CHARLES DARWIN DARWIN, CHARLES (ROBERT) 1809–1882), ENGLISH NATURALIST AND WRITER, FOUNDER OF THE TEACH OF THE ORIGIN OF ANIMAL AND PLANT SPECIES BY NATURAL SELECTION. BORN FEBRUARY 12, 1809 IN SHREWSBURY. I STUDYED MEDICINE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH FOR TWO YEARS, FOR WHICH I FINALLY CONSIDERED MYSELF UNFIT. IN 1827 HE ATTENDED THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, WHERE HE STUDYED THEOLOGY FOR THREE YEARS, BUT THEN DECIDED THAT HE HAD NO APPEAL FOR THIS ACTIVITY.
Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in the family of a doctor. While studying at the universities of Edinburgh and Cambridge, Darwin gained a deep knowledge of zoology, botany and geology, and a skill and taste for field research. Big role The book “Principles of Geology” by the outstanding English geologist Charles Lyell played a role in the formation of his scientific worldview. Lyell argued that the modern appearance of the Earth took shape gradually under the influence of the same natural forces that operate at the present time. Darwin was familiar with the evolutionary ideas of Erasmus Darwin, Lamarck and other early evolutionists, but he did not find them convincing.
In 1831, after graduating from university, he went to trip around the world on the Royal Navy expedition ship Beagle as a naturalist and returned to England only in October. During his voyage, Darwin visited the island of Tenerife, the Cape Verde Islands, the coast of Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Tierra del Fuego, Tasmania and the Cocos Islands islands and made a huge number of observations in zoology, botany, geology, paleontology, anthropology and ethnography. He outlined their results in the works Diary of a Naturalist’s Research, Zoology of the Voyage on the Beagle Ship, Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, etc.
Upon returning from his voyage, Darwin begins to ponder the problem of the origin of species. He considers various ideas, including Lamarck's idea, and rejects them, since none of them explains the facts of the amazing adaptability of animals and plants to their living conditions. What the early evolutionists thought was a given and self-explanatory seems to be the most important question for Darwin. It collects data on the variability of animals and plants in nature and under domestication. Many years later, recalling how his theory arose, Darwin would write: “I soon realized that the cornerstone of man’s success in creating useful races of animals and plants was selection. However, for some time it remained a mystery to me how selection could be applied to organisms living under natural conditions."
After reading Malthus's book On Population, in October 1838 Darwin came up with the idea of the origin of species using natural selection. For 20 years he worked on it. In 1856, on Lyell's advice, he began preparing his work for publication. In 1858, the young English scientist Alfred Wallace sent Darwin the manuscript of his article “On the Tendency of Varieties to Deviate Unlimitedly from the Original Type.” This article contained an exposition of the idea of the origin of species through natural selection. Darwin was ready to refuse to publish his work, but his friends geologist Charles Lyell and botanist G. Hooker, who had long known about Darwin’s idea and were familiar with the preliminary drafts of his book, convinced the scientist that both works should be published simultaneously.
In 1859, he published his book The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, in which he hypothesized that the currently existing species of animals and plants are not constant, but variable and descended from some other species through gradual evolutionary changes. Man, in his opinion, descended from monkeys.
Basic principles of Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory. 1. Within each species of living organisms, there is a huge range of individual hereditary variability in morphological, physiological, behavioral and any other characteristics. This variability may be continuous, quantitative, or intermittent qualitative, but it always exists.
3. Life resources for any type of living organisms are limited, and therefore there must be a struggle for existence either between individuals of the same species or between individuals different types, or with natural conditions. In the concept of “struggle for existence,” Darwin included not only the individual’s actual struggle for life, but also the struggle for success in reproduction. 2. All living organisms reproduce exponentially.
4. In the conditions of the struggle for existence, the most adapted individuals survive and give birth to offspring, having those deviations that accidentally turned out to be adaptive to given environmental conditions. It is fundamentally important point in Darwin's argument. Deviations do not arise purposefully in response to the action of the environment, but randomly. Few of them prove useful in specific conditions. The descendants of a surviving individual, who inherit the beneficial deviation that allowed their ancestor to survive, turn out to be more adapted to the given environment than other members of the population. 5. Darwin called survival and preferential reproduction of adapted individuals natural selection.
On these postulates, impeccable from a logical point of view and supported by a huge number of facts, the modern theory of evolution was created. Darwin's main merit is that he established the mechanism of evolution, which explains both the diversity of living beings and their amazing expediency and adaptability to the conditions of existence. This mechanism is gradual natural selection of random undirected hereditary changes. The most important achievements of evolutionary biology in last years were achieved thanks to the active use of ideas and methods in evolutionary research molecular genetics and developmental biology.
1. Within each species of living organisms, there is a huge range of individual hereditary variability in morphological, physiological, behavioral and any other characteristics. This variability may be continuous, quantitative, or intermittent qualitative, but it always exists. 2. All living organisms reproduce exponentially.
3. Life resources for any type of living organism are limited, and therefore there must be a struggle for existence either between individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species, or with natural conditions. In the concept of “struggle for existence,” Darwin included not only the individual’s actual struggle for life, but also the struggle for success in reproduction. 4. In the conditions of the struggle for existence, the most adapted individuals survive and give birth to offspring, having those deviations that accidentally turned out to be adaptive to given environmental conditions. This is a fundamentally important point in Darwin's argument. Deviations do not arise purposefully in response to the action of the environment, but randomly. Few of them prove useful in specific conditions. The descendants of a surviving individual, who inherit the beneficial deviation that allowed their ancestor to survive, turn out to be more adapted to the given environment than other members of the population.
5. Darwin called the survival and preferential reproduction of adapted individuals natural selection. 6. Natural selection of individual isolated varieties in different conditions of existence gradually leads to divergence (divergence) of the characteristics of these varieties and, ultimately, to speciation. On these postulates, impeccable from a logical point of view and supported by a huge number of facts, the modern theory of evolution was created.
Today, few would deny Darwin's enormous contribution to biology. The name of this scientist is familiar to every adult. Many of you can sum up Darwin's contributions to biology in a nutshell. However, only a few will be able to talk in detail about the theory he created. After reading the article you will be able to do this.
Achievements of the ancient Greeks
Before describing Darwin's contributions to biology, let us briefly describe the achievements of other scientists on the path to the discovery of the theory of evolution.
Anaximander, an ancient Greek thinker, back in the 6th century BC. e. said that man evolved from animals. His ancestors were supposedly covered in scales and lived in water. A little later, in the 4th century. BC BC, Aristotle noted that nature preserves useful traits that randomly appear in animals in order to make them more viable in the future. And brothers who do not have these signs die. It is known that Aristotle created the “ladder of beings”. He arranged the organisms in order from simplest to most complex. This staircase began with stones and ended with a man.
Transformism and creationism
The Englishman M. Hale first used the term “evolution” (from the Latin “unfoldment”) in 1677. He outlined to them the unity of the historical and individual development of organisms. In biology in the 18th century, the doctrine of how things changed different kinds plants and animals. It was opposed to creationism, according to which God created the world and all species remain unchanged. Supporters of transformism include the French scientist Georges Buffort, as well as the English researcher Erasmus Darwin. The first theory of evolution was proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in his 1809 work Philosophy of Zoology. However, it was Charles Darwin who revealed its true factors. The contribution to biology of this scientist is invaluable.
The merit of Charles Darwin
He owns an evolutionary theory, scientifically substantiated. He outlined it in a work entitled “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.” Darwin published this book in 1859. Contributions to biology can be briefly summarized as follows. Darwin believed that - hereditary variability, as well as the struggle for existence. In conditions of struggle, the inevitable result of this variability is natural selection, which represents the preferential survival of the fittest individuals of a particular species. Thanks to their participation in reproduction, beneficial hereditary changes accumulate and are summed up, as Charles Darwin noted.
His contribution to biology was recognized by scientists who continued research in this direction. The development of science subsequently confirmed that Darwin's theory is correct. Therefore, today the terms “evolutionary doctrine” and “Darwinism” are often used as synonyms.
So, we have briefly described Darwin's contributions to biology. We propose to take a closer look at the theory he created.
Observations that led Darwin to the theory of evolution
Charles Darwin first began to think about the reasons why there are certain similarities and differences between species. He did not make the contribution to biology that we have briefly described immediately. First, they had to study the achievements of their predecessors, as well as make several trips. It was they who prompted the scientist to important thoughts.
He made his main discovery in South America, in geological deposits. These are the skeletons of giant edentates, very similar to modern sloths and armadillos. In addition, Darwin was greatly impressed by the study of the animal species living on the island. The scientist discovered on these volcanic islands of recent origin close species of finches that are similar to the mainland ones, but have adapted to different food sources - flower nectar, insects, hard seeds. Charles Darwin concluded that these birds came to the island from the mainland. And the changes that have occurred to them are explained by adaptation to new conditions of existence.
Charles Darwin raised the question that environmental conditions play a role in speciation. The scientist observed a similar picture off the coast of Africa. Living animals, despite a certain similarity with the species inhabiting the mainland, still differ from them in very significant ways.
Darwin could not explain the creation of species and the peculiarities of the development of the rodent tuco-tuco, described by him. These rodents live underground, in burrows. They give birth to sighted cubs, which subsequently become blind. All these and many other facts significantly shook the scientist’s faith in the creation of species. Darwin, returning to England, set himself a large-scale task. He decided to solve the question of the origin of species.
Major works
Darwin's contributions to the development of biology are presented in several of his works. In 1859, in his work, he summarized the empirical material of contemporary breeding practice and biology. In addition, he used the results of his observations made during his travels. Perfect for him circumnavigation shed light on the various species.
Charles Darwin supplemented the main work "The Origin of Species..." with factual materials in his next book, published in 1868. It is known as "Change in Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants." In another work written in 1871, the scientist hypothesized that humans descend from an ape-like ancestor. Today, many agree with the assumption made by Charles Darwin. His contributions to biology allowed him to become a great authority in scientific world. Many people even forget that the origin of man from the ape is just a hypothesis, which, although very probable, is still not fully proven.
The property of heredity and its role in evolution
Let us note that Darwin’s theory is based on the property of heredity, that is, the ability of organisms to repeat types of metabolism and, in general, individual development over a series of generations. Together with variability, heredity ensures the diversity and constancy of life forms. It is the basis of the evolution of the entire organic world.
Struggle for existence
“The struggle for existence” is a concept that is one of the main ones in the theory of evolution. Charles used it to refer to the relationships that exist between organisms. In addition, Darwin used it to describe the relationships between abiotic conditions and organisms. Abiotic conditions lead to the survival of the fittest individuals and the death of the less fit.
Two forms of variability
As for variability, Darwin identified two main forms. The first of them is a certain variability. This is the ability of all individuals of a particular species under certain environmental conditions to react in the same way to given conditions (soil, climate). Second form - Its character does not correspond to the observed changes external conditions. Undefined variability in modern terminology is called mutation.
Mutation
The mutation, unlike the first form, is hereditary. According to Darwin, the minor changes observed in the first are amplified in subsequent generations. The scientist emphasized that in evolution the decisive role belongs to uncertain variability. It is usually associated with harmful or neutral mutations, but there are also some that are called promising.
Mechanism of evolution
According to Darwin, the inevitable result of hereditary variability and the struggle for existence is the survival and reproduction of new organisms that are most adapted to living in their respective environment. And in the course of evolution, the death of the unadapted occurs, that is, natural selection. Its mechanism operates in nature in a similar way to breeders, that is, uncertain and insignificant individual differences, from which the necessary adaptations in organisms are then formed, as well as differences between species.
Charles Darwin spoke and wrote about all this and much more. The contributions to biology briefly described go beyond what we have covered. However, in general outline his main achievements were described. Now you can talk in detail about Darwin's contributions to biology.
Evolutionary doctrine (theory of evolution)- the science that studies historical development life: causes, patterns and mechanisms. There are micro- and macroevolution. Microevolution— evolutionary processes at the population level, leading to the formation of new species. Macroevolution— the evolution of supraspecific taxa, as a result of which larger systematic groups are formed. They are based on the same principles and mechanisms.
Heraclitus, Empidocles, Democritus, Lucretius, Hippocrates, Aristotle and other ancient philosophers expressed the first ideas about the development of living nature.
Carl Linnaeus(1707-1778) - Swedish naturalist. The founder of the principles and methods of systematics of the organic world. For the first time, he consistently applied the binary nomenclature of plants and animals.
Carl Linnaeus believed in the creation of nature by God and the constancy of species, but allowed the possibility of the emergence of new species through crossing or under the influence of environmental conditions. In the book “The System of Nature,” C. Linnaeus substantiated the species as a universal unit and the basic form of existence of living things; assigned a double designation to each species of animal and plant, where the noun is the name of the genus, the adjective is the name of the species (for example, Homo sapiens); described a huge number of plants and animals; developed the basic principles of taxonomy of plants and animals and created their first classification.
Jean Baptiste Lamarck(1744-1829) - French naturalist, botanist, zoologist, paleontologist, evolutionist. Introduced the term "biology". Creator of the first holistic evolutionary theory. For the first time he divided animals into vertebrates and invertebrates.
Jean Baptiste Lamarck created the first holistic evolutionary doctrine. In his work “Philosophy of Zoology” (1809), he identified the main direction of the evolutionary process - the gradual complication of organization from lower to higher forms. He also developed a hypothesis about the natural origin of man from ape-like ancestors who switched to a terrestrial lifestyle. Lamarck believed driving force evolution is the desire of organisms for perfection and argued that acquired characteristics are inherited, i.e. organs necessary in new conditions develop as a result of exercise (giraffe’s neck), and unnecessary organs atrophy due to lack of exercise (mole’s eyes). However, Lamarck was unable to reveal the mechanisms of the evolutionary process. His hypothesis about the inheritance of acquired characteristics turned out to be untenable, and his statement about the internal desire of organisms for improvement was unscientific.
Evolutionary doctrine of Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin(1809-1882) - English naturalist, founder of the materialistic evolutionary doctrine of the origin of species through natural selection. Author of a number of works on the evolution of the organic world: “The Origin of Species by Natural Selection”, “Changes in Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants under the Influence of Domestication”, “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection”.
The evolutionary doctrine of Charles Darwin was based on the concepts of “struggle for existence” and “natural selection”. The prerequisites for the emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin were the following: the accumulation by that time of rich material on paleontology, geography, geology, biology; selection development; advances in taxonomy; emergence of cell theory; the scientist’s own observations during his circumnavigation of the world on the Beagle.
Darwin's teaching boils down to this:
- Each individual of a particular species has individuality ( variability);
- Personality traits (although not all) can be inherited ( heredity);
- individuals produce large quantity descendants than survives to puberty and the beginning of reproduction, i.e. goes in nature struggle for existence;
- the advantage in the struggle for existence remains with the most adapted individuals, who have a greater chance of leaving behind offspring ( natural selection);
- as a result of natural selection, there is a gradual complication of the levels of organization of life and emergence of species.
Factors of evolution according to Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin included variability, heredity, the struggle for existence, and natural selection as factors of evolution.
Heredity- the ability of organisms to transmit their characteristics (features of structure, function, development) from generation to generation.
Variability- the ability of organisms to acquire new characteristics.
Struggle for existence- the whole complex of relationships between organisms and conditions environment: With inanimate nature(abiotic factors) and with other organisms (biotic factors). The struggle for existence is not a "struggle" in literally words, in fact it is a survival strategy and a way of existence of an organism. There are intraspecific, interspecific struggle and the fight against unfavorable environmental factors. Intraspecific struggle- fight between individuals of the same population. It is always very stressful, since individuals of the same species need the same resources. Interspecies fight- struggle between individuals of populations of different species. Occurs when species compete for the same resources, or when they are connected by a predator-prey relationship. Combating unfavorable abiotic environmental factors especially manifests itself when environmental conditions deteriorate; intensifies intraspecific struggle.
In the struggle for existence, the individuals most adapted to the given living conditions are identified. The struggle for existence leads to natural selection.
Natural selection- a process as a result of which predominantly individuals with hereditary changes that are useful under given conditions survive and leave behind offspring.
All biological and many other natural sciences were restructured on the basis of Darwinism.
Synthetic theory of evolution (STE)
Currently the most generally accepted is synthetic theory of evolution. The main provisions of the STE will be discussed below. Comparative characteristics The main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin and STE are given in the table:
| Sign | Evolutionary theory Ch. Darwin | Synthetic theory of evolution |
|---|---|---|
| Main results of evolution |
|
|
| Unit of evolution | View | Population |
| Factors of evolution | Heredity, variability, struggle for existence, natural selection | Mutational and combinative variability, population waves and genetic drift, isolation, natural selection |
| Driving factor | Natural selection | |
| Interpretation of the term “natural selection” | Survival of the more fit and death of the less fit | Selective reproduction of genotypes |
| Forms of natural selection | Propulsive (and sexual as its variety) | Moving, stabilizing, disruptive |
The emergence of devices
Each adaptation is developed on the basis of hereditary variability in the process of struggle for existence and selection over a series of generations. Natural selection supports only expedient adaptations that help the organism survive and produce offspring.
The adaptability of organisms to the environment is not absolute, but relative, since environmental conditions can change. Many facts prove this. For example, fish are perfectly adapted to aquatic environment habitat, but all these adaptations are completely unsuitable for other habitats. Moths collect nectar from light-colored flowers, which are clearly visible at night, but often fly into the fire and die.
Biology. General biology. Grade 11. A basic level of Sivoglazov Vladislav Ivanovich
4. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution
Remember!
What types of variability do you know?
What is artificial selection?
The main work of Charles Darwin, in which the theory of evolution was outlined, is called “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life”; it was published in 1859. On the very first day, the entire circulation, huge for those times - 1250 copies, was sold out. The appearance of this work was preceded by almost 30 years of scientific research and reflection.
Participation in the expedition. In 1831, Darwin was offered a five-year circumnavigation of the world on the warship Beagle as a naturalist. The young researcher had the opportunity to study the nature of the most remote corners of the globe (Fig. 7).
In South America, Darwin found fossils of giant sloths and armadillos. Modern species of these animals living in the same places were very similar to extinct ones, which led Darwin to think about the possible relationship of these organisms (Fig. 8).
On the Galapagos volcanic islands, Darwin discovered a variety of finch species that varied in size and beak structure, but were very similar to the mainland species (Fig. 9). Darwin suggested that birds once arrived on the islands from the mainland and changed, adapting to different food sources (hard seeds, fruits, insects).
Rice. 7. The journey of Charles Darwin: A – the Beagle ship; B – portrait of Charles Darwin; B – expedition route
Rice. 8. Skeletons of South American sloths (on the right - a modern species, on the left - a fossil)
In Australia, the scientist was amazed by the amazing ancient fauna: marsupials and egg-laying mammals that had long ago become extinct in other places on the globe.
Travel played a decisive role in the formation scientific views Darwin. Having boarded the ship as a supporter of the immutability of living nature, five years later, upon returning home, Darwin was convinced that species are capable of changing and giving rise to other species.
Charles Darwin's doctrine of artificial selection. Data collected by Darwin on the expedition and accumulated in scientific research his contemporaries pointed out the existence of variability in the living world. However, the mechanisms of these changes remained unknown.
Returning to England, Darwin continued his Scientific research. He drew attention to the existence of two opposing phenomena: heredity and variability. At that time, it was still unknown what the nature of these two properties of living organisms was, but Darwin absolutely correctly understood that it was heredity and variability that underlie evolutionary transformations. Darwin distinguished between definite and indefinite variability.
Certain, or group, variability occurs under the influence of factors external environment and it manifests itself equally in all individuals. For example, when the quality of feed improves, cows produce more milk, and when fertilizers are applied to fields, crop yields become much higher. However, these changes are not passed on to the next generation, and in order to get a high harvest the next year, the fields must be fertilized again. Currently, this form of variability is usually called non-hereditary or phenotypic (see § 30, grade 10).
Rice. 9. Species of finches found in the Galapagos Islands
Darwin was much more interested in another form of variability - uncertain, or individual. Indefinite variability is the appearance in an individual of a new manifestation of a characteristic that was not present in the ancestral forms. Darwin believed that it is uncertain variability that ensures the emergence of new species, because it is inherited. In modern biology it is known that the main cause of hereditary variability is mutations (see § 30, grade 10).
It was this form of variability that English breeders used to create new breeds of animals. By that time, more than 150 breeds of pigeons, many breeds of dogs, chickens, cattle, etc. had been bred in England. Proponents of the immutability of species argued that each breed had its own wild ancestor. Darwin proved that this was not so. All chicken breeds come from the wild banker chicken, the cattle breeds come from wild tours, and all the amazing variety of pigeons comes from the wild rock pigeon (Fig. 10).
When breeding domestic animals and cultivated plants, English farmers searched among the offspring for those individuals in which the desired trait was most clearly expressed. The selected specimens were crossed with each other and from the organisms of the next generation those forms were again selected that necessary for a person the sign was expressed best. From one initial form it was possible to simultaneously obtain many different varieties or breeds if selection was carried out for different characteristics. Consequently, when developing new varieties and breeds, people used artificial selection.
Rice. 10. Breeds of pigeon: A – wild pigeon; B – blower; B – Jacobin: G – Thurman; D – carrier pigeon; E – peacock pigeon
Artificial selection called the process of creating new breeds of animals and plant varieties through the systematic preservation and reproduction of individuals with certain traits and properties valuable to humans over a series of generations.
Sometimes a single large mutation leads to the emergence of a breed. This is how the Ancona breed of short-legged sheep, dachshund, duck with a crooked beak appeared, and in 2004 a cat with short legs was discovered in the USA, which gave rise to a new breed.
Artificial selection has been carried out by man at all times, but in ancient times it was unconscious. Our distant ancestors left the best animals or saved the best seeds for sowing, based on practical experience, without setting a specific goal for themselves. If a breeder sets himself a specific task and selects for one (two) characteristics, such selection is called methodical.
Charles Darwin's doctrine of natural selection. In artificial conditions, the factor that selects this or that organism is man. Darwin believed that if he could discover a similarly active factor in nature, the problem of the origin of species would be solved.
Impressed by the work of T. Malthus he read about the desire of organisms for limitless reproduction, Darwin analyzed the patterns of reproduction of various organisms. Over 750 years, the offspring of one pair of elephants, the slowest reproducing animals, can amount to 19 million individuals. The oyster lays 1 million eggs per season, and the well-known puffball mushroom produces 700 billion spores, and yet the globe is not covered with oysters and mushrooms. Although individuals tend to reproduce exponentially, the number of adults of each species remains approximately constant. In other words, most of the descendants die in struggle for existence, before reaching puberty.
Darwin identified three forms of struggle for existence: interspecific, intraspecific, and struggle with unfavorable environmental factors (Fig. 11).
Intraspecific struggle occurs between individuals of the same species. This struggle is most acute because organisms belonging to the same species have similar needs. In animals, this struggle manifests itself in competition for food and territory; in many plants, in shading of other individuals due to faster growth. During the breeding season, males of many species enter into a fight for the right to start a family. Mating tournaments lead to sexual selection, when the stronger male leaves the offspring, and the weak or sick are excluded from the breeding process, and their genes are not passed on to the offspring.
Rice. 11. The struggle for existence
Combating adverse environmental factors It has great importance in the survival of organisms. During a dry summer, many plants die, floods kill many animals, and not all organisms can survive a frosty winter.
In the struggle for existence, some individuals successfully cope with this task, while others cannot leave offspring or die. As a rule, the offspring are mainly organisms with traits that are useful for the given living conditions. The result of the struggle for existence is natural selection.
Darwin called the process of survival and reproduction of the fittest individuals natural selection, the main driving force directing the evolutionary process. The material for this selection is hereditary variability. In the process of natural selection, a gradual accumulation of changes beneficial to a group of organisms occurs, which leads to the formation of a new species.
The meaning of Darwin's theory. Darwin was not the first scientist to create the theory of evolution. His merit lies in the fact that he was the first to scientifically explain the mechanisms of evolution in general and speciation in particular. Darwin considered the main factors of evolution to be hereditary variability, the struggle for existence and natural selection.
Darwin illustrated his point of view with the same example that J.B. Lamarck used in his time to explain his theory of evolution - the giraffe. Darwin theorized that in some ancestral population of giraffes, individuals varied slightly in neck and leg length. This assumption is quite legitimate, because there are no two identical individuals in any population. During periods of food shortage in the savannah, animals of different heights were forced to compete for tree foliage (intraspecific struggle for existence). Taller animals could reach leaves growing on the upper branches and inaccessible to shorter individuals. Therefore, short giraffes died, and with them such characteristics as short legs and neck disappeared from the population. The long neck and long legs of the modern giraffe are the result of preferential survival from generation to generation and the reproduction of taller individuals.
Darwin's teaching serves as a natural scientific basis for a materialistic explanation of the expediency of the structure of living organisms, the origin and diversity of species, and is one of the largest achievements of natural science of the 19th century.
At the same time as Charles Darwin, another natural scientist, Alfred Russell Wallace, came to the same conclusions about the mechanisms of evolution. In July 1858, Darwin and Wallace gave presentations together on their ideas at a meeting of the Linnean Society in London. Subsequently, Wallace fully recognized Darwin's priority and introduced the term “Darwinism” to designate a new theory of evolution.
The theory of evolution proposed by Darwin was later expanded and revised in the light of new data from genetics, molecular biology, paleontology, ecology and was called synthetic theory of evolution.
Review questions and assignments
1. What observations of Charles Darwin shook his belief in the immutability of species?
2. What are the causes of group variability?
3. What is artificial selection?
4. What are the reasons for the struggle for existence in living nature? Give examples of three forms of struggle for existence that you have observed in nature.
5. What relationships are the consequences of natural selection?
6. What is the role of natural selection in evolution?
7. Consider Figure 11. What forms of struggle for existence does it illustrate? Give reasons for your answer.
Think! Do it!
1. In the very first Russian translation of Charles Darwin’s work, instead of the now familiar word “selection,” the term “selection” was used (which is also an analogue word for the English selection used by Charles Darwin). Why was it subsequently replaced? Have your say.
2. Select your own criteria and compare the theories of J. B. Lamarck and Charles Darwin.
Work with computer
Refer to the electronic application. Study the material and complete the assignments.
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Charles Roobert Darwin - naturalist, pioneer of the theory of the origin of life on Earth from a common ancestor, through the evolution of each species. Author of the book “The Origin of Species”, a theory about the origin of man, the concepts of natural and sexual selection, the first ethological study “The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals”, a theory about the causes of evolution.
Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in Shropshire (England) on the Darwin estate Mount House, in Shrewsbury. Robert Darwin, the boy's father, doctor and financier, son of the scientist naturalist Erasmus Darwin. Mother Suzanne Darwin, nee Wedgwood, daughter of the artist Josiah Wedgwood. There were six children in the Darwin family. The family attended the Unitarian Church, but Charles's mother was a member of the Church of England before her marriage.
In 1817, Charles was sent to school. Eight-year-old Darwin became acquainted with natural history and took his first steps in collecting. In the summer of 1817, the boy's mother died. The father sent his sons Charles and Erasmus in 1818 to a boarding school at the Anglican Church - Shrewsbury School.
Charles did not make progress in his studies. Languages and literature were difficult. The boy's main passion is collecting and hunting. The moral teachings of his father and teachers did not force Charles to come to his senses, and ultimately they gave up on him. Later, young Darwin developed another hobby - chemistry, for which Darwin was even reprimanded by the head of the gymnasium. Charles Darwin graduated from high school with far from brilliant results.
After graduating from high school in 1825, Charles and his brother Erasmus entered the University of Edinburgh, Faculty of Medicine. Before entering, the young man worked as an assistant in his father’s medical practice.
Darwin studied at the University of Edinburgh for two years. During this time, the future scientist realized that medicine was not his calling. The student stopped going to lectures and became interested in making stuffed animals. Charles' teacher in this matter was the freed slave John Edmonstone, who traveled through the Amazon in the group of naturalist Charles Waterton.
Darwin made his first discoveries in the field of anatomy of marine invertebrates. The young scientist presented his work in March 1827 at a meeting of the Plinian Student Society, of which he had been a member since 1826. It was in this same society that young Darwin became acquainted with materialism. During this time he worked as an assistant to Robert Edmond Grant. He attended Robert Jameson's natural history course, where he gained basic knowledge in geology, and worked with collections belonging to the Museum of the University of Edinburgh.
The news about his son’s neglected studies did not delight Darwin Sr. Realizing that Charles would not become a doctor, Robert Darwin insisted that his son enter Christ's College, Cambridge University. Although visits to the Plinian Society greatly shook Darwin’s faith in the dogmas of the church, he did not resist his father’s will and in 1828 passed the entrance exams to Cambridge.
Studying at Cambridge did not interest Darwin too much. The student's time was occupied by hunting and horse riding. A new hobby appeared - entomology. Charles entered the circle of insect collectors. The future scientist became friends with Cambridge professor John Stevens Henslow, who opened the door to the student's amazing world botanists. Henslow introduced Darwin to the leading naturalists of the time.
With his final exams approaching, Darwin began to push through the material he had missed in his core subjects. Took 10th place based on graduation exam results.
Trips
After graduating in 1831, Charles Darwin remained in Cambridge for some time. He spent time studying the works of William Paley's Natural Theology and Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative. These books gave Darwin the idea of traveling to the tropics to study natural sciences on practice. To implement the idea of \u200b\u200bthe trip, Charles took a geology course from Adam Sedgwick, and then went with the reverend to North Wales to map the rocks.
Upon his arrival from Wales, Darwin received a letter from Professor Henslow with a recommendation to the captain of the expeditionary ship of the English Royal Navy, the Beagle, Robert Fitzroy. The ship at that time was setting off on a voyage to South America, and Darwin could take the place of a naturalist on the crew. True, the position was not paid. Charles's father categorically objected to the trip, and only a word in favor of Charles's uncle, Josiah Wedgwood II, saved the situation. The young naturalist went on a trip around the world.
Charles Darwin's ship was called the Beagle The journey began in 1831 and ended on October 2, 1836. The crew of the Beagle carried out cartographic surveys of the coasts. Darwin at this time was busy on the shore collecting exhibits for a collection of natural history and geology. He kept a full account of his observations. At every opportunity, the naturalist sent copies of his notes to Cambridge. During his voyage, Darwin collected an extensive collection of animals, a large proportion of which was devoted to marine invertebrates. Described geological structure a number of coasts.
Near the Cape Verde Islands, Darwin made a discovery about the influence of time on geological changes, which he used in writing works on geology in the future.
In Patagonia, he discovered the fossilized remains of an ancient mammal called Megatherium. The presence of modern mollusk shells next to it in the rock indicated the recent extinction of the species. The discovery aroused interest in scientific circles in England.
The study of the stepped plains of Patagonia, revealing the ancient strata of the Earth, led Darwin to the conclusion that the statements in Lyell's work "on the persistence and extinction of species" were incorrect.
Off the coast of Chile, the Beagle crew encountered an earthquake. Charles saw the Earth's crust rising above sea level. In the Andes, he found shells of marine invertebrates, which led the scientist to guess about the emergence of barrier reefs and atolls as a result of the tectonic movement of the earth's crust.
On the Galapagos Islands, Darwin noticed differences between local animal species from mainland relatives and representatives of neighboring islands. The objects of the study were Galapagos tortoises and mockingbirds.
In Australia, the strange marsupials and platypuses seen were so different from the fauna of other continents that Darwin seriously thought about another “creator”.
With the Beagle team, Charles Darwin visited the Cocos Islands, Cape Verde, Tenerife, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Tierra del Fuego. Based on the results of the information collected, the scientist created the works “Diary of a Naturalist’s Research” (1839), “Zoology of the Voyage on the Beagle” (1840), “Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs” (1842). Described interesting things a natural phenomenon- penitentes (special ice crystals on Andean glaciers).
After returning from his trip, Darwin began collecting evidence for his theory of species change. Living in a deeply religious environment, the scientist understood that with his theory he was undermining the accepted dogmas of the existing world order. He believed in God as a supreme being, but was completely disillusioned with Christianity. His final departure from the church occurred after the death of his daughter Ann in 1851. Darwin did not stop helping the church and providing support to parishioners, but when his family attended church services, he went for a walk. Darwin called himself an agnostic.
In 1838, Charles Darwin became secretary of the Geological Society of London. He held this post until 1841.
Doctrine of descent
In 1837, Charles Darwin began keeping a diary classifying plant varieties and breeds of domestic animals. In it he entered his thoughts on natural selection. The first notes on the origin of species appeared in 1842.
“The Origin of Species” is a chain of arguments supporting the theory of evolution. The essence of the doctrine is the gradual development of populations of species through natural selection. The principles set forth in the work were called “Darwinism” in the scientific community.
In 1856, preparation of an expanded version of the book began. In 1859, 1,250 copies of the work “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life” were published. The book sold out in two days. During Darwin's lifetime, the book was published in Dutch, Russian, Italian, Swedish, Danish, Polish, Hungarian, Spanish and Serbian. Darwin's works are being republished and are still popular today. The theory of the natural scientist is still relevant and is the basis modern theory evolution.
Another important work of Darwin is “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection.” In it, the scientist developed a theory about the common ancestor of humans and modern apes. The scientist conducted a comparative anatomical analysis, compared embryological data, on the basis of which he showed the similarity of humans and monkeys (simial theory of anthropogenesis).
In his book On the Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Darwin described man as part of an evolutionary chain. Man, as a living organism, developed from a lower animal form.
Personal life
Charles Darwin married in 1839. He took marriage seriously. Before making a decision, I wrote down all the pros and cons on a piece of paper. After the verdict “Marry-Marry-Marry”, on November 11, 1838, he proposed to his cousin Emma Wedgwood. Emma is the daughter of Josiah Wedgwood II, uncle of Charles, Member of Parliament and owner of a porcelain factory. At the time of the wedding, the bride turned 30 years old. Before Charles, Emma rejected marriage proposals. The girl corresponded with Darwin during his travels to South America. Emma is an educated girl. Wrote sermons for rural school, studied music in Paris with Frederic Chopin.
The wedding took place on January 29. The wedding in the Church of England was performed by the brother of the bride and groom, John Allen Wedgwood. The newlyweds settled in London. On 17 September 1842 the family moved to Down, Kent.
Emma and Charles had ten children. Children have achieved a high position in society. Sons George, Francis and Horace were members of the Royal Society of England.
Three babies died. Darwin associated the sickness of children with the kinship between himself and Emma (work “Sickness of descendants from inbreeding and the advantages of distant crossbreeding”).
Death
Charles Darwin died at the age of 73 on April 19, 1882. Buried in Westminster Abbey.
After her husband's death, Emma bought a house in Cambridge. Sons Francis and Horace built houses nearby. The widow lived in Cambridge during the winter. For the summer she moved to the family estate in Kent. She died on October 7, 1896. She was buried in Down, next to Darwin's brother Erasmus.
- Charles Darwin was born on the same day as.
- In the photo Darwin looks like.
- “On the Origin of Species” began to be called that only by the sixth reprint.
- Darwin also learned about new species of animals from a gastronomic point of view: he tasted dishes made from armadillos, ostriches, agouti, and iguanas.
- Many rare species of animals are named in honor of the scientist.
- Darwin never renounced his beliefs: until the end of his days, living in a deeply religious family, he was a doubtful person regarding religion.
- The Beagle's journey lasted five years instead of two.
