The main goal of the participants in the Vienna Congress. Decisions of the Congress of Vienna. The positions of the parties on the eve of the Congress of Vienna

Autumn 1814 - 216 representatives of all European states, excluding the Turkish Empire, gathered in Vienna for the congress. Main role - Russia, England and Austria.

The goal of the participants is to satisfy their own aggressive territorial claims by redistributing Europe and the colonies.

Interests:

Russia - joining to his empire most of the territory of the abolished "Duchy of Warsaw". Support for feudal reaction and the strengthening of Russia's influence in Europe. Strengthening Austria and Prussia as a counterbalance to each other.

England - strove to secure a commercial, industrial and colonial monopoly for it and supported the policy of feudal reactions. Weakening of France and Russia.

Austria - defended the principles of feudal-absolutist reaction and the strengthening of the Austrian national oppression over the Slavic peoples, Italians and Hungarians. The weakening of the influence of Russia and Prussia.

Prussia - wanted to capture Saxony and gain important new possessions on the Rhine. She fully supported the feudal reaction and demanded the most merciless policy towards France.

France - opposed the deprivation of the Saxon king of the throne and possessions in favor of Prussia.

January 3, 1815 - alliance of England, Austria and France against Russia and Prussia. Through joint pressure, they forced the tsar and the Prussian king to make concessions.

Prussia- northern part of Saxony(the southern part remained an independent kingdom). Attached Rhine Province and Westphalia. This made it possible for Prussia to subsequently subjugate Germany. Joined Swedish Pomerania.

Royal Russia - part of the Duchy of Warsaw. Poznan and Gdansk remained in the hands of Prussia, and Galicia was again transferred to Austria. Saved Finland and Bessarabia.

England- secured Fr. Malta and the colonies captured from Holland and France.

Austria- dominion over northeastern Italy, Lombardy and Venice.

June 9, 1815 - the General Act of the Congress of Vienna is signed. The act provided for the creation of strong barriers near the borders of France: Belgium and Holland were united into a single kingdom of the Netherlands independent of France. A strong barrier against France was the new Rhine provinces of Prussia.

Congress has kept Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden the additions made by them under Napoleon to strengthen the South German states against France. Of the 19 self-governing cantons, the Swiss Confederation. In the northwest of Italy it was restored and strengthened Sardinian kingdom. Legitimate monarchies have been restored in many states. Creation German Confederation. Norway united with Sweden.

"Holy Union"- the maintenance of the Christian faith, the unquestioning obedience of subjects to their sovereigns, the maintenance of international order.

2. Vienna system: problems of periodization and features of formation

The results of the wars of the Napoleonic era determined the configuration of the new Vienna model of the system international relations. The lecture analyzes the features of its functioning, disputes regarding the effectiveness of this model and its periodization. The course of the Vienna Congress is considered, as well as the main ideas laid down in the foundation of a new model of the system of international relations. The victorious powers saw the meaning of their collective international activity in the creation of reliable barriers against the spread of revolutions. Hence the appeal to the ideas of legitimism. Evaluation of the principles of legitimism. It is shown that quite a few objective factors acted against the conservation of the status quo that developed after 1815. In their list, an important place is occupied by the process of expanding the scope of systemicity, which came into conflict with the ideas of legitimism, and this gave rise to a whole series of new explosive problems.

The role of the congresses in Aachen, Tropadu and Verona in the consolidation of the weighty system, in the development of legal principles in the field of international relations. Further complication of the concept of “state interests”. The Eastern question and the appearance of the first cracks in the relations of the former allies in the anti-French coalition. Disputes about the interpretation of the principles of legitimism in the 20s. 19th century Revolutionary events of 1830 and the Vienna system.

The Vienna system: from stability to crisis

Despite certain frictions that existed in the relations of the great powers until the middle of the 19th century. The Vienna system was distinguished by high stability. Its guarantors managed to avoid head-on collisions and find solutions to the main controversial issues. This is not surprising, because at that time there were no forces in the international arena capable of resisting the creators of the Vienna system. The Eastern question was considered the most explosive problem, but here, right up to the Crimean War, the great powers kept the conflict potential within a legitimate framework. The watershed separating the phase of the stable development of the Vienna system from its crisis was 1848, when, under the pressure of internal contradictions generated by the stormy, unregulated development of bourgeois relations, an explosion occurred and a powerful revolutionary wave swept across the entire European continent. It analyzes its impact on the situation in the leading powers, shows how these events influenced the nature of their state interests and the overall balance of power in the international arena. The shift in forces that had begun sharply narrowed the possibilities for finding compromises in interstate conflicts. As a result, without serious modernization, the Vienna system could no longer effectively perform its functions.

Lecture 11. An attempt to modernize the Vienna system

The Crimean War, the first open military clash of the great powers after the creation of the Vienna system in 1815, convincingly demonstrated that the entire systemic mechanism had suffered a serious failure, and this raised the question of its future prospects to its full potential. In our scheme, the 50-60s. 19th century - the time of the deepest crisis of the Vienna system. The following alternative was put on the agenda: either in the wake of the crisis, the formation of a fundamentally new model of international relations will begin, or a serious modernization of the old model of international relations will be carried out. The solution to this fateful problem depended on how events would unfold in two key issues of world politics in those years - the unification of Germany and Italy.

History has made a fairly convincing choice in favor of the second scenario. It is shown how, in the course of the most acute political collisions, which several times developed into local wars, on the European continent, not a scrapping, but a renewal of the previous model of international relations gradually took place. What allows you to put forward this thesis? First, no one, de facto or de jure, has canceled the basic decisions taken at the congress in Vienna. Secondly, the conservative-protective principles that formed the backbone of all its essential characteristics, although cracked, remained in force in the end. Thirdly, the balance of forces, which made it possible to keep the system in a state of equilibrium, was restored after a series of shocks, and at first there were no cardinal shifts in its configuration. Finally, all the great powers retained the traditional Vienna system commitment to finding a compromise.

3. The so-called Holy Alliance of European monarchs against the revolution was a kind of ideological and, at the same time, military-political superstructure on the “Vienna system” of diplomatic agreements.

The events of the “hundred days”, which produced an exceptional impact on contemporaries, and especially on the participants in the Congress of Vienna: the support by the army and a significant part of the population of the new seizure of power by Napoleon, the lightning collapse of the first restoration of the Bourbons, gave rise in European reactionary circles to the thesis about the existence of some kind of All-European secret "revolutionary committee", gave a new impetus to their desire to strangle the "revolutionary spirit" everywhere, to put up an obstacle to revolutionary democratic and national liberation movements. In September 1815, the monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia signed and solemnly proclaimed in Paris an act establishing the "Holy Union of Monarchs and Peoples." The religious and mystical ideas contained in this document were opposed to the ideas of the French Revolution, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789.

However, the Holy Alliance was created not only for an ideological manifestation, it was also an instrument of action. The act declared the status quo of 1815 inviolable and established that in any attempt to violate it, the monarchs "in any case and in every place will give each other benefits, reinforcements and assistance." In order to give the Holy Alliance a pan-European character, Austria, Prussia and especially Russia achieved in 1815-1817. accession to it of all European states, except for the Pope, England and Muslim Turkey. However, England actually participated in the first years of the activities of the Holy Alliance as a member of the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia and England), recreated during the negotiations on the second peace of Paris. It was the British Foreign Minister Lord Castlereagh (with the support of Metternich) who gave the text of the Treaty on the Quadruple Alliance such a wording that allowed its participants to intervene by force of arms in the affairs of other states of the union under the flag of protecting "the peace and prosperity of the peoples and safeguarding the peace of all Europe."

In the implementation of the policy of legitimism and the fight against the threat of revolution, different tactics were used. Until the early 1920s, the policy of the Holy Alliance was characterized by an attempt to oppose revolutionary ideas with pacifist phraseology and broad propaganda of religious and mystical ideas. In 1816-1820. The British and Russian Bible Societies, with active government support, distributed Bibles, gospels and other religious texts published in thousands of copies. F. Engels emphasized that at first the defense of the principle of legitimism was carried out “... under the guise of such sentimental phrases as “Holy Alliance”, “eternal peace”, “public good”, “mutual trust between the sovereign and subjects”, etc. etc., and then without any cover, with the help of a bayonet and a prison”6.

In the first years after the creation of the "Viennese system", in the politics of the European monarchies, along with an openly reactionary line, a certain tendency was preserved to adapt to the dictates of the times, to compromise with the upper strata of the European bourgeoisie. In particular, the all-European agreement on the freedom and order of navigation along the Rhine and Vistula, adopted at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and meeting the interests of commercial and industrial circles, went in this direction, which became the prototype for subsequent agreements of this kind (on the Danube, etc.) .

Some monarchs (primarily Alexander I) continued to use constitutional principles for their own purposes. In 1816-1820. with the support of Alexander I (and despite the resistance of Austria), on the basis of the decisions of the Vienna Congress on the German Confederation, moderate constitutions were introduced in the South German states - Württemberg, Baden, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt.

In Prussia, the commission on the preparation of the constitution continued a long debate: the king promised to introduce it at the height of the wars with Napoleon in 1813 and 1815. Finally, on the eve of the Aachen Congress in 1818, some figures of Russian diplomacy (primarily I. Kapodistrias) proposed to include the question of granting “reasonable constitutions” by monarchs to subjects in a document prepared for discussion at this important international meeting. In March 1818, in a sensational speech in the Polish Sejm, Alexander I spoke of the possibility of extending "lawfully free institutions" to "all countries entrusted by Providence to my care." However, nothing came of these projections. The conservative-protective, openly reactionary trend was increasingly gaining the upper hand in the domestic and foreign policy of the main European monarchies. The Aachen Congress of 1818, in which the members of the Quadruple Alliance and France took part, therefore did not begin to solve the constitutional problem, but concentrated its efforts on the struggle against the "hundred days" emigrants. The Congress decided to withdraw the occupying troops from France, which had paid most of the indemnity, ahead of schedule. France was admitted to the ranks of the great powers and could henceforth participate on an equal footing in the meetings of the members of the Quadruple Alliance (it was renewed at the congress). The union of these powers was called the Pentarchy.

In general, the Holy Union at the first stage of its activity remained mainly a political and ideological superstructure over the "Viennese system". However, since the European revolutions of the 20s of the XIX century. it has turned into a close union of its three main participants - Russia, Austria and Prussia, who will see the main task of the union only in the armed suppression of revolutions and national liberation movements of the 20-40s of the XIX century. in Europe and America. The “Viennese system” as a system of treaty obligations on the preservation of state borders in Europe will last longer. Its final collapse will occur only after the Crimean War.

4. The efforts of Russian diplomacy were also aimed at resolving the Eastern question in the key needed for Russia. The need to protect the southern borders of the country, the creation of favorable conditions for the economic flourishing of the Russian Black Sea region, the patronage of the interests of the Black Sea and Mediterranean trade of the Russian merchants required the consolidation of the favorable regime for Russia of the two straits - the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, connecting the Black and Aegean Seas. Turkey was supposed to guarantee unhindered passage through the straits of Russian merchant ships and their closure for the navies of other states. The crisis Ottoman Empire, the growing national liberation movement of the Balkans and other peoples conquered by the Turks pushed Nicholas I to resolve the Eastern question as soon as possible.

However, even here Russia had to face the resistance of other great powers. England and Austria themselves were not averse to rounding off their possessions at the expense of Turkey and feared not only the strengthening of Russia's positions in the Balkans, but also its military presence in the Mediterranean. A certain amount of wariness in Vienna, London and Paris was caused by the ideas of pan-Slavism spreading in the advanced social circles of Russia and, in particular, plans to create a single federation of Slavic peoples under the rule of the Russian tsar. And although pan-Slavism did not become the banner of the official foreign policy of Nicholas I, Russia nevertheless stubbornly defended its right to patronize the Orthodox peoples of Muslim Turkey.

The annexation of Transcaucasia at the beginning of the century caused an aggravation of Russian-Iranian contradictions. Relations with Persia remained tense in the second quarter of the 19th century. Russia was interested in strengthening its position in the Caucasus and in creating favorable foreign policy conditions for pacifying the revolt of a number of mountain tribes in the North Caucasus.

5. In 1848-1949 a wave of revolutions swept across Europe. The reactionary governments tried as far as possible to restore and preserve the system of IR that existed in Europe before 1848. The correlation of class forces within individual states and the content of IR changed. The Holy Alliance declared its right to interfere in the internal affairs of any country where

the revolutionary movement could threaten the monarchical foundations of other states. The wave of European revolutions was repulsed, the "Viennese system" with its legitimate foundations was preserved, the shaken power of a number of monarchs was again restored.

6. The Crimean War is the most important event in the history of the Defense Ministry and foreign policy of the 19th century. The war was the result of the exacerbation of political, ideological, economic contradictions in the Middle East and the Balkans, as well as in the European arena as a whole - mainly between England, France, Turkey and Russia. The war grew out of the eastern crisis of the 50s, which began with

disagreements between France and Russia regarding the rights of the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine, which is a province of the Ottoman Empire. The defeat in the Crimean War demonstrated the weakness of the social and political system Russian Empire.

Bourgeois Europe has triumphed over feudal Russia. Russia's international prestige was greatly shaken. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, was a difficult and humiliating treaty for her. The Black Sea was declared neutral: it was forbidden to keep

German Navy, build coastal fortifications and arsenals. The southern borders of Russia turned out to be unprotected. The deprivation of Russia's long-standing right of preferential patronage to the Christian peoples of the Balkans weakened its influence on the peninsula. England, Austria and France signed an agreement to guarantee the independence and preservation of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, in case of violation of which they could use force. The union of three states was joined by the Swedish-Norwegian kingdom in the north, and the Ottoman Empire in the south. The emerging new alignment of forces

called the "Crimean system". Russia found itself in international isolation. The influence of France and England increased. The Crimean War and the Congress of Paris became the boundary of an entire era in the history of the Moscow Region. The "Viennese system" finally ceased to exist.

7. Japan pursued a policy of isolation from the outside world. The increased expansion of the European powers and the United States in the Far East region, the development of shipping in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean contributed to the "discovery" of Japan. In the 50s, a struggle broke out between the powers

for penetrating and dominating Japan. According to the treaty signed between Russia and Japan of April 25, 1875, all of Sakhalin was recognized as belonging to Russia, and Russia ceded to Japan 18 islands that made up the Kuril archipelago in its northern and

middle part. The aggressive aspirations of Japan were quite clearly manifested already in the 70s of the XIX century. Korea, which is formally dependent on China, turned out to be the closest object of Japanese expansion. The US and Western powers also launched a series of military expeditions to forcibly open Korean ports. Korea opened 3 ports for Japanese trade. For Russia, the most important thing was the preservation of an independent Korea. On July 25, 1894 Japan captured Seoul and on September 1 declared war on China. At this time, she was convinced. That Russia, like other powers, will remain neutral. Russia's position was explained not only by its weakness in the Far East. Petersburg feared the possible entry into the war of England on the side of China. At this time, the danger of Japanese aggression was still underestimated. On January 24, 1904, Japan breaks off diplomatic relations with Russia and at the same time begins military operations against the Russian troops located in China, with the strategic task of defeating the Russian troops as soon as possible before they are completely concentrated in the Far East. Japanese

command of the main military goals set: complete dominance at sea. And on land, the Japanese first of all sought to capture Port Arthur and then spread their military successes to Korea and Manchuria, ousting the Russians from these regions. There were many bloody battles known in history: the battle of Port Arthur, Laolian, Mukden,

Tsushima battle. Immediately after the Battle of Tsushima, Japan turned to the United States with a request for mediation for peace. The Russian autocracy, intimidated by the impending revolution and general dissatisfaction in the country with the results of the Far Eastern campaign, agreed to sit down at the negotiating table. The negotiations were held in the American city of Portsmouth. On September 5, 1905, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed between Russia and Japan. Under this agreement Russian government ceded the southern part of Sakhalin Island to Japan and waived the right to lease

Kwantung Peninsula with Port Arthur and South Manchuria railway. The Russian government also recognized Japan's "special" interests in Korea. The signing of such an agreement did not bring victorious laurels to the Russian state and did not raise its prestige in the world.

Organizational issues of the Congress of Vienna

The arrangement and holding of the Congress of Vienna was a significant event both for the European states and for the entire world practice as a whole. Let's consider some of its implementation issues in more detail.

Objectives: It was originally proclaimed that the Congress of Vienna was convened to determine the fate of the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, as well as to develop and take measures to prevent similar situations in the future. However, the adviser to the Austrian Chancellor Metternich, Friedrich Gentz, who was General Secretary Congress of Vienna, in February 1815, wrote: “Bold phrases about “the reorganization of the social order, the renewal of the political system of Europe”, “Permanent peace based on a fair distribution of forces”, etc. etc. were uttered in order to calm the crowd and give this solemn meeting a certain air of dignity and grandeur, but true purpose Congress was the division of the inheritance of the vanquished among the victors. And, indeed, all participants in the Congress sought to snatch as much as possible for themselves at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon.

Time of the Congress of Vienna: from September 1814 to June 1815.

Composition and number of participants: there were 216 delegates of the European countries-winners at the Congress. The delegation of Russia was headed by Emperor Alexander I, of Great Britain by Keslrie, and a little later by Wellington, of Austria by Franz I, of Prussia by Hardenberg, of France by Charles-Maurice Talleyrand. Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich played a leading role in solving the most important issues at the Congress. In addition, despite the fact that Talleyrand represented the defeated France, he managed to successfully defend her interests on a number of issues.

Plans of the participants of the Vienna Congress: All delegations came to the Congress in Vienna with certain plans.

1.Alexander I, whose troops were in the center of Europe, was not going to cede the conquered. He wanted to create the Duchy of Warsaw under his own auspices, granting it its own constitution. In exchange for this, in order not to offend his ally Frederick William III, Alexander expected to transfer Saxony to Prussia.

2. Austria planned to regain the lands conquered from her by Napoleon, and prevent a significant strengthening of Russia and Prussia.

3. Prussia really wanted to annex Saxony and keep the Polish lands.

5. France, not counting on any territorial acquisitions, did not want the predominance of some European countries over others.

During the negotiations during the work of the Congress of Vienna, a number of important scandalous events occurred:

· Firstly, on January 3, 1815, England, France and Prussia concluded a secret agreement containing the obligation of the three powers to jointly prevent the accession of Saxony to Prussia under any conditions. In addition, they agreed not to allow any redistribution of existing borders, that is, the accession of territories to one or another country or separation from them.

· Secondly, almost immediately after the conclusion of the above-mentioned secret agreement received scandalous publicity, which, of course, influenced the work of the Congress of Vienna. It happened in Paris during historical period known as "100 days". Having landed in France with a small group of soldiers and officers loyal to him, Napoleon entered Paris on March 19, 1815. One of three copies of the secret treaty was found in the office of the escaped Louis XVIII. At the direction of Napoleon, he was urgently forwarded to Alexander I, who handed him over to Metternich. Thus, the "secret" conspiracy of some participants in the Congress of Vienna became known to all other delegations.

Thirdly, the very fact of the short-term restoration of Napoleon's empire was unexpected and unforeseen.

· Fourthly, an important event was the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo and the return to Paris of the royal Bourbon dynasty.

Results of the Congress of Vienna: In its significance, the Congress of Vienna was a unique historical event. His results can be summarized as follows:

1. A few days before Waterloo, namely on June 09, 1815, the representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. According to its provisions, the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new kingdom of the Netherlands was authorized, but all other possessions of Austria returned to the control of the Habsburgs, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and Tyrol. Prussia got part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway, transferred to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican was restored and Papal States, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name of the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian emperor became the Polish king.

In addition, the General Act contained special articles that dealt with relations between European countries. For example, rules were established for the collection of duties and navigation along the border and international rivers Mozyl, Meuse, Rhine and Scheldt; the principles of free navigation were determined; the appendix to the General Act spoke of the prohibition of the trade in Negroes; censorship was tightened in all countries, police regimes were strengthened.

2. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called "Vienna system of international relations" took shape.

It was at the Congress of Vienna that three classes of diplomatic agents were established, which are still used today1; a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats was determined, four types of consular institutions were formulated. Within the framework of this system, the concept of great powers was first formulated (then primarily Russia, Austria, Great Britain), and multichannel diplomacy finally took shape.

3. A decision was made to create a Holy Union.

The formation of the Holy Union is the main result of the Congress of Vienna in 1815

The founding document of the Holy Union was the Act of the Holy Alliance, developed by Alexander I himself and signed in Paris on September 26, 1815 by the Russian and Austrian emperors and the Prussian king.

The purpose of creating the Holy Union was: on the one hand, to play the role of a deterrent against national liberation and revolutionary movements, and on the other hand, to unite, if necessary, all its participants in defense of the inviolability of borders and existing orders. This was reflected in the Act of the Holy Alliance, which proclaimed that due to great changes in European countries for three recent years the members of the Holy Union decided that “in any case and in every place they will give each other benefits, reinforcements and help for the preservation of faith, peace and truth”1.

However, according to many historians, the content of this act was the highest degree vaguely and loosely, and practical conclusions could be drawn from it the most diverse, but its general spirit did not contradict, but rather favored the reactionary mood of the then governments. Not to mention the confusion of ideas belonging to completely different categories, in it religion and morality completely displace law and politics from the areas that undeniably belong to these latter. Built on the legitimate principle of the divine origin of monarchical power, it establishes the patriarchal nature of relations between sovereigns and peoples, and the former are obliged to rule in the spirit of “love, truth and peace”, while the latter should only obey: the document does not at all address the rights of the people in relation to power. mentions.

The goal of the Union was mutual assistance in suppressing revolutionary anti-monarchist uprisings in Europe - echoes of the anti-Christian French Revolution - and strengthening the foundations of Christian statehood. Alexander I intended, through such an alliance, to also eliminate the possibility of military clashes between monarchical Christian states. The monarchs who entered into an alliance swore to observe the inviolability of borders in Europe and to subordinate the entire order of mutual relations " high truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior”, “to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of the holy faith” and “respect yourself by all as if they were members of a single Christian people”.

The Act of the Holy Union was symbolically signed on the Orthodox feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross. The high spiritual meaning of the Holy Union is also reflected in the unusual wording of the union treaty, which is neither in form nor in content similar to international treatises: “In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity! Their Majesties, the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia and the Emperor of All Russia, as a result of the great events that marked the last three years in Europe, and especially as a result of the blessings that God's Providence was pleased to pour out on the states, whose government placed its hope and respect on the One God, feeling inner conviction that it is necessary for the present powers to subordinate the image of mutual relations to the highest truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior, they solemnly declare that the subject of this act is to reveal in the face of the universe their unshakable determination, both in governing the states entrusted to them, and in political relations to all other governments, be guided by no other rules than the commandments of this holy faith, the commandments of love, truth and peace, which were not limited to their application solely to private life, should, on the contrary, directly control the will of kings and guide all of them deeds, as a single means of affirming human decrees and rewarding their imperfection. On this basis, Their Majesties agreed in the following articles ... ".

In the first years after the creation of the Holy Alliance, despite the existing differences in the views of its participants, the European states acted in concert on many foreign policy issues, especially in the fight against free thinking and the democratization of the masses. At the same time, they closely watched each other and hatched their own plans.

In general, during the existence of the Holy Alliance, several of its congresses took place:

1. Aachen Congress (September 20 - November 20, 1818).

2.Congresses in Troppau and Laibach (1820-1821).

3. Congress in Verona (October 20 - November 14, 1822).

Chapter 1. Beginning of the Congress of Vienna (1814)

1814 opened in the history of European diplomacy one extremely revealing trend, which was repeatedly repeated with mirror accuracy later on.

As soon as the battles of the Napoleonic Wars died down ...

Power Struggle at the Congress of Vienna

Chapter 2

In the spring of 1815

the congress had already begun to sum up the results, when suddenly its participants were shocked by unexpected news: Napoleon Bonaparte secretly fled from the island of Elba and landed in France on March 1.

As E. Saunders notes…

CHAPTER 1. Historical background for the Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna and the Creation of the "Holy Alliance"

§2.
The formation of the Holy Union is the main result of the Congress of Vienna in 1815

Alexander I came up with the idea of creating the Holy Union of European States, as he understood that the decisions of the Congress should be institutionalized.

The founding document of the Holy Alliance was the Act of the Holy Alliance...

Indian National Congress at the head of a mass civil disobedience movement

2.2 Ideology and activities of the Indian National Congress

Questions about what led the Congress when it began, developed and stopped the massive campaign of civil disobedience, what currents and what struggle of opinions took place within it before, during and after the campaign ...

National issues of Siberia

The 20th century met the indigenous peoples of Siberia not too friendly.

At first, however, everything went on as before: people “lived and procreated and ruled tax” (yasak). At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries ...

The main questions of the topic:

Western Turkic Khaganate, Turgesh Khaganate, Karluk Khaganate. The states of the Oguzes, Kimaks.

The states of the Karakhanids, Khitans (Karakitas). The states of the Kipchaks, Naimans, Kereites. The first mention of the name "Turk" refers to 542 ...

The main stages of the history of Kazakhstan

Questions for self-examination:

What are the main reasons for the weakening and fall of powerful khaganates? 2. What are the common features in the political history of the states of the Türgesh, Karluks, Oguzes, Kimaks, Karakhanids, Kypchaks? 3…

Causes, beginning, stages of the civil war in Soviet Russia

2. Participants of the Civil War: composition, goals, ideology, organizational forms

Events of 1917-1918 led to the fact that there were 2 camps in the country. The first is the camp of the Bolsheviks, otherwise they were called the "Reds", and the second anti-Bolshevik camp is the "Whites".

However, being the main opposing force…

Problems of studying stone drilled axes-hammers of the Crimea (In the context of questions of systematization of stone drilled axes-hammers of the Black Sea and South Russian steppes)

1.2 Terminology issues

It is worth paying attention to the rather urgent issue of terminology in the classification and naming of parts of the CCTM. This topic, of course, requires a separate study outside the scope of this work.

The question is…

Issues for discussion:

1. English nobility as a sociocultural phenomenon. Transformation of the composition of the elite. 2. Design common system values: corporate noble ideology and its change; gender stereotypes, family and marriage relations and sexual morality…

Software and methodological support of the special course

Issues for discussion:

Registration of English entrepreneurs as a separate social stratum: Socio-political situation of entrepreneurs ...

Software and methodological support of the special course

Issues for discussion:

1. Transformation of the structure of the rural population of England, its way of life and system of values. 2.

CONGRESS OF VIENNA 1814 ‒ 1815

Classification of employees: Types of activity, status, basic values…

The assertion of the power of the Kuomintang and the struggle for the unification of the country

4. Weak ideological and organizational aspects of the Kuomintang power

At the same time, the established structure of the Kuomintang regime, even by the middle of the 30s.

politically was extremely weak and vulnerable. The central state apparatus was just beginning to take shape, while the local one still remained old ...

Stages and forms of the struggle of the Indians for their rights

1.3. Under the tutelage of Congress

The law of 1871, which eliminated the independent position of the Indians, was the beginning of the most difficult period for them, which lasted until the 30s of our century.

The status of wards was a clear violation of not only civil ...

Main article: Napoleonic Wars

In the autumn of 1814, representatives of all European powers gathered in Vienna for an international congress to resolve the most complex set of issues left over from the era of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.

At the same time, each of the great powers sought to ensure only its own interests, and all together they imposed their will on weaker states. The main issues were resolved by agreement between representatives of the great powers - Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. They quickly agreed on the new borders of France, but for a long time could not overcome differences over Poland and Saxony.

Napoleon's Hundred Days

The endless discussions at the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by the return of Napoleon to power.

Having escaped from Elba in the spring of 1815 and landed in France with a small detachment, he soon entered Paris victoriously at the head of an army dissatisfied with the return of the Bourbons. These were the famous "Hundred Days" of Napoleon. The emperor waited for some time, hoping to conclude an agreement favorable to him with the powers, and then launched an offensive in Belgium.

The short-term war ended on June 18, 1815, near the Belgian village of Waterloo, where Prussian and English troops, with the participation of the local militia, defeated Napoleon's army.

Decisions of the Congress of Vienna

Meanwhile, the Congress of Vienna had practically completed its work.

Congress of Vienna 1814 - 1815

The powers managed to reach a compromise on the most difficult issue, which meant in fact another partition of Poland. On June 8, 1815, the constitution of the German Confederation, which replaced the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, was proclaimed, and the next day the General Act of the Congress of Vienna was solemnly signed.

Article 1 decreed that the Kingdom of Poland "joins the Russian Empire forever."
Austria and Prussia also received their share of the Polish inheritance.
Prussian possessions in the west of Germany were united into a vast province called Rhenish Prussia. Material from the site http://wikiwhat.ru
Holland and Belgium formed a single kingdom of the Netherlands.
Most of the territories of Northern Italy were united in the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, which was transferred under the control of the Austrian emperor.
Austria established its control over other Italian states and acquired a predominant influence in Italy.
The British secured Malta and many of the colonies captured during the years of wars.
France returned to the borders of 1790, and its territory was subject to occupation by the allied forces.

Pictures (photos, drawings)

On this page, material on the topics:

"territorial changes by decision of the Congress of Vienna"
What was the Congress of Vienna
The main results of the Vienna Congress
Causes and consequences of the Vienna Congress
March Revolution

Questions for this article:

Follow the territorial changes as decided by the Congress of Vienna.
What is the historical significance of the decisions of the Vienna Congress?

Material from the site http://WikiWhat.ru

VIENNA CONGRESS of 1814-15, an international congress that ended the wars of the coalitions of European powers with Napoleonic France. He met in Vienna in September 1814 - June 1815. 216 representatives of all European states (except Turkey) took part in its work, headed by the winners of Napoleon I Bonaparte - Russia (Alexander I, K.

W. Nesselrode, A. K. Razumovsky, G. O. Stackelberg), Great Britain (R. S. Castlereagh, later A. Wellington, C. Stuart and W. Cathcart), Prussia (Friedrich Wilhelm III, K. A. von Hardenberg, K.

W. von Humboldt) and Austria [Franz I (Franz II), K. Metternich, F. Genz, K. F. Schwarzenberg]. The highest European nobility gathered in Vienna - 2 emperors, 4 kings, 2 crown princes, 3 grand duchesses and 250 sovereign princes. One of the last to arrive in Vienna was a French delegation headed by Ch. M. Talleyrand.

The congress participants set themselves the following main tasks: 1) the restoration of pre-revolutionary orders in Europe, primarily the restoration of overthrown dynasties; 2) territorial redistribution in the interests of the victorious powers; 3) the creation of guarantees against the return to power of Napoleon and the resumption of French wars of conquest; 4) the creation of a system to combat the revolutionary danger, guaranteeing the European monarchy from shocks in the future.

Advertising

The Congress of Vienna was held in the form of bilateral consultations and negotiations between representatives of individual states, who concluded treaties and agreements among themselves.

The delegates met together only once - to sign the final document. Numerous balls and other secular entertainments were organized for the participants in the Congress of Vienna, which gave grounds to the Austrian diplomat Prince de Ligne to call it a "dancing congress."

The four victorious powers that signed the Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 tried to reach agreement on all the most important issues in advance in order to impose their will on France and the rest of the congress participants.

However, the disagreements that emerged between them regarding the fate of Poland and Saxony allowed Ch. M. Talleyrand not only to join the leading “four”, turning it into the “five”, and then into the “eight” (due to the inclusion of Spain, Portugal and Sweden in the commission ), but also successfully influence the decisions made.

The congress revealed three different approaches to the solution of the question of the post-war structure of Europe.

At the initial stage, the idea of legitimism dominated, any political changes that had taken place on the continent since 1789 were rejected, and a demand was put forward to restore the "legal order" in Europe in full, guaranteeing against a new revolutionary explosion. The most active supporter of this approach was Sh. M. Talleyrand. Without rejecting the idea of restoration in principle, Alexander I considered it necessary to take into account the irreversibility of many changes in Europe.

Ultimately, the policy of petty intrigues and combinations of various interests, imposed by K. Metternich, prevailed at the congress. Ideologically, this policy proceeded from the principles of legitimism, but in its practical implementation it expressed the selfish interests of the main participants in the congress. Metternich sought to ensure Austrian hegemony in a divided Germany, strengthen Austria's position in Italy and the Balkans, and also prevent the inclusion of all of Poland into Russia.

Alexander I, who had a great influence on the course of the congress, advocated the establishment of a political balance, which was supposed to contribute to the strengthening of Russia's influence on the continent.

He was interested in continuing the rivalry between Austria and Prussia and in creating a counterbalance to them in the person of France, whose excessive weakening seemed to him unacceptable. Prussia, insisting on taking the most severe measures against defeated France, sought to annex Saxony and part of the Rhine principalities.

Great Britain, interested in maintaining European balance and in consolidating its dominant position on the seas and in the colonies, acted in concert with Prussia against France, Austria and Russia, not wanting to allow any of them to strengthen to the detriment of British interests. France, striving to ensure that the Congress of Vienna took the most acceptable decisions for itself, saw the greatest danger from Prussia and resisted with all its might the satisfaction of Prussian claims to Saxony and the Rhine regions.

VIENNA CONGRESS 1814-1815

M. Talleyrand was in solidarity with K. Metternich on the issue of the absorption of Poland by Russia. On January 3, 1815, France signed a secret treaty with Great Britain and Austria on joint actions at the Congress and mutual assistance in case of danger from other powers.

The treaty was directed against Prussia and Russia and forced Friedrich Wilhelm III and Alexander I to make concessions on the Saxon and Polish issues.

The aggravated contradictions between the participants in the Congress of Vienna threatened to disrupt it, when in the first days of March 1815 it became known about the flight of Napoleon I from the island of Elba and his campaign against Paris (see "The Hundred Days").

All disputes were immediately abandoned. The states participating in the Congress of Vienna formed the 7th Anti-French Coalition against Napoleon and renewed the Treaty of Chaumont. On June 9, 1815, a few days before the battle of Waterloo, representatives of Russia, France, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain and Switzerland signed the final general act of the Congress of Vienna, which consisted of 121 articles and 17 annexes (until 1820, 35 states joined it).

This document introduced significant changes in the territorial and political structure of Europe and formulated the results of the redistribution of Europe and the colonies between the winners of Napoleon.

It provided for the deprivation of France of conquests, the creation of “barriers” along its borders, which were to be the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Switzerland, strengthened by expanding its borders and including strategically important mountain passes, as well as Prussia, which expanded its territory by annexing the Rhine provinces. .

At the same time, France managed to keep itself within the borders of 1792, determined by the Peace of Paris in 1814, losing the Saarland and several border fortresses in the east. It was charged an indemnity of 700 million francs, and its territory was subject to foreign occupation for a period of 3 to 5 years.

Russia received a significant part of Poland with Warsaw (the Kingdom of Poland), but was forced to abandon its claims to the Tarnopol district, ceding it to Austria. She also secured for herself Finland and Bessarabia, conquered by her in 1809 and 1812. Krakow was declared a free city under the auspices of Russia, Austria and Prussia (see Republic of Krakow).

Austria was restored within the borders of 1792, but without the Austrian Netherlands and the lands in the southwestern part of Germany. In addition to Tarnopol, Venice, Lombardy, Tyrol and Dalmatia were transferred under her rule. Representatives of the House of Habsburg were seated on the thrones of Parma and Tuscany.

She managed to gain a predominant influence in Germany - K. Metternich achieved the hegemony of Austria in the German Confederation of 1815-66, created by an act of 8/6/1815, most of the articles of which were included in the final act of the Congress of Vienna.

Prussia received the northern part of Saxony (South Saxony retained its independence). In compensation, Poznan, most of Westphalia, the Rhine Province, the island of Rügen and Swedish Pomerania went to Prussia.

Sweden received Norway, which was separated from Denmark, a former ally of Napoleon I. In Italy, the Sardinian kingdom was restored, to which Savoy and Nice were returned. Great Britain secured most of the conquered territories, including the island of Malta, the Cape Colony in South Africa and the island of Ceylon. The Ionian Islands were also under the British protectorate, which provided Great Britain with a dominant position in the Mediterranean.

In Spain and Portugal, the power of the dynasties overthrown by Napoleon I was restored.

The Vienna Declaration, concluded on March 20, 1815, concerning the fate of Switzerland, was included in the General Act of the Congress of Vienna in the form of Appendix XI and repeated in Articles 74-84 of the act. She proclaimed the “eternal neutrality” of Switzerland, recognized the integrity and inviolability of the 19 cantons of the Helvetic Union, attached 3 more cantons to them and created the Swiss Confederation on the basis of this association.

At the Congress of Vienna, regulations were adopted for international navigation and the collection of tolls on rivers serving as the border of states or passing through the territory of several states (Rhine, Moselle, Meuse, Scheldt, etc.).

One of the appendices to the final act of the Congress of Vienna contained a formal ban on the slave trade. The Vienna Congress for the first time established a unified division into "classes" of diplomatic agents and determined the order of their seniority when taking places at negotiations and when signing treaties (in alphabetical order of the French spelling of a particular state).

The system of international relations created at the Congress of Vienna was supplemented by the conclusion of the Holy Alliance (September 1815), the terms of the Peace of Paris in 1815, and the renewal of the alliance between Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia (November 1815).

The Congress of Vienna consolidated the new balance of power in Europe after the collapse of the Napoleonic empire. This system lasted until the middle of the 19th century and finally collapsed with the completion of the unification of Italy and Germany.

Publication: Martens F. F. Collection of treatises and conventions concluded by Russia with foreign powers. SPb., 1876. T. 3. S.207-533.

Lit .: Zak L. A. Monarchs against the peoples. M., 1966; Foreign policy of Russia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. M., 1972. Ser. 1. T. 8; Alsop S.M.

The Congress dances. N.Y., 1984; Kuznetsova G. A. Congress of Vienna // History of Russia's foreign policy. 1st half of the XIX century M., 1995.

P. P. Cherkasov.

VIENNA CONGRESS 1814-1815

History of Russia / Alexander I / Congress of Vienna (briefly)

Congress of Vienna (briefly)

It is customary for historians to call the Vienna Congress the international congress of 1814-1815, which ended the so-called coalition wars of European states against the military-minded Napoleonic France.

This event was convened at the initiative of the victorious states, which included Russia, Prussia and Austria, as well as England, which exercised the practical leadership of this congress.

As the name suggests, the congress was held in Vienna from early autumn (September) 1814 to early summer (June) 1815.

It was attended by representatives of all European countries, except Turkey.

The main objectives of the Congress of Vienna were:

the restoration of the former feudal order, which was eliminated as a result of the French Revolution, as well as the Napoleonic wars;
the implementation of the struggle against the national liberation and revolutionary movement;
restoration of a number of overthrown dynasties;
the formation of stable guarantees that would prevent the resumption of the Napoleonic movement in France, as well as further attempts to conquer Europe;
full satisfaction of the territorial rights of the winners through the cutting of colonies and the redivision of Europe.

At the same time, the goals of the participants on some issues did not coincide.

The British side wanted trade and economic dominance in Europe and the strengthening of Prussia, as opposed to Russia and France, as well as the formation of a barrier from neighboring states near the borders of France.

Austria tried to do everything possible to prevent the strengthening of Prussia and Russia, thus ensuring its superiority in Germany.

Prussia wanted to get Saxony, as well as certain strategic territories on the Rhine, which did not at all meet the interests of France and Austria, who saw Saxony independent as a kind of buffer at the Prussian borders.

Russia planned to form the Kingdom of Poland under its auspices, which naturally did not please France, Austria and England, bringing together the listed states on the basis of opposition to Russia.

On January 3, France, Austria and England concluded a secret treaty, which was actually directed against Russia and Prussia, and these countries could only make concessions on the issue of Saxony and Poland.

On March 1, 1815, the participants in the congress signed a coalition against Napoleon, which later became the reason for redrawing the map of Europe.

Organizational issues of the Congress of Vienna

Objectives: It was originally proclaimed that the Congress of Vienna was convened to determine the fate of the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, as well as to develop and take measures to prevent similar situations in the future. However, the adviser to the Austrian Chancellor Metternich, Friedrich Gentz, who was the General Secretary of the Congress of Vienna, wrote in February 1815: “Big phrases about “the reorganization of the social order, the renewal of the political system of Europe”, “Permanent peace based on a fair distribution of forces”, etc. d. etc. were uttered for the purpose of appeasing the crowd and giving this solemn assembly a certain air of dignity and grandeur, but the real purpose of the Congress was to divide the inheritance of the vanquished among the conquerors." And, indeed, all participants in the Congress sought to snatch as much as possible for themselves at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon.

Time of the Congress of Vienna: from September 1814 to June 1815.

Plans of the participants of the Vienna Congress: All delegations came to the Congress in Vienna with certain plans.

1. Alexander I, whose troops were in the center of Europe, was not going to cede the conquered. He wanted to create the Duchy of Warsaw under his own auspices, granting it its own constitution. In exchange for this, in order not to offend his ally Frederick William III, Alexander expected to transfer Saxony to Prussia.

2. Austria planned to regain the lands conquered from her by Napoleon, and prevent a significant strengthening of Russia and Prussia.

3. Prussia really wanted to annex Saxony and keep the Polish lands.

5. France, not counting on any territorial acquisitions, did not want the predominance of some European countries over others.

During the negotiations during the work of the Congress of Vienna, a number of important scandalous events occurred:

· Secondly, almost immediately after the conclusion of the above-mentioned secret agreement received scandalous publicity, which, of course, influenced the work of the Congress of Vienna. It happened in Paris during the historical period known as "100 days". Having landed in France with a small group of soldiers and officers loyal to him, Napoleon entered Paris on March 19, 1815. One of three copies of the secret treaty was found in the office of the escaped Louis XVIII. At the direction of Napoleon, he was urgently forwarded to Alexander I, who handed him over to Metternich. Thus, the "secret" conspiracy of some participants in the Congress of Vienna became known to all other delegations.

Thirdly, the very fact of the short-term restoration of Napoleon's empire was unexpected and unforeseen.

· Fourthly, an important event was the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo and the return to Paris of the royal Bourbon dynasty.

Results of the Congress of Vienna: In its significance, the Congress of Vienna was a unique historical event. His results can be summarized as follows:

1. A few days before Waterloo, namely on June 09, 1815, the representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. According to its provisions, the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new kingdom of the Netherlands was authorized, but all other possessions of Austria returned to the control of the Habsburgs, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and Tyrol. Prussia got part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway, transferred to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name of the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian emperor became the Polish king.

2. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called "Vienna system of international relations" took shape.

3. A decision was made to create a Holy Union.

The formation of the Holy Union is the main result of the Congress of Vienna in 1815

Alexander I came up with the idea of creating the Holy Union of European States, as he understood that the decisions of the Congress should be institutionalized.

The purpose of creating the Holy Union was: on the one hand, to play the role of a deterrent against national liberation and revolutionary movements, and on the other hand, to unite, if necessary, all its participants in defense of the inviolability of borders and existing orders. This was reflected in the Act of the Holy Alliance, which proclaimed that, due to the great changes in European countries over the past three years, the members of the Holy Alliance decided that “in any case and in every place they will give each other benefits, reinforcements and help for the preservation of faith, peace and truth" 1.

However, according to many historians, the content of this act was extremely vague and loose, and practical conclusions could be drawn from it in a variety of ways, while its general spirit did not contradict, but rather favored the reactionary mood of the then governments. Not to mention the confusion of ideas belonging to completely different categories, in it religion and morality completely displace law and politics from the areas that undeniably belong to these latter. Built on the legitimate principle of the divine origin of monarchical power, it establishes the patriarchal nature of relations between sovereigns and peoples, and the former are obliged to rule in the spirit of “love, truth and peace”, while the latter should only obey: the document does not at all address the rights of the people in relation to power. mentions.

The goal of the Union was mutual assistance in suppressing revolutionary anti-monarchist uprisings in Europe - echoes of the anti-Christian French Revolution - and strengthening the foundations of Christian statehood. Alexander I intended, through such an alliance, to also eliminate the possibility of military clashes between monarchical Christian states. The monarchs who entered into an alliance vowed to observe the inviolability of borders in Europe and to subordinate the entire order of mutual relations “to the lofty truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior”, “to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of the holy faith” and “to honor everyone as if they were members of a single people Christian."

In general, during the existence of the Holy Alliance, several of its congresses took place:

1. Aachen Congress (September 20 - November 20, 1818).

2. Congresses in Troppau and Laibach (1820-1821).

3. Congress in Verona (October 20 - November 14, 1822).

Further, the work of the Holy Union began to gradually “fade away” and, in the end, it ceased to exist.

1. The Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance

Congress of Vienna and its decisions

From October 1814 to June 1815, the congress of representatives of the European powers met in Vienna. The main role at the congress was played by the Russian Emperor Alexander I, Chancellor of the Austrian Empire Metternich, British Foreign Minister Castlereagh, Prussian Foreign Minister Hardenberg, and French Foreign Minister Talleyrand. feuding and bargaining with each other, they determined the main decisions of the congress.

The goal set by the leaders of the congress was to eliminate the political changes and transformations that had taken place in Europe as a result of the French bourgeois revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. They defended in every possible way the principle of "legitimism", i.e., the restoration of the "legitimate" rights of former monarchs who had lost their possessions. In reality, the principle of "legitimism" was only a cover for the arbitrariness of reaction.

Ignoring the national interests of the peoples, the Congress of Vienna, at its own discretion, redrawn the map of Europe. Belgium was annexed to Holland, turned into the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Norway was given to Sweden. Poland was again divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with most of the former Grand Duchy of Warsaw passing to Russia. Prussia acquired part of Saxony and Westphalia, as well as the Rhineland. Austria was given back the lands taken from it during the Napoleonic Wars. Lombardy and the possessions of the former Republic of Venice, as well as Salzburg and some other territories, were annexed to the Austrian Empire.

Italy, about which Metternich contemptuously said that she "represents nothing more than a geographical concept," was again fragmented into a number of states given over to the power of the old dynasties. In the Sardinian kingdom (Piedmont), to which Genoa was annexed, the Savoy dynasty was restored. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the duchies of Modena and Parma passed into the possession of various representatives of the Austrian House of Habsburg. In Rome, the secular power of the pope was restored, to whom his former possessions were returned. In the Kingdom of Naples, the Bourbon dynasty established itself on the throne.

The small German states liquidated by Napoleon were not restored, and the number of German states was reduced by almost 10 times. Nevertheless political fragmentation Germany has survived. In Germany, 38 states remained, which, together with Austria, only formally united in the German Confederation.

The Congress of Vienna legalized the colonial conquests made by the British during the war from Spain and France; England took the island of Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, Guiana from Holland. In addition, England retained the island of Malta, which was of great strategic importance, and the Ionian Islands. Thus, England consolidated its dominance on the seas and in the colonies.

Switzerland's borders were somewhat expanded, and the congress declared it an eternally neutral state.

In Spain, back in April 1814, the monarchy of the Spanish Bourbons was restored.

The “Final Act” of the Congress of Vienna, worked out as a result of a long struggle in an atmosphere of secret agreements and intrigues, was signed on June 9, 1815. Article 6 of this act declared the readiness of the powers that signed it to observe peace and maintain the immutability of territorial boundaries.

Congress of Vienna

[edit]

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Members of the Congress of Vienna

The Vienna Congress of 1814-1815 was a pan-European conference, during which a system of treaties was developed aimed at restoring the feudal-absolutist monarchies destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789 and the Napoleonic wars, and new borders of European states were defined. At the Congress, held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. under the chairmanship of the Austrian diplomat Count Metternich, representatives of all European countries (except the Ottoman Empire) participated. The negotiations took place in the conditions of covert and open rivalry, intrigues and behind-the-scenes collusion. Contents [remove]

1 Background

2 Members

3 Solutions

4 Meaning

5 See also

7 Literature

[edit]

background

On March 30, 1814, the Allies entered Paris. A few days later, Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island of Elba. The Bourbon dynasty, overthrown by the revolution, returned to the French throne in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of the executed King Louis XVI. The period of almost continuous bloody European wars is over.

The restoration, if possible, of the old absolutist-noble regime, in some places feudal, in others semi-serfdom, was the social fundamental principle of the policy of the powers that united after the end of the war. This utopian goal in itself made the achievements of the powers that defeated France in 1814 fragile. The complete restoration of the pre-revolutionary regime both in the economy and in politics after the crushing blows that French revolution and Napoleon, turned out to be not only difficult, but also hopeless.

[edit]

Members

Russia was represented at the congress by Alexander I, K. V. Nesselrode and A. K. Razumovsky (Johann von Anstette took part in the work of the special commissions);

Great Britain - R. S. Castlereagh and A. W. Wellington;

Austria - Franz I and K. Metternich,

Prussia - K. A. Hardenberg, W. Humboldt,

France - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord

Portugal - Pedro de Sousa Holstein de Palmela

[edit]

All decisions of the Congress of Vienna were collected in the Act of the Congress of Vienna. Congress authorized the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, but all other possessions of Austria returned to the control of the Habsburgs, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and Tyrol. Prussia got part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway, transferred to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name of the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian Emperor Alexander I became the Polish king.

[edit]

Meaning

Congress determined the new balance of power in Europe, which had developed by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, on long time denoting the leading role of the victorious countries - Russia, Austria and Great Britain - in international relations.

As a result of the congress, the Vienna system of international relations was formed and the Holy Alliance of European States was created, which had the goal of ensuring the inviolability of European monarchies.

[edit]

see also

Holy Union

Treaty of Paris (1814)

Treaty of Paris (1815)

[edit]

Applications:

Russo-Austrian Treaty (English)

Russo-Prussian Treaty (English)

Das europäische Mächtesystem nach 1815

kalenderblatt.de: Wiener Kongress

Der Wiener Kongress 1815

The Vienna System of International Relations (System of the Concert of Europe) is a system of international relations that developed after the Napoleonic Wars. It was normatively fixed by the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. The congress, held in Vienna under the chairmanship of Metternich, was attended by representatives of all European states with the exception of the Ottoman Empire. Within the framework of this system, the concept of great powers was first formulated (then primarily Russia, Austria, Great Britain), and multilateral diplomacy finally took shape. Many researchers call the Vienna Defense Ministry system the first example of collective security, which was relevant for 35 years, before the start of the Crimean War. Diplomatic ranks (ambassador, envoy and chargé d'affaires) and four types of consular offices were also systematized and unified. Diplomatic immunity and a diplomatic bag were determined.

[edit]

Features of the Vienna System of International Relations

Europe after the Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna played a key role in shaping a stable paradigm of relations between the leading European states. The era of the "Concert of Europe" began - the balance of power between European states. The European concert was based on the common consent of the big states: Russia, Austria, Prussia, France, Great Britain. Any aggravation of relations between them could lead to the destruction of the international system.

Unlike the Westphalian system of international relations, the elements of the Vienna system were not only states, but also coalitions of states.

One of the foundations of the European concert was the principle of maintaining a balance of power. The responsibility for this rested with the big states. This responsibility was realized through the holding of a large number of international conferences to resolve problems that threatened the world. Among such conferences, the Paris Congress of 1856, the London Conference of 1871, and the Berlin Conference of 1878 were of great importance.

Within the limits of the balance of power, states could change the composition of allies to ensure their own interests, without violating the general structure of alliances and the nature of international relations.

The Concert of Europe, remaining a form of hegemony of large states, for the first time effectively limited the freedom of action of these states in the international arena.

Although annexations and indemnities remained forms of international practice, the big states no longer considered the dismemberment or liquidation of another big power as a real goal.

During the existence of the Vienna system, the concept of political equilibrium acquires a broader interpretation. Thanks to the balance of power established by the Vienna system, wars and armed conflicts in Europe are temporarily almost stopped, with the exception of minor ones.

The Vienna international system was aimed at establishing the balance of power established as a result of the Napoleonic wars and fixing the borders of nation-states. Russia finally secured Finland, Bessarabia and expanded its western borders at the expense of Poland, dividing it among itself, Austria and Prussia.

The Vienna system fixed a new geographical map of Europe, a new correlation of geopolitical forces. This system was based on the imperial principle of control of geographical space within colonial empires. During the Vienna system, empires were finally formed: British (1876), German (1871), French (1852). In 1877 Turkish sultan took the title of "Ottoman Emperor". Russia became an empire much earlier - in 1721.

Despite the end of the global isolation of civilizations and cultures, the Vienna system, like the previous Westphalian system, had a Eurocentric character. The Westphalian system at first did not have a global character, covering Western and Central Europe. Later, it integrated Eastern Europe, Russia, the Mediterranean, and North America into its sphere of action. The Vienna system of IR covered, in fact, only the European space, and to some extent, those territories for which the leading states of the Concert of Europe waged a colonial struggle or ruled as colonies. China remained outside the Vienna system, which, as a result of the Opium Wars and unequal treaties imposed by the leading European states, was placed in a semi-colonial position. Japan, which in the second half of the 19th century began to “open up” to the world, was also not attached to the Vienna system. At the same time, during the period of the Vienna system, European history began to gradually turn into world history.

At the Congress of Vienna, the colonies were not officially fixed. One of the main causes of the First World War will be precisely the struggle for the redistribution of colonial empires.

Modernization processes, the development of capitalist relations, and bourgeois revolutions were actively taking place.

The features of the Vienna system consisted not only in the common interest in maintaining the status quo, but also in the difference in the civilizational and modernization level of its participants. Great Britain and France have already entered the process of scientific and technological progress; Austria and Prussia lagged far behind in this area. A feature of the geopolitical reality of that time was that Russia, the leading state of the Congress of Vienna, the guarantor of peace and stability in Europe, had hardly been touched by technical progress at all.

With the development of the Vienna system, its participants were the same in essence (monarchy), so for a long time it was homogeneous.

Researchers note the exceptional stability of the system. Despite wars, revolutions, and international crises, the MO system has remained virtually unchanged. In fact, from the time of the Congress of Vienna until the outbreak of the First World War, the list of leading powers did not change.

Those principles that were shared by the ruling elites of the leading powers were distinguished by their similarity in their vision of international situations. In fact, this led to the desire of the leading powers to solve international problems through compromises and coalition agreements.

The existence of the European concert was a period of development of classical diplomacy. The Concert of Europe system covered the political sphere, and the influence of domestic economic processes on foreign policy was indirect, manifesting itself only in the most critical situations. The sphere of diplomacy had exclusive autonomy in solving certain problems. Therefore, the diplomats were not limited by any internal political or economic factors.

During the existence of the Concert of Europe system, unified normative acts on the peaceful resolution of conflicts, as well as on the conduct of hostilities, on the treatment of prisoners, etc., were formulated and adopted by all civilized countries.

The interests of almost all the great European powers (except Great Britain and Russia) were concentrated in Europe. At the same time, colonization was actively taking place in the world.

The Holy Alliance (fr. La Sainte-Alliance, German Heilige Allianz) is a conservative alliance of Russia, Prussia and Austria, created to maintain the international order established at the Congress of Vienna (1815). The statement of mutual assistance of all Christian sovereigns, signed on September 14 (26), 1815, was later gradually joined by all the monarchs of continental Europe, except for the Pope and the Turkish Sultan. Not being in the exact sense of the word a formalized agreement of the powers that would impose certain obligations on them, the Holy Alliance, nevertheless, went down in the history of European diplomacy as "a cohesive organization with a sharply defined clerical-monarchist ideology, created on the basis of the suppression of the revolutionary spirit and the political and religious free-thinking, wherever they appear.” Table of Contents [remove]

1 History of creation

2 Congresses of the Holy Alliance

2.1 Aachen Congress

2.2 Congresses in Troppau and Laibach

2.3 Congress in Verona

3 Dissolution of the Holy Alliance

4 Bibliography

6 Notes

[edit]

History of creation

After the overthrow of Napoleon and the restoration of pan-European peace, among the powers that considered themselves completely satisfied with the distribution of "rewards" at the Congress of Vienna, a desire arose and strengthened to preserve the established international order, and the means for this seemed to be a permanent alliance of European sovereigns and the periodic convening of international congresses. But since the achievement of this was opposed by the national and revolutionary movements of the peoples striving for freer forms of political existence, this aspiration quickly acquired a reactionary character.

The initiator of the Holy Alliance was the Russian Emperor Alexander I, although when drawing up the act of the Holy Alliance, he still considered it possible to patronize liberalism and grant a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland. The idea of the Union was born in him, on the one hand, under the influence of the idea - to become a peacemaker of Europe by creating such a Union that would eliminate even the possibility of military clashes between states, and on the other hand, under the influence of a mystical mood that took possession of him. The latter also explains the strangeness of the very wording of the union treaty, which is neither in form nor in content similar to international treatises, which made many experts in international law see in it only a simple declaration of the monarchs who signed it.

“In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity,” the document read, “Their Majesties…, having felt the inner conviction that it is necessary to subordinate the image of mutual relations offered to the powers to the lofty truths inspired by the law of God the Savior, solemnly declare that the subject of this act is to open before the face their unshakable determination... to be guided by... the commandments of this holy faith, the commandments of love, truth and peace... On this basis...

I. according to the words of the sacred writings, commanding all people to be brothers, the negotiating monarchs will be united by bonds of real and inseparable brotherhood and, considering themselves as if they were of the same land, they will, in any case and in every place, begin to give each other assistance, reinforcement and help; in relation to their subjects and troops, they, as fathers of families, will rule them in the same spirit of brotherhood ...

II. Let there be a single prevailing rule ... to bring services to each other, to show mutual benevolence and love, to regard everyone as members of a single Christian people, since the allied sovereigns consider themselves as appointed by Providence to manage a single family of industries ... confessing in such a way that the Autocrat of the Christian people ... there is no other truly than the One to whom the power actually belongs, since in him alone treasures of love, knowledge and infinite wisdom are found ... ".

Signed on September 14 (26), 1815 by three monarchs - Emperor Franz I of Austria, King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia and Emperor Alexander I, at first in the first two did not cause anything but a hostile attitude towards himself.

According to Metternich, who was also at first suspicious of the idea of the Holy Alliance, this “undertaking”, which should “even according to the thought of its culprit be just a simple moral manifestation, in the eyes of the other two sovereigns who gave their signatures, did not even have such a meaning”, and subsequently "Some parties, hostile to sovereigns, only referred to this act, using it as a weapon in order to cast a shadow of suspicion and slander on the purest intentions of their opponents."

The same Metternich assures in his memoirs that “the Holy Alliance was not at all founded in order to limit the rights of peoples and favor absolutism and tyranny in any form. This Union was the only expression of the mystical aspirations of Emperor Alexander and the application of the principles of Christianity to politics. The idea of a holy union arose from a mixture of liberal ideas, religious and political." Subsequently, however, Metternich changed his mind about the "empty and crackling document" and very skillfully used the Holy Alliance for his reactionary purposes.

The content of this act was in the highest degree vague and loose, and practical conclusions from it could be drawn from the most diverse, but its general spirit did not contradict, but rather favored the reactionary mood of the then governments. Not to mention the confusion of ideas belonging to completely different categories, in it religion and morality completely displace law and politics from the areas that undeniably belong to these latter. Built on the legitimate principle of the divine origin of monarchical power, it establishes the patriarchal nature of relations between sovereigns and peoples, and the former are obliged to rule in the spirit of “love, truth and peace”, while the latter should only obey: the document does not at all address the rights of the people in relation to power. mentions.

Finally, obliging sovereigns to always “give each other allowance, reinforcement and assistance,” the act does not say anything about exactly in what cases and in what form this obligation should be implemented, which made it possible to interpret it in the sense that assistance is obligatory in all in cases where subjects will show disobedience to their "legitimate" sovereigns.

This is exactly what happened. Alexander I himself began to look at the Holy Alliance in precisely this way: “I,” he said at the Verona Congress to the French representative on the Greek uprising, “I leave the cause of Greece because I saw in the war of the Greeks a revolutionary sign of the times. No matter what is done to hamper the Holy Alliance in its activities and suspect its goals, I will not back down from it. Everyone has the right to self-defence, and monarchs should also have this right against secret societies; I have to defend religion, morality and justice." With such a view of the struggle of Greek Christians with Muslim Turks as a rebellion of rebellious subjects, the very Christian character of the Holy Alliance disappeared and only the suppression of the revolution, whatever its origin, was meant. All this explains the success of the Holy Alliance: soon all other European sovereigns and governments joined it, not excluding Switzerland with the German free cities; only the English prince-regent and the Pope did not subscribe to it, which did not prevent them from being guided by the same principles in their policy; only the Turkish sultan was not accepted as a member of the Holy Alliance as a non-Christian sovereign.

In England, the creation of the Holy Alliance was treated with the greatest suspicion. The parliamentary opposition, during the debates on foreign policy in the House of Commons, made a special request to the government about this. The members of the House demanded an answer to the question why the treaty was concluded without the participation of England, what is the true meaning of this unusual international act, whether it is directed against the interests of Great Britain, and in what relation it is to other agreements between the allies in the anti-Napoleonic coalition. R.S. Castlereagh replied that the Act of the Holy Alliance did not contradict the mutual obligations of the allies, that its text was communicated to him by Alexander I even before signing, and later the three sovereigns turned to the prince regent with an invitation to join the treaty.

Whether there was a need for such an agreement or not is another question. But if Emperor Alexander is sincerely guided by the spirit that pervades this document, which I, for my part, do not doubt at all, then Europe and the whole world can only be most sincerely congratulated on this. If Emperor Alexander wishes to consolidate his glory on such a basis, then future generations will appreciate this noble decision. Having done so much for humanity with the help of arms, how could he better use his influence on the sovereigns of Europe than by ensuring her a long and beneficent peace?

Castlereagh explained the non-participation of England in the treaty by the fact that, according to the English constitution, the king does not have the right to sign treaties with other powers.

Marking the character of the era, the Holy Alliance was the main organ of the all-European reaction against liberal aspirations. Its practical significance was expressed in the decisions of a number of congresses (Aachen, Troppaus, Laibach and Verona), at which the principle of interference in the internal affairs of other states with the aim of forcibly suppressing all national and revolutionary movements and maintaining the existing system with its absolutist and clerical-aristocratic trends.

[edit]

Congresses of the Holy Alliance

[edit]

Aachen Congress

Main article: Congress of Aachen

[edit]

Congresses in Troppau and Laibach

Main article: Troppau Congress

Main article: Laibach Congress

1820-1821

Generally considered together as a single congress.

[edit]

Congress in Verona

Main article: Congress of Verona

[edit]

Disintegration of the Holy Alliance

The system of the post-war structure of Europe, created by the Congress of Vienna, was contrary to the interests of the new emerging class - the bourgeoisie. Bourgeois movements against feudal-absolutist forces became the main driving force historical processes in continental Europe. The Holy Alliance prevented the establishment of bourgeois orders and increased the isolation of monarchical regimes. With the growth of contradictions between the members of the Union, there was a drop in the influence of the Russian court and Russian diplomacy on European politics.

By the end of the 1820s, the Holy Alliance began to disintegrate, which was facilitated, on the one hand, by the retreat from the principles of this Union on the part of England, whose interests at that time were very much at odds with the policy of the Holy Alliance, both in the conflict between the Spanish colonies in Latin America and metropolis, and in relation to the still ongoing Greek uprising, and on the other hand, the release of the successor of Alexander I from the influence of Metternich and the divergence of interests of Russia and Austria in relation to Turkey.

The overthrow of the monarchy in France in July 1830 and the explosion of revolutions in Belgium and Warsaw forced Austria, Russia and Prussia to return to the traditions of the Holy Alliance, which was expressed, among other things, in the decisions taken at the Munich Congress of the Russian and Austrian Emperors and the Prussian Crown Prince (1833 G.); Nevertheless, the successes of the French and Belgian revolutions of 1830 dealt a severe blow to the principles of the Holy Alliance, since now the two great powers, England and France, which had previously been completely adjacent to these principles in the sphere of international relations (and domestic ones as well), now adhered to a different policy, more favorable to bourgeois liberalism - a policy of non-intervention. Nicholas I, who at first tried to persuade the Austrian emperor to joint action against the "usurper" of the French throne, Louis Philippe, soon abandoned these efforts.

Meanwhile, the contradictions between the interests of Russia, Austria and Prussia were growing.

Austria was unhappy with Russia's war in the Balkans: Austrian Chancellor Metternich pointed out that helping the "Greek revolutionaries" was contrary to the principles of the Holy Alliance. Nicholas I sympathized with Austria for its conservative anti-revolutionary position. Nesselrode also sympathized with Austria. In addition, support from Austria could untie Russia's hands in the Balkans. However, Metternich shied away from discussing the "Turkish question". But during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848-1849, he lost his position, and Nicholas I had hope that Austria would change its position.

In the summer of 1849, at the request of the Emperor of Austria Franz Joseph I, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Paskevich took part in the suppression of the Hungarian National Revolution. Then Russia and Austria simultaneously sent notes to Turkey demanding the extradition of Hungarian and Polish revolutionaries. After consulting with the British and French ambassadors, the Turkish Sultan rejected the note.

Meanwhile, Prussia decided to increase its influence in the German Confederation. This led her to several conflicts with Austria. Thanks to the support of Russia, all conflicts were resolved in favor of Austria. This led to a cooling of relations between Russia and Prussia.

After all this, Nicholas I counted on the support of Austria in the Eastern Question:

"As for Austria, I am sure of it, since our treaties determine our relations."

But Russian-Austrian cooperation could not eliminate the Russian-Austrian contradictions. Austria, as before, was terrified by the prospect of the emergence of independent states in the Balkans, probably friendly to Russia, the very existence of which would cause the growth of national liberation movements in the multinational Austrian Empire. As a result, in the Crimean War, Austria, without directly participating in it, took an anti-Russian position.

Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (1815)

In the name of the Most Holy and Inseparable Trinity.

The courts between which the Treaty of Paris was concluded on May 18 (30), 1814, having gathered in Vienna, so that, in consequence of Article XXXII of this Act, together with other Sovereigns and Powers allied to them, to supplement the provisions of the said Treaty and add to them the orders that he made necessary the state of Europe at the end of the last war, desiring, moreover, to introduce into one general treaty various particular provisions, signed during the negotiations, and to approve them by mutual ratifications, they ordered Their Plenipotentiaries to draw up one Main Treatise from the decrees, to the essential and indispensable benefit concerning, one Main Treatise and attach to hereby, as integral parts, all other provisions of Congress: Treaties, Agreements, Declarations, Statutes and other particular Acts referred to in this Treatise. For this, the aforementioned Courts were named their Plenipotentiaries: (...)

Those of the named Plenipotentiaries who were present at the final conclusion of the negotiations, having presented their legal powers, agreed to introduce into the Main Treatise and approve by their signing the following articles:

The Duchy of Warsaw, with the exception of those regions and districts to which a different designation is assigned in the following articles, forever joins the Russian Empire. By virtue of its constitution, it will be inseparable from Russia and in the possession of e.v. emperor of all Russia, his heirs and successors for all eternity. His Imperial Majesty intends to grant, at his own discretion, the internal structure of this state, which has to be under a special government. His Majesty, in accordance with the custom and order existing in the discussion of His other titles, will add to them the title of Tsar (King) of Poland.

The Poles, both Russian subjects and equally Austrian and Prussian, will have people's representatives and national state institutions in agreement with that mode of political existence, which each of the above-named governments will recognize as the most useful and decent for them, in the circle of its possessions.

1. Aachen Congress (September 20 - November 20, 1818).

2.Congresses in Troppau and Laibach (1820-1821).

3. Congress in Verona (October 20 - November 14, 1822).

Chapter 1. Beginning of the Congress of Vienna (1814)

Chapter 2

CHAPTER 1. Historical background for the Congress of Vienna

§2. The formation of the Holy Union is the main result of the Congress of Vienna in 1815

2.2 Ideology and activities of the Indian National Congress

National issues of Siberia

The main questions of the topic:

Questions for self-examination:

2. Participants of the Civil War: composition, goals, ideology, organizational forms

1.2 Terminology issues

Issues for discussion:

Issues for discussion:

Issues for discussion:

CONGRESS OF VIENNA 1814 ‒ 1815

4. Weak ideological and organizational aspects of the Kuomintang power

1.3. Under the tutelage of Congress

Napoleon's Hundred Days

Decisions of the Congress of Vienna

Congress of Vienna 1814 - 1815

Pictures (photos, drawings)

"territorial changes by decision of the Congress of Vienna"

What was the Congress of Vienna

The main results of the Vienna Congress

Causes and consequences of the Vienna Congress

March Revolution

Follow the territorial changes as decided by the Congress of Vienna.

What is the historical significance of the decisions of the Vienna Congress?

Advertising

VIENNA CONGRESS 1814-1815

VIENNA CONGRESS 1814-1815

History of Russia / Alexander I / Congress of Vienna (briefly)

Congress of Vienna (briefly)

Congress of Vienna (briefly)

The main objectives of the Congress of Vienna were:

1. Aachen Congress (September 20 - November 20, 1818).

2. Congresses in Troppau and Laibach (1820-1821).

3. Congress in Verona (October 20 - November 14, 1822).

1. The Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance

Congress of Vienna and its decisions

§2.
The formation of the Holy Union is the main result of the Congress of Vienna in 1815