The main result of the war becomes obvious not on the battlefield, but at the negotiating table. The Napoleonic Wars ended not at Waterloo, but in Vienna. And the results of the peace negotiations showed that the victory of the anti-French coalition is not so clear-cut, and there is no unity between the allies.
Official and unofficial goals
Officially, the congress in Vienna met in September 1814 in order to divide the territorial acquisitions of the participants in the anti-French coalition, ensure that it was impossible for any of the Bonapartes to occupy the French throne, and restore the statehood of the European powers destroyed by Napoleon. Representatives of all European countries took part in the meetings. Excluding Turkey.
In fact, the diplomats had another, more important goal, but not directly written down in official documents - the unequivocal destruction of the revolutionary idea, turning the victory over Napoleon into a victory over the revolution. This is one of the reasons why many historians believe that the Great French revolution ended only in 1815.
Finally, all the great powers also had secret plans that were contrary to the interests of the allies.
- England did not want Russian interference in European affairs at all.
- Russia sought to maintain two large states in Germany (Prussia and Austria) in order to prevent the dominance of one of them and the transformation of Germany into an anti-Russian force.
- Both England and Russia wanted to maintain the Franco-German confrontation so that these states would balance each other in European politics.
Naturally, the official redistribution of lands in Europe and the French colonies was also important.
Unexpected Heroes
The contradictions between the winners led to the fact that the true hero of the congress became French representative Talleyrand. By playing on the conflicting aspirations of yesterday's allies, Talleyrand managed to ensure that none of them fully received what they wanted. Yesterday's allies quarreled, and France, despite the defeat, remained a great power and an important political player in Europe.
Talleyrand managed to achieve an alliance between Austria and England against Russia, prevent the excessive strengthening of Prussia and turn the British and Austrians into de facto allies of France.
Part of the solutions Congress of Vienna creation must also be considered Holy Alliance, although the corresponding document was signed after the official completion of the negotiations. Its author is Tsar Alexander I. The goal of the Holy Alliance is the preservation of European monarchies and opposition to revolutions at any cost. In order to create maximum opportunities for its expansion, the king formulated all the points of the act on the creation of the union very vaguely. They only excluded Turkey from joining it on religious grounds (because the king intended to fight the Turks).
Redistribution of Europe
The decisions of the Congress of Vienna significantly changed the map of Europe. The final act was signed on June 9, 1815.
- Russia received a significant part of Poland, Bessarabia and Finland were assigned to it.
- Prussia received part of Saxony, Westphalia, Pomerania, Gdansk and Poznan.
- Austria got Galicia and a significant part of Italy.
- The temporal power of the Pope was restored.
- The Sardinian kingdom was restored and Nice was returned to it.
- Denmark lost Norway for supporting Napoleon - it fell into a union with Sweden.
- The German Confederation was created as a confederation of 34 monarchies and 4 free cities.
- France lost almost all its colonies, most of which went to England.
The Bourbons were restored to the French throne, and the participants in the congress vowed to prevent the restoration of the Bonapartes. They forgot this promise in 1852 - just to put an end to the revolutionary “Spring of Nations”.
French bourgeois revolution late XVIII centuries and the Napoleonic wars led to complete redistribution of European borders and the destruction of old feudal . That is why, after the fall of the Napoleonic Empire, European diplomats decided to hold a special congress, at which special treaties would be developed that would restore borders and old monarchical regimes. The Congress of Vienna of 1814 - 1815 and its results have not yet lost their relevance.
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Reasons for convening congressmen
The main reason for convening representatives of the great powers was the need to reconsider European borders, redrawn by the Napoleonic wars, and consolidate monarchical orders, restoring the rights of the old European dynasties. The victorious countries (allies) also wanted to strengthen their political positions.
It was decided to hold the congress Russia, Germany, England and Austria. Its main goal is restore the French monarchy and secure new borders within Europe.
Time spending
The Congress of Vienna began in October 1814. The events ended in July 1815. The leader of Austrian diplomacy of that time presided - Count Metternich.
Important! The entire congress took place in conditions of secret and obvious rivalry between countries, conspiracies and intrigues, but despite this, it was Vienna that created what is called modern diplomacy.
Before the work began, two coalitions were formed:
- Russia and Prussia(who laid claim to most of Poland’s territories and vigorously promoted their peace terms);
- Austria, England and France(their goal is to prevent such a repartition of Poland and maximum strengthening Russian Empire).
The start of the Congress of Vienna was delayed for a long time, there were reasons for this: intricate intrigues and political confrontation. By November 1, it was finally possible to develop an appropriate declaration.
Since negotiations had been in full swing for a long time, the official no opening ceremony was held.
France, whose interests were represented by an experienced diplomat Talleyrand, immediately managed to influence the decisions of other great powers, taking advantage of differences among the former members of the coalition.
Participants
All European powers took part in the negotiations, except Ottoman Empire . Who represented Russia at the congress? The composition of the participants was as follows (table):
Basic solutions
Let us briefly look at the agreements reached. The main decisions taken during the negotiations were set out in the Final Act. Russia played a leading role at the congress, largely thanks to the active work of Alexander I, who secured for himself status of "Savior of Europe".
Territorial solutions
Each country received part of the land or restored to its former boundaries. In table form this can be represented as follows:
| A country | Territories |
| Kingdom of the Netherlands (new) | Holland + Austrian Netherlands + Luxembourg (accession of representatives of the House of Orange to the throne) |
| Austria (restoration of the borders and empire of the Austrian Habsburgs) | Austria + returned territories of Italy + Tyrol, Salzburg, Dalmatia. |
| Prussia (adding territories by decreasing French territory) | Prussia + part of the Polish lands (Western Poland and Polish Pomerania) |
| Denmark | Lost Norwegian territories (due to being an ally of Napoleonic France), but the return of Holstein (Germany) |
| Sweden | Sweden + Norwegian territories |
| France | Loss of part of the Austrian and German lands, transfer of Italian territories in favor of the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom. |
| Austria | Acquired a large number of Polish territories(Chervonnaya Rus + Lesser Poland) |
| Britannia | Protectorate over Malta and the Ionian Islands; the annexation of Hanover with its elevation to the rank of a kingdom under the protectorate of the British Crown. |
| Russian empire | The Duchy of Warsaw (Polish Kingdom) was annexed to the territory of the empire. |
During the territorial redistribution of European lands, most Poland suffered. In history this is sometimes called the “Fourth Repartition of Poland.”
Attention! The political contradictions and territorial differences that emerged at the beginning of the Congress of Vienna quickly ended after Napoleon returned to France (“Hundred Days”). Even before the Battle of Waterloo, all agreements were signed, according to which Russia and Prussia renounced part of their claims in order to preserve the anti-French military alliance.
Map of Europe after the Congress of Vienna.
Political issues
Among other decisions taken at the Congress of Vienna are the following:
- restoration of Austrian dynastic rights Habsburgs and French Bourbons, Spanish Bourbons and Portuguese Bragantsev;
- creation of the German Confederation (political unification of independent German states and free cities);
- return Pope's power over the Vatican;
- recognition of the political neutrality of Switzerland (Alexander I played a special role in the recognition of Swiss neutrality; it is believed that this is a consequence of his special affection for the first Swiss president La Harpe, who was once his teacher);
- creation of the Holy Alliance;
- Creation systems international relations .
Attention! German diplomats particularly advocated for the political unification of the German states, which ultimately did not happen. A disunited Germany was beneficial to both Russia, Prussia and Austria.
Particularly important decisions are considered to be the creation of a union and new system diplomatic relations between countries.
Division of European lands.
Vienna diplomatic system
The system of international relations or the System of the European Concert, formed in Europe after the Congress of Vienna in 1814 -1815, enshrined:
- system of diplomatic ranks;
- system consular offices;
- a system for forming coalitions within the framework of the European focus and balance;
- concept diplomatic immunity.
The rules and principles of international diplomacy, formed at the Congress of Vienna and in the 20-30s, formed the basis of modern geopolitical system. We can say that it was at this time that the classical diplomacy.
The end of the Congress in Vienna meant the beginning new era in the life of European countries.
Holy Alliance
The Holy Alliance was not a fully formed European diplomatic organization, but it regularly performed its main function - maintaining conservative-monarchical orders in the new, post-Napoleonic Europe and the suppression of all national liberal movements. In 1815, three states joined the Union: Russian Empire, Austria and Prussia, but later almost all European states joined it, except Vatican, Britain and the Ottoman Empire.
Attention! The initiator of the creation of the Union was Emperor Alexander Pavlovich. On the one hand, he was motivated by the idea of becoming a peacemaker in Europe and preventing the emergence of new military conflicts. On the other hand, he wanted to strengthen monarchical regimes and his own power, preventing the spread of the ideas of liberalism, of which he himself was an adherent for a long time appeared (even “gave” a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland).
The Holy Alliance did not last long until it began (1853).
Congress of Vienna 1814-1815
Vienna system international relations
Distribution of forces in Europe
The Congress of Vienna of 1814 - 1815 outlined a new balance of power in post-Napoleonic Europe, defining the leading role in international politics of such powers as Russian Empire, Austria, Prussia and Britain. At this congress it was formed new system of diplomatic relations between countries, and the Holy Alliance became the strongest European diplomatic alliance for a long time.
A few words about the results of the Congress of Vienna, which completed its work at the beginning of June 1815. As we remember, the rapid return of Napoleon from the island of Elba and the restoration of the French empire accelerated the outcome between the victorious countries controversial issues, which excited the minds of the meeting participants for several months. On May 3, 1815, treaties were signed between Russia, Austria and Prussia, which determined the fate of the Duchy of Warsaw, as well as between Prussia and Saxony.
Congress of Vienna
Book illustration
The Russian Sovereign left the congress two weeks before its end, having previously signed a manifesto About the raising of arms against the thief of the French throne by all powers that preserve the law of piety and truth. He went to the location of his army, which, under the leadership of Field Marshal Barclay de Tolly, was advancing towards the Rhine.
On June 8, the Act of the German Confederation was adopted, and the next day, June 9, the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna, consisting of 121 articles, cemented the new borders of states established as a result of the redistribution of Europe. In addition to the articles, the Final Act included 17 annexes, including the treaty on the division of Poland, the declaration on the abolition of the trade in blacks, the rules of navigation on border and international rivers, the provision on diplomatic agents, the act on the constitution of the German Confederation and others.
So, according to the decision of the Congress of Vienna, Poland was divided. Most of the Duchy of Warsaw, under the name of the Kingdom of Poland, became part of the Russian Empire. Alexander I received the title of Tsar of Poland. From now on, thanks to the fact that in 1809, according to the Treaty of Friedrichsham, under the scepter Russian Emperor Finland departed, moving Swedish possessions away from Russian borders to the Arctic Circle and the Gulf of Bothnia, and in 1812 Bessarabia, with powerful water barriers in the form of the Prut and Dniester rivers, was created in the west of the empire. safety belt, which excluded a direct enemy invasion of Russian territory.
Duchy of Warsaw 1807-1814.
Borders of Poland according to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna 1815: salad color - the Kingdom of Poland within Russia,
blue - part that went to Prussia, red - free city of Krakow
The western lands of Greater Poland with Poznan and Polish Pomerania returned to Prussia. And Austria received southern part Lesser Poland and most of Red Rus'. Krakow became a free city. The Congress of Vienna declared the granting of autonomy to the Polish lands in all its parts, but in fact this was carried out only in Russia, where, by the will of Emperor Alexander I, known for his liberal aspirations, the Kingdom of Poland was granted a constitution.
In addition to part of the Duchy of Warsaw, Prussia received North Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland, Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen. The north of Italy returned to Austrian control: Lombardy and the Venetian region (Lombardy-Venetian Kingdom), the duchies of Tuscany and Parma, as well as Tyrol and Salzburg.
Map of the German Confederation, 1815
In addition to Polish, the stumbling block at the negotiations in Vienna was German question. The victorious powers were afraid of the formation of a monolithic German state in the very heart of Europe, but were not against the creation of a kind of confederation that served as an outpost at the borders of unpredictable France. After much debate within the borders of the former Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the German Confederation was created - a confederation of different-sized German states: kingdoms, duchies, electors and principalities, as well as four city-republics (Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck). Four countries - Austria, Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands - belonged to the union with only part of their possessions. There were no strong economic ties, common legislation, common finances, or diplomatic services between these sovereign states. The only central authority was the Federal Diet, which met in Frankfurt am Main and consisted of representatives of the governments of the states that were part of the German Confederation. The Austrian Emperor presided over the Diet. The goal of the Union was also very modest: Preservation of external and internal security of Germany, independence and inviolability of individual German states.
England in Europe received Gibraltar, Malta, the Ionian Islands, and with them a dominant position in the Mediterranean Sea; in the North Sea - the Heligoland archipelago. In addition, it secured part of the conquered French and Dutch colonies: the Lucay Islands and Tobago in the West Indies, Mauritius east of Madagascar, and the cotton districts of the Netherlands Guinea, which further strengthened the maritime power of the British Crown.
Belgium was incorporated into the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the auspices of William I of Orange-Nassau. France's ally Denmark lost Norway, which was transferred to Sweden, but received German Schleswig and Holstein. Switzerland, which included Wallis, Geneva and Neuchâtel, expanded its lands and acquired strategically important Alpine passes. It constituted a confederation of free, independent and neutral cantons. Spain and Portugal remained within their previous borders and returned to their ruling royal dynasties (the Spanish Bourbons and Braganzas, respectively)
Map of Italy in 1815
And finally, Italy, which, in the aptly caustic expression of Prince Metternich, after the decisions of the Congress of Vienna is nothing more than geographical concept
. Its territory was fragmented into eight small states: in the north two kingdoms - Sardinia (Piedmont) and Lombardo-Venetian, as well as four duchies - Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Lucca; in the center is the Papal States with Rome as its capital, and in the south is the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Neapolitan-Sicilian). Thus, the power of the Pope over the Vatican was restored in Italy and Papal States, The Kingdom of Naples (Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), after bloody battles and the flight of King Joachim Murat, was returned to the Bourbons, and the restored Sardinian Kingdom was returned to Savoy, Nice and given to Genoa.
Map of Europe after the Congress of Vienna
As Russian historian Lieutenant General Nikolai Karlovich Schilder summarized: Russia has increased its territory by about 2100 square meters. miles with a population of over three million; Austria acquired 2300 sq. miles with ten million people, and Prussia 2217 square meters. miles with 5,362,000 people. Thus, Russia, which bore the entire burden of the three-year war with Napoleon on its shoulders and brought greatest victims for the triumph of European interests, received the least reward. Regarding the most significant territorial gains of the Austrian Empire, Schilder echoes Petersburg letters French politician and diplomat Joseph-Marie de Maistre: she (Austria) succeeded get a huge win in a lottery for which she did not buy tickets...
But the main result of the Congress of Vienna was the creation of a new system of international relations in Europe (called Vienna), based on the dominance of four great powers- Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, to which in 1818 after the withdrawal allied forces France also joined.
The organization and holding of the Congress of Vienna was a significant event both for European states, and for all world practice as a whole. Let's consider some issues of its implementation in more detail.
Objectives: The Congress of Vienna was originally declared to be convened to determine the fate of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, and to develop and implement measures to prevent similar situations in the future. However, the adviser to the Austrian Chancellor Metternich Friedrich Gentz, who was Secretary General Congress of Vienna, in February 1815, wrote: “Loud phrases about “reconstruction of the social order, renewal of the political system of Europe,” “Permanent peace based on a fair distribution of forces,” etc. and so on. were spoken with the intention of calming the crowd and giving this solemn assembly some appearance of dignity and grandeur, but true goal Congress was a division of the inheritance of the loser between the winners" 11 Protopopov A.S., Kozmenko V.M., Elmanova N.S. History of international relations and foreign policy Russia (1648-2000). Textbook for Universities / Ed. A.S. Protopopova. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - P.75.. And, indeed, all participants in the Congress sought to grab as much as possible at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon 22 there..
Time of the Congress of Vienna: from September 1814 to June 1815.
Composition and number of participants: there were 216 delegates from the European winning countries at the Congress. The Russian delegation was headed by Emperor Alexander I, Great Britain - Keslreagh, and a little later - Wellington, Austria - Francis I, Prussia - Hardenberg, France - Charles-Maurice Talleyrand. The leading role in resolving the most important issues at the Congress was played by Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. In addition, despite the fact that Talleyrand represented defeated France, he managed to successfully defend its interests on a number of issues.
Plans of the participants of the Vienna Congress: All delegations came to the Congress in Vienna with certain plans.
1. Alexander I, whose troops were in the center of Europe, was not going to give up what he had conquered. He wanted to create the Duchy of Warsaw under his own auspices, giving it its own constitution. In exchange for this, in order not to offend his ally Frederick William III, Alexander hoped to transfer Saxony to Prussia.
2. Austria planned to regain the lands conquered from it by Napoleon, and to prevent a significant strengthening of Russia and Prussia.
3. Prussia really wanted to annex Saxony and retain Polish lands.
5. France, not counting on any territorial acquisitions, did not want the predominance of some European countries over others.
During the negotiations during the Congress of Vienna, a number of important scandalous events occurred:
· Firstly, England, France and Prussia entered into a secret agreement on January 3, 1815, which contained the obligation of the three powers to jointly prevent Saxony from joining Prussia on any terms. In addition, they agreed not to allow any redistribution of existing borders, that is, annexation of territories to a particular country or separation from them.
· Secondly, almost immediately after its conclusion, the above-mentioned secret agreement received scandalous publicity, which, naturally, influenced the work of the Vienna Congress. This happened in Paris during historical period known as "100 days". Having landed in France with a small group of soldiers and officers loyal to him, Napoleon entered Paris on March 19, 1815. One of three copies of the secret treaty was discovered in the office of the escaped Louis XVIII. At the direction of Napoleon, it was urgently transported to Alexander I, who handed it over to Metternich. Thus, all other delegations became aware of the “secret” conspiracy of some participants in the Vienna Congress.
· Thirdly, the very fact of the short-term restoration of Napoleon's empire was unexpected and unforeseen.
· Fourthly, important event was the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo and the return of the royal Bourbon dynasty to Paris.
Results of the Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was unique in its significance historical event. Its results can be summarized as follows:
1. A few days before Waterloo, namely on June 9, 1815, representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. According to its provisions, the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands was authorized, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian emperor also became the Polish king.
In addition, the General Act contained special articles that related to relations between European countries. For example, rules were established for the collection of duties and navigation on the border and international rivers Mozyl, Meuse, Rhine and Scheldt; the principles of free navigation were determined; the annex to the General Act spoke of the prohibition of trade in blacks; In all countries, censorship was tightened and police regimes were strengthened.
2. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called “Vienna system of international relations” emerged.
It was at the Congress of Vienna that three classes of diplomatic agents were established, which are still in use today. 11 The first class includes ambassadors and papal legates (nuncios); to the second - envoys (internunniums); to the third - chargés d'affaires; a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats was determined, and four types of consular offices were formulated. Within the framework of this system, the concept of great powers was formulated for the first time (then primarily Russia, Austria, Great Britain), and multichannel diplomacy finally took shape.
3. The decision was made to create the Holy Alliance.
Late XVIII – early XIX centuries. were the era of the Napoleonic wars. The rapidly rising “star” of the French emperor set after the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig (1813). The outcome of this era was summed up by the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815).
Positions of the parties on the eve of the Congress of Vienna
The leading force at the congress was the four victorious powers, each of which had own interests:
- Russia planned a complete takeover of Poland;
- Prussia wanted to annex Saxony;
- Austria prevented Russia from strengthening in Europe;
- England feared the excessive strengthening of the continental states.
Rice. 1. Allied monarchs during the battle of Leipzig. R. Knotel. Late XIX V..
The significance of the Congress of Vienna and its decisions
The Congress of Vienna lasted eight months (October 1814-June 1815) and ended with the signing of the “Final Act”.
He established the hegemony of four countries: Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia. Soon France became one of them.
Rice. 2. Congress of Vienna 1815. J.-B. Izabe. 1815.
In Europe, a political system was established, which was based on the principle of “balance of power.” The existing system had to be mothballed and strictly guarded. Recovered in France royal dynasty Bourbons.
The main result of the congress was the reshaping political map Europe in the interests of the victorious countries.
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Briefly about the results of the Congress of Vienna 1814-1815. the Austrian diplomat Metternich put it vividly: “All day I have been cutting up Europe like a piece of cheese.”
Table “Results of the Congress of Vienna”
|
A country |
Territorial changes |
|
Annexation of the Duchy of Warsaw under the name of the Kingdom of Poland. Official approval of past conquests (Finland and Bessarabia). |
|
|
Annexation of the most developed part of Saxony. |
|
|
Return of all territories captured by Napoleon. |
|
|
Great Britain |
Consolidating the takeover of former Dutch, French, Spanish and Portuguese colonies. |
|
Loss of all captured territories and return to the borders of 1792 |
|
|
Germany |
Political conglomerate of 34 states and 4 free cities. |
|
Consolidation of political fragmentation. |
Rice. 3. Map.
Holy Alliance
The direct result of the Congress of Vienna was the formation of the Holy Alliance (September 1815), which was signed:
