are completely closed saccular tumors. They consist of a connective tissue capsule, reminiscent of the structure of skin on the inside, and a liquid,

Rarilloma
Papillomas in their microscopic structure are fibro-epitheliomas. They consist of hyperplastic epithelium of the skin or mucous membrane and a connective tissue base arising from the papas

Polypus
Rice. 140. Hard pulp fibroma in a cow. Fibroids of the mucous membranes are called polyps. They sit on a stalk, have a reddish color and are covered with a smooth shiny mucous membrane

Melanosarcoma
A characteristic morphological feature of melanosarcoma is the presence of spindle-shaped and round cells of a sarcomatous structure and connective tissue cells - chromatophores containing black

Melanosarcoma
The ulcerative surfaces are intensely black, “as if smeared with ink or ink.” Metastases often develop in the lungs, liver, heart, lymph nodes, omentum, spleen, lumbar

Hernia mcarcerata
A strangulated hernia is called compression in the hernial opening (canal) of the intestinal loop, in which blood circulation is disrupted and the movement of contents stops. There are two types of infringement - fecal

Prolapsus
This term refers to the prolapse of an organ through a pathological opening from the anatomical cavity with simultaneous rupture of the membrane lining it. For example, protrusion or protrusion of the brain in

Hernia treatment
In some cases, spontaneous healing of hernias occurs. The hernial opening is overgrown with scar tissue, and the cavity of the hernial sac is obliterated due to the fusion of its walls with each other. If hernial

Our article will reveal information on the well-known product “Ethyl Alcohol”. We will reveal all the medical aspects of its use.

• A well-known substance, ethyl alcohol was previously called wine alcohol, as it was obtained from an alcoholic drink. According to its characteristics, ethanol is classified as a narcotic drug that has the most pronounced effect on the central nervous system. The greatest effect of alcohol is on the cells of the cerebral cortex
• Inhibition processes are inhibited and this is manifested by a high level of excitation. However, the breathing center is depressed. When the drug is taken orally, alcohol causes disruption in the functioning of almost all organs and systems.
• Ethyl alcohol has an antibacterial effect, which is potentiated by the action of elevated temperature and when interacting with auxiliary agents. These properties have found application in external treatment methods and are used for high-quality antiseptics of the hands of medical personnel.
• To do this, use a 70% alcohol concentration, it is the most optimal. Since an increase in concentration leads to a tanning effect on the skin, and a decrease causes the procedure to be ineffective
• When using the solution as an application, alcohol produces an irritant and antimicrobial effect
• Alcohol vapors are highly active and are often used in acute conditions with pulmonary edema as an antifoam. The vapors of the solution have an astringent, tanning and cauterizing effect.
• Ethyl inhibits synthesis prostaglandins and has an inhibitory effect on muscles

"Ethyl alcohol" release form

The solution is available in bottles of various volumes with a percentage of 95% and 70%.

In volume it can be from a bottle of 50 ml to canisters of 10, 20 and 30 liters.

For external use, these may not be pure alcohol solutions, but with the addition of formic acid or salicylic acid.

"Ethyl alcohol" indications for use

In medicine, alcohol plays a major role as an antiseptic for external use:
Hand treatment for medical personnel
Treatment of inflammatory skin diseases at an early stage of development
Treatment of the skin in the surgical area
Other applications:
For inhalation in acute pulmonary edema
As a topical irritant (rubbing)
As a preservative for biological materials for further research
As a solvent for the preparation of various tinctures and extracts

"Ethyl alcohol" side effects

When using the solution externally, the following complications may occur:

Redness of the skin

Painful sensations
Skin burn at the site where the compress was applied
With frequent use, alcohol can enter the bloodstream and cause systemic intoxication

When using the solution for inhalation:

Excessive irritant effect on mucous membranes
Allergic reaction to the solution
With frequent use, development of tolerance to the procedure and lack of the expected effect

Intravenous administration of solution:

As a means of preventing preterm labor
Gradual removal of the patient from alcohol intoxication

"Ethyl alcohol" dosage

As a lotion, the solution is used externally for the treatment of acute inflammatory and purulent diseases as part of conservative therapy in the initial stages of the disease.

It is recommended to apply lotions with 70% ethyl alcohol (possibly with the addition of other antiseptics) for 15 minutes, 3-5 times a day. It is also used for rubbing and compresses as a local irritant.
In its pure form, in case of an allergic reaction to other antiseptics, alcohol is used to treat the skin before surgery and the skin of the operating surgeon’s hands.

• To carry out inhalations for pulmonary edema, a procedure with a 96% alcohol solution is prescribed as an antifoam. When inhaling vapors through a mask, a 40-50% solution is prescribed for use; when carrying out the procedure through a nasal catheter, the percentage can range from 70 to 96%
• At the same time, to prevent symptoms of alcohol poisoning, it is recommended to take a break every 30 minutes and inhale a 40% oxygen mixture. The effect of this procedure is fully evident after 1.5 hours
• It should be noted that with the rapid development of pulmonary edema, and if a state of shock is present, then these inhalations will not have the desired effect
• Ethyl alcohol can also be administered intravenously. To stabilize the condition and prevent premature birth, 25 ml of 95% ethyl alcohol diluted in 500 ml of a 5% glucose solution is administered intravenously. Also this method used in the treatment of alcoholism, to gradually remove the patient from alcohol intoxication

"Ethyl alcohol" for children

There are no absolute contraindications to the use of this solution in children. However, be careful, alcohol has a systemic toxic effect, which is especially pronounced in children. Therefore, even when used externally, do not get carried away with rubbing and lotions.

There are some tinctures and preparations based on alcohol, which in some cases are approved for use by children. Be careful and careful, carefully read the composition of the drug and instructions for use. Pay attention to your child's condition and behavior. The use of such drugs, and especially in high dosages, can cause serious symptoms of alcohol poisoning in a child.

"Ethyl alcohol" contraindications

This solution has no categorical contraindications. But there are relative conditions in which it is worth comparing the cost of complications after use with the expected therapeutic effect:

Pain syndrome that cannot be relieved in acute myocardial infarction (inhalations to prevent pulmonary edema may not be effective)
High psychomotor agitation
Alcohol potentiates the effect tranquilizers
Inhibits the effect of neuroleptics
Potentiates the effect of antidiabetic drugs and may cause hypoglycemic to whom
Inhibitor drugs MAOIs increase the toxic effect of alcohol on the body
Ethyl alcohol negates the effect of antibacterial drugs when ingested

Analogues

Etol
Antiseptic medical solution
Synthetic ethyl alcohol
Salicylic alcohol
Formic alcohol

Video: GOST “Ethyl Alcohol - ETHANOL - C2H5OH”