Work - conscious activity people, aimed at creating material and spiritual benefits necessary to meet the needs of society and the individual.
Labor activity is a common object of study for various disciplines: labor physiology, labor sociology, engineering sciences, etc. Each of them is aimed at humanizing, rationalizing labor and increasing its efficiency. Labor psychology also pursues these tasks, using its entire arsenal modern psychology. Therefore, PT is an applied science, but for the development of all practical knowledge, theoretical knowledge is also necessary.
PT can be considered as a field of knowledge, science, academic discipline and profession.
PT as a field of knowledge
Even in the pre-scientific period, people had fragmentary knowledge about the psychology of work and understood the importance of psychology in organizing work activities, but expressed this in everyday terms. For example, a number of proverbs can be cited to support this: It’s not the pot that cooks, it’s the cook or Take it together - it won't be too heavy. Klimov concludes that many works mention the psychological characteristics of people engaged in work.
Then psychological knowledge about work was reflected in the works of M.V. Lomonosov, namely:
- - Issues of volitional regulation of labor
- - Design of work equipment taking into account the psychological characteristics of people. In essays M.V. Lomonosov There are many proposals for technical means of labor with references to the characteristics of the human psyche.
- - Issues of optimizing interpersonal relations at work. He writes about the need to help each other, console the other in case of failures and approve of his actions.
Also Radishchev in his work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” shows some ideas:
- 1. The idea of respect for all work is emphasized.
- 2. The phenomenon of a person’s sociogenic unsuitability for work is described (an honest person had to leave the service because he could not fit in with his colleagues).
- 3. Sample conversation as a method of identifying labor motives
Thus, labor psychology as a branch of knowledge should help people more successfully solve the tasks assigned to them in their work activities.
The fact of the existence of a field of psychological knowledge about work and workers was and is an essential prerequisite for the emergence and development of labor psychology as a branch of science.
“Professional applied physical training (PPPP) of students” Volkov V.Yu. Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor..."
“Professional applied physical training
(PPFP) students"
Volkov V.Yu. Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor
n/a Section title Page
1 Basic concepts 1
2 Historical background on the use of physical 2
exercises to prepare for work
3 Personal and socio-economic need for preparation 3
person to work
4 Place of PPPP in the system of physical education of students 5 5 Main factors of PPPP 6 6 Additional factors of PPPP 6 7 Means of PPPP 6 8 Organization and forms of PPPP at the university 7 9 Control of PPPP of students 10 Factors determining the content 8 PPPP of graduates of the faculty 11 Physical education in the future professional 9 activities of bachelors and specialists 12 Literature 12 13 Knowledge control 14
1. Basic concepts Vocational applied physical training is a specially targeted and selective use of physical education means to prepare a person for a specific professional activity.
Forms (types) of labor are conventionally divided into mental and physical according to physiological and psychological signs of predominant manifestation in the process of activity.
Working conditions - impact on the employee external environment production and climatic nature, duration and features of working hours.
The nature of work is determined by the degree and characteristics of the load during the labor process, the variety of skills used in the labor process.
Applied knowledge - acquired in the process of physical education, can be used in professional activities.
Applied skills and abilities are necessary in specific professional activities and can be developed in the process of practicing certain sports.
Applied physical qualities are those qualities (strength, endurance, speed, flexibility, agility) that are most important for the effective performance of a specific professional activity.
Applied mental qualities are those personality qualities that contribute to the effective performance of professional types of work.
They can be formed in the process of physical education.
Applied special qualities - a person’s ability to withstand specific environmental influences (low and high temperatures, motion sickness, lack of oxygen, etc.).
Applied sports are those types (or their elements) that develop and form professional applied knowledge, psychophysical and special qualities, abilities and skills.
– – –
At the initial stages of the development of human society, simple copying of physical activity and technical work methods was used in the simplest games and ritual competitions. Later, people moved on to the broader theme of games with certain rules, to the creation of sports and gaming equipment. This was one of the ways to improve work skills.
Under the slave-owning and feudal system, military-applied physical training for certain segments of society was widely developed.
In the late Middle Ages, youth education systems began to be developed, which contained elements of PPPP. These are the systems of F. Rabelais, D. Locke, I. Pestalozzi and others. It was here that the direction of PPPP was born.
XIX-XX centuries In the USA, a system of labor organization (“Taylorism”) was developed, which was based on the use of scientific and technological achievements in order to extract maximum profit through the use of human functional capabilities.
3. Personal and socio-economic need for preparing a person for work Currently, an independent direction is being developed - special psychophysical preparation of a person for a specific type of work or PPPP, when the personal and socio-economic need for special psychophysical preparation of a person for work in modern conditions is taken into account. This is due to :
The influence of modern technology of work and life on human life;
Changing the place and functional role in the modern production process;
The influence of the need for change and division of labor on the content of the future specialist’s PPPP;
Ensuring a high level of intensity and individual productivity of future specialists;
Ensuring the psychophysical reliability of future specialists in their chosen form of professional work.
The influence of modern technology of work and life on human life “In society there is no other means other than physical culture, with the help of which it would be possible to physically prepare people for new production” (N.I. Ponomarev) Doctors pay attention to the main factors that negatively affect not only on human health, but also on his professional performance:
Detraining of the body due to insufficient motor activity;
Intense emotional state in everyday work conditions;
Unfavorable influence of the external environment.
Physical education specialists are also involved in the prevention of negative factors. They study the functional capabilities of a healthy person and the reserves for increasing performance (for example, they study the high level of preparedness of astronauts, the outstanding achievements of athletes). It is important to use this experience in the use of physical education means when preparing young people for modern work.
Changing place and functional role in the modern production process
Modern production has changed the structure of labor:
Reduced the share of simple physical labor;
The pace and rhythm of labor is now set not by the person himself, but by production technology;
Increasingly complex machines and automated systems are becoming the object of human efforts;
The employee's responsibility has been significantly increased;
Increased demands on the sensory-motor sphere (sustainability of attention, speed and accuracy of reaction, etc.);
Highly qualified specialists manage highly qualified people (statistically, working with people is the most tiring thing).
All this requires special psychophysical preparedness using physical culture. Sports games, martial arts and other sports simulate a variety of life situations interaction between people, here not only physical qualities develop, but also psychological properties of the individual, which contribute to better adaptation of people in the team, fulfilling the role of a leader, manager.
The influence of the need for change and division of labor on the content of the future specialist’s PPFP is due to two factors:
The constant transformation of production and changes in guidelines in economics and politics often require a change in profession.
Such a shift requires both versatile abilities and good physical fitness, which can be achieved in the process of PPPP.
Narrow specialization of labor, which achieves significant economic efficiency, as a rule, makes work monotonous and increases the number of occupational diseases.
In such a situation, PPFP contributes to:
Prevention of occupational diseases, relief of fatigue and faster development of related specialties.
The physiological limits of human labor intensity are very elastic and can change under the influence of physical culture means.
Those involved in physical education and leading an active lifestyle have a level of functional capabilities of the body, physical and emotional stability, coordination of movements is significantly above average. These people have a quick workability, the ability to maintain optimal tempo, speed and efficiency of work movements and actions for a long time.
4. The place of PPPP in the system of physical education of students
The task of the University is to ensure the psychophysical reliability of future specialists in the chosen type of professional work.
The concept of “quality of a specialist” includes not only knowledge and skills in the profession, but also psychophysical reliability, which depends on the level of physical fitness.
Weak physical fitness adversely affects both the student’s academic work and the fulfillment of the requirements of educational and industrial practice; such university graduates often cannot be used in their specialty in different areas of production; their insufficient professional “return” is also manifested, a forced change of profession, which leads to economic and moral costs.
The problem of PPPP is most relevant in the university. The student must prepare himself in advance for his chosen profession, develop those physical and mental qualities that will determine his psychophysical reliability and success in future profession.
The purpose and objectives of the PPFP are to form:
Applied knowledge;
Applied skills and abilities;
Applied physical qualities;
Applied special qualities.
5. Main factors of PPPP To determine PPPP, a specialist’s professional profile is drawn up, i.e. the volume and list of necessary applied knowledge, skills, psychophysical and special qualities that ensure the reliability and success of professional activity, namely:
Forms (types) of labor;
Working conditions;
Nature of work;
Work and rest schedule;
Dynamics of performance.
6. Additional factors of PPPP
Additional factors:
Individual characteristics of future specialists;
Geographical and climatic conditions of the region where you will work.
The success of preparation for a profession depends on physiological and psychological suitability for the profession, i.e. depending on individual abilities, so everyone has their own efforts and time to master PPFP.
It is important to focus on age-related changes in the human body.
The most productive age for PPFP is from 18 to 35 years.
Productive work in geographical and climatic conditions can be achieved by increased resistance to cold, heat, solar radiation, temperature fluctuations, etc. means of hardening, performing hygienic measures.
– – –
The student’s PPPP means can be divided into:
Applied physical exercises and elements of sports;
Applied sports (their holistic application);
Hardening and hygiene factors;
Auxiliary equipment (simulators).
– – –
Organization of PPFP:
Special training during school hours;
Special training in your free time.
Organization of PPPP at training sessions determined by the program in “Physical Education”, the program reflects the characteristics of the future profession of students of each faculty. For expanded PPPP, groups on PPPP are organized in the main department, and groups on applied sports are organized in the sports department.
PPPP is carried out in the form of theoretical, practical and control classes. The purpose of theoretical classes is to provide applied knowledge in the field of the chosen profession, practical classes - applied skills, psychophysical and special qualities.
Forms of PPPP in free time:
Sectional classes in applied sports at the university;
Amateur activities in applied sports outside the university (tourist clubs, etc.);
Independent studies in your free time.
9.Control of students’ PPPP
The departments of physical education and sports are developing special requirements and standards for physical training.
Standards and requirements are mandatory for every student. In each semester, it is recommended to take no more than 2-3 credit tests (students of a special department take PPPP tests that are available to them due to their health conditions). Students must complete the PPPP tests at least “satisfactorily”.
The final certification is carried out in the form of an oral survey, including questions from the PPPP section.
10. Factors that determine the content of the PPPP of faculty graduates The student prepares the topic material independently, depending on the specifics of his future profession. Specific materials can be found in the literature on:
Theories and methods of physical education of students;
Physiology and psychology of work;
Ergonomics (studies the conditions and nature of work so that the organization of production corresponds to human capabilities);
- “Safety precautions”;
Production organizations.
Additional factors determining the content of the PPPP of faculty graduates:
Age;
Health status;
Typical occupational diseases;
Geographical and climatic conditions;
National traditions.
When engaging in physical education, you must consider:
The influence of forms and types of training for bachelors and specialists on the content of PPPP;
The influence of working conditions of a graduate of the faculty on the content of PPFP;
The nature of the work of specialists and its impact on the content of the PPPP;
The influence of the characteristics of the dynamics of specialists’ fatigue on the content of the PPPP.
Today there is material characterizing the characteristics of the work of many professions (see the presented list of references).
Using these materials, the student will know what qualities and skills need to be developed in himself, what is needed to ensure professional longevity.
11. Physical culture in the future professional activities of bachelors and specialists Basic concepts. Industrial physical culture (PFC) is a system of methodologically based physical exercises, physical education and sports activities aimed at increasing and maintaining sustainable professional capacity.
Industrial gymnastics are sets of special exercises used during the working day to increase and restore general and professional performance, as well as to prevent possible diseases.
Professional fatigue is an objective decrease in performance, the nature of which is largely related to professional activity.
Occupational disease – occurs as a result of the influence of conditions, nature and mode of work.
Occupational injuries are industrial injuries, injuries that are statistically reliably recorded among representatives of a certain profession, regardless of the reasons.
Industrial physical culture (PFC), goal, objectives The purpose of PFC is to promote health and increase labor efficiency.
Tasks of the PFC:
Prepare the body for optimal inclusion in work;
Maintain an optimal level of performance during work and restore it after its completion;
Conduct focused psychophysical preparation for performing certain types of work;
Prevention of possible influence of unfavorable factors of professional work on a person.
Methodological foundations of PFC. The basis of PFC is the theory of active recreation.
I.M. Sechenov proved that performance is restored faster during active rest, when movements are performed by other, non-tired parts of the body.
The PFC technique depends not only on the nature and content of the work, but has a “contrasting” character:
The greater the physical activity during work, the less it is during active rest, and vice versa;
The less large muscle groups are included in the labor process, the more they are involved in the PFC process;
The greater the emotional and mental stress in the process of work, the less it should be in the various means of the PFC.
By improving physiological mechanisms, PFC increases the body's resistance to the effects of unfavorable environmental factors (overheating, hypothermia, hypoxia, the effects of certain toxic substances).
Forms, methods, means of PFC. Forms of PFC:
IN work time;
In free time.
When choosing means and methods of PFC, it is important to consider:
Working conditions (working posture, variety of movements, workload of individual functional systems);
The dynamics, nature and degree of developing fatigue during the working day, week, month, year.
PFC during working hours is implemented through the following forms:
Introductory gymnastics;
Physical education break;
Physical education moment;
Micropause of active rest.
When building industrial gymnastics complexes, it is necessary to take into account:
Working posture, body position;
Labor movements;
Nature of work activity;
The degree and nature of fatigue according to subjective indicators;
Possible health problems;
Sanitary and hygienic condition of the training place.
Introductory gymnastics (IG).
VG is carried out before the start of work, consists of 5-8 general developmental and special exercises and takes 5-7 minutes.
The purpose of introductory gymnastics is to activate the body functions that play a leading role in performing work.
Introductory gymnastics allows you to:
It is easier to get into the working rhythm;
Reduce the run-in period;
Increase efficiency at the beginning of the working day;
Reduce the negative impact of sudden load at the beginning of the working day.
Introductory gymnastics includes special exercises that, in their structure and nature, imitate working actions.
For VH, exercises with increasing tempo of movements are used.
When performing the VG complex, you must follow the following rules:
A slight tonic state is created for the main working muscles;
The end of the VG complex relieves excessive excitement and prepares for the upcoming work;
After completing the VG complex there should be no desire to rest.
Physical education break. Physical education pause is carried out for active rest, prevention or easing of fatigue during the working day.
The complex consists of 7-8 exercises performed in 5-10 minutes.
The location of the physical education pause depends on the length of the working day and the dynamics of performance. With a normal 7-8 hour working day, it is recommended to have 2 physical education breaks: every 2-2.5 hours. after the start of work and 1-1.5 hours before its end (Fig.).
Objectives of the physical education break:
Give additional stress to body systems that do not actively participate in work;
Relieve stress from body systems that are tired from work.
Introductory gymnastics (IG) for various forms of work. During heavy physical labor, the VG complex includes simple-to-coordinate movements of a dynamic nature, involving various muscle groups in the work. The load increases gradually.
When performing moderate work, dynamic exercises with a wide amplitude are included for muscle groups not involved in work.
The maximum load occurs in the middle of the complex.
When working with low physical activity, but with high concentration and intense mental labor, combined dynamic exercises for various muscle groups are recommended. The maximum load falls on the first third of the complex.
When working in unfavorable working conditions, preventive exercises are recommended (for example, when working with a constant forward bend of the body, exercises that strengthen posture are necessary).
Physical education moment. Physical training is an individual form of short-term rest for local impact on tired muscle groups (2-3 exercises for 1-2 minutes several times during the working day).
The exercises are performed precisely when the employee feels the need for a short rest.
Exercises are most often associated with:
Straightening your back and moving your shoulders back;
Straightening the legs in a sitting position, changing posture;
Relaxation exercises, restorative poses;
Tilts and turns of the body in combination with movements of the arms and legs;
Swinging movements, rotation of the head, shoulders;
Elements of massage.
Exercise during your lunch break. During the lunch break (especially during sedentary work), it is necessary to significantly increase the volume of physical activity by walking, jogging, and playing.
Playing table tennis during the lunch break gives good results (according to experimental data, the heart rate of qualified athletes per game reaches 200 beats/min).
Prevention of occupational diseases and injuries. The main goal of preventive exercises is to increase the body’s resistance to the effects of adverse labor factors.
These include:
Overexertion from heavy physical work;
Limiting the number and range of movements;
Monotony;
Uncomfortable working posture;
Nervous tension;
Vibration, motion sickness, unfavorable sanitary conditions.
The role of the leader’s personality in the implementation of PFC. The degree of implementation of PFC largely depends on how much the manager himself understands the role and significance of PFC for professional competence.
When resolving issues of PFC, the manager analyzes the “+” and “-” of implementation, comparing humanistic aspects with the economic possibilities of production.
Modern research It has been proven that the introduction of PFC tools contributes to:
Reducing overall morbidity;
Reducing injuries and occupational diseases;
Increasing production efficiency;
Improving the general well-being of employees, etc.
Additional:
– – –
Mandatory:
Vilensky M.Ya., Safin R.S. Professional orientation of physical education of students of pedagogical specialties. – M.: Higher School, 1989.
Ilyinich V.I. Professional applied physical training of university students. – M.: Higher School, 1978.
Raevsky R.T. Professional applied physical training for students of technical universities. – M.: Higher School, 1985.
Student physical culture. Textbook for university students / Ed. Ed.
V.I. Ilyinich. – M.: Gardariki, 2003.
Additional:
Anishchenko V.S. Physical culture: Methodological and practical classes for students: Textbook. – M.: Publishing house. RUDN University, 1999. – 165 p.
Vilensky M.Ya., Ilyinich V.I. Physical culture of knowledge workers. – M.: Knowledge, 1987.
Nifontova L.N., Pavlova G.V. Physical education for people engaged in sedentary work. – M.: Soviet sport, 1993.
Professional and applied training of students: Textbook / T.N. Mikhonina et al. - St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg State University, 1997. - 48 p.
Physical culture: Textbook / Ed. V.A.Kovalenko. – M.: Publishing house.
DIA, 2000. – 432 p.
Physical culture and health: Textbook/Ed. V.V. Ponomareva. – M.:
GOU VUNMC, 2001. – 352 p.
– – –
We offer approximate Control questions on the topic: “Professional applied physical training (PPPP) of students”:
Modern production is characterized mainly by... 1.
a) an increase in the share of mental stress and simple physical labor
b) reducing the share of simple physical labor and employee responsibility
c) increased interaction between people, increased responsibility of all employees
d) simplification of interaction with automated systems, lower requirements for the speed and accuracy of the employee’s reaction. Direction of professionally applied physical training 2.
(PPFP) arose...
a) in primitive society
b) in the late Middle Ages
c) XIX-XX centuries. in the USA d) 20-30s of the twentieth century in our country PPPP at the university is carried out in the form of what classes?
a) theoretical
b) practical
c) control
d) all of the above Factors that negatively affect professional 4.
performance...
a) insufficient physical activity
b) stress, ecology
c) occupational diseases
d) all of the above factors Characteristics of the characteristics of labor, in particular in agriculture, 5.
indicates that in first place in the required skills and abilities is...
a) navigate the area
b) drive cars, motorcycles, bicycles... transport
c) swim
d) go skiing The specialist’s professional profile includes a list of... 6.
a) major occupational diseases
b) necessary knowledge and qualities of the profession
c) related specialties
d) positions for professional growth Professional-applied physical training of a student at a university 7.
is …
a) mandatory
b) additional
c) optional
d) elective The ability of a person to withstand specific influences 8.
external environment (low and high temperatures, motion sickness, lack of oxygen, etc.) is...
a) applied physical qualities and applied sports
b) applied mental qualities
c) applied skills and abilities
d) applied special qualities What is the name of the branch of science that studies the conditions and nature of work?
a) cybernetics
b) agglomeration
c) ergonomics
d) eclecticism
10. What are the main factors that determine the content of PPFP?
a) working conditions
b) work and rest schedule
c) all presented options are correct (a, b, d)
d) performance dynamics
11. The tasks of the PPPP include the formation of applied qualities...
a) physical
b) mental
c) special
d) all of the above
12. According to statistics, what is the most popular form of PPPP?
a) tourism
b) swimming
c) various types of running
d) training on simulators
13. In PPPT, practical experience in performing physical exercises is important, for example, physiologically correct lifting of a load must be done by...
a) back extension
b) arm curls
c) due to the extension of the legs with an arched back
d) all methods are correct
14. The most productive age for professional-applied physical training...
a) up to 20 years b) 20-35 years c) 35 or more
d) at any age
15. What is included in the concept of “quality of a specialist”?
a) knowledge of the profession
b) professional skills
c) psychophysical reliability
d) all of the above
16. Which scientist substantiated the effectiveness of active recreation used as the basis of industrial physical culture (PFC)?
17. What meets the rules of introductory gymnastics as a means of PFC?
18. What is the name of the shortest form of industrial gymnastics?
19. During monotonous work, what exercises of the PFC should be used first?
20. What are additional means of increasing performance?
21. Types of industrial gymnastics and their features?
22. How to properly lift a heavy load from the ground?
23. What methods are used to strengthen the eye muscles and develop human peripheral vision?
24. To what does the use of PFC increase the body’s resistance?
25. What determines the selection of special PFC exercises?
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“WAYS TO INCREASE MOTIVATION IN TEACHING PROFESSIONALLY ORIENTED ENGLISH LISTENING TO FUTURE SPECIALISTS OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS © Gupka-Makogin N.I. Ternopil National Pedagogical University named after. V. Gnatyuka, Ukraine, Ternopil The article discusses the issue of increasing the motivation of future specialists in international economics to master English language, as well as English-language professionally oriented listening skills. The results of the survey are presented..."
“Library of VSMHA Reference and information department He was our rector Scientists of VSMHA Lobanov Valentin Tikhonovich (01/29/1913 01/10/1993) Dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of the outstanding teacher, scientist, professor Valentin Tikhonovich Lobanov. During his career he made a significant contribution to the development of the theory and practice of breeding in animal husbandry. Scientists of VSMHA Lobanov Valentin Tikhonovich was born in 1913 in the city of Shigry, Kursk region, in the family of a teacher. He began his career in 1929...”
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History (nonsense according to Klimov):
It all starts from the pre-scientific period. At first these are disparate ideas of the people.
The proverbs of many peoples reflect phenomena that characterize precisely the psychological side of labor, the role of the means of labor and the subject of the activity itself, etc.
Example: They appointed a donkey as a blacksmith - the first thing he did was shoe himself. Or: It’s not the pot that cooks, but the cook.
Relationships in a team are also reflected in folk wisdom.
For example: Take it together - it won’t be too heavy.
Also, psychological knowledge about work is expressed in such cultural monuments as “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, etc. They describe psychological characteristics people mainly in connection with military work.
For example: And my ti kuryani are aware of the kameti (For those who don’t understand, the kamet is a warrior) to wear under the pipes, under the helmets, and finally a copy of the education...
From all this, Klimov draws only one conclusion: all these works are actually written not about anything, but about the connection between personality traits and human activity J!
Next, we consider “The Tale of the Life and Repose of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich.” There, as Klimov found out, the idea is considered that the characteristics of the individual as a subject of activity are determined by upbringing.
Then the great Lomonosov comes. His works reflect his psychological knowledge about work, namely: Issues of volitional regulation of labor Design of means of labor taking into account the psychological characteristics of people. In the works of M.V. There are many proposals for technical means of labor with references to the characteristics of the human psyche. Issues of optimizing interpersonal relations at work. He writes about the need to help each other, console the other in case of failures and approve of his actions.
Neil Sorsky:
O He has some scholarship on the prolongation of unwanted mental states, passions.
O The requirements for a peasant who is chosen for the role of headman are described: one must choose “a man of goodness, a straight soul... not a thief, or a hawkmoth, or a world seller...” Klimov calls this the first normative professionogram.
Radishchev and his “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow.” The idea of respect for all work is emphasized. The phenomenon of a person’s sociogenic unsuitability for work is described (an honest person had to leave the service because he could not fit in with his colleagues). Sample conversation as a method of identifying labor motives
Chernyshevsky with his eternal “What to do?”
The idea of designing a workplace for an agricultural worker in order to optimize his work.
And now in Russian:
Labor psychology developed in 2 directions: practical tasks (labor psychology developed in psychotechnics at the beginning of the twentieth century) and the task of producing psychological knowledge itself (fundamental models of personality, activity, etc.)
The branch of labor psychology as a science is formed precisely from the “clumps” of the field of psychological knowledge about labor. This is expressed in the fact that officials take on the functions psychological analysis labor and become human specialists. Gradually, targeted publications on topics appear, a specialized language appears, and groups of people are formed who specifically deal with these issues.
Even now, psychological knowledge about work is intertwined with knowledge from related sciences and practice. Previously, it was an ordinary mess, but now it is called “syntheticity” or “integration”. Klimov calls all this together “unsterility.”
In short, labor psychology exists as a multitude of interacting approaches, directions, schools, and concepts. It is worth remembering that the authors of concepts treat them jealously and biasedly → if the concept does not correspond to the facts, they devalue the practice itself and “adjust” it to fit the theory.
All this disgrace is schematically divided into: theoretical search, “exploration”, targeted fundamental research, applied research suitable for direct practical use, development (this is the highest level of usefulness)
Labor psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the conditions, ways and methods of scientifically based solutions to practical problems in the field of functioning and formation of a person as a subject of labor.
Labor psychology as a profession.
Where can a person educated in occupational psychology work?
Under the psychology of work are understood:
1) a branch of psychology that studies some aspects of work activity, adaptation and integration processes of each subject of labor;
2) psychological mechanisms and patterns of formation of professional identity with the formation of skills and culture characteristic of a given profession.
Labor psychology as a field of knowledge, a branch of science, an academic discipline and a profession. Labor psychology is currently an independent branch of psychology, which allows the most effective use of human labor, taking into account his personal characteristics and impact on production as a whole, predicting the development of industrial relations, and much more.
Labor psychology is primarily focused on the person and his interests, on minimizing production losses and optimizing work activity for the employee.
Scope of application of occupational psychology very broad, since work is the main activity of every person. Many professions provide a wide field for research in the field of labor psychology and are aimed at developing certain methods of working with people of various professions. Most enterprises have positions for psychologists whose responsibilities include personnel selection, resolving conflict situations at work, and much more.
The place of occupational psychology in the system of sciences is determined by the position of psychology in the system of sciences, its relationships with the humanities, technical, social and natural sciences. The relationship between occupational psychology and other sciences has its own specifics, determined by the object and subject of its study and their connection. Labor psychology, social Psychology, sociology of labor, history and other social sciences have points of contact in solving the following problems: establishing patterns of development of a collective subject of activity, the influence of communication in a work collective and professional communication on the process and result of activity, studying the patterns of formation, development and functioning of large groups, etc. d.
Occupational psychology has close connections with many sciences. Nevertheless, the uniqueness of the subject and tasks of occupational psychology allows it to maintain the status of an independent science.
The object of labor psychology is work as a specific activity of a person who identifies himself with a certain professional community and produces the reproduction of skills, attitudes, and knowledge in this type of activity. The object of labor psychology is the activity of an individual in production conditions.
Main tasks of occupational psychology:
1) improving industrial relations and improving the quality of labor;
2) improving the living conditions of workers;
3) improving working conditions;
4) minimizing emergency situations;
5) development of the most appropriate management method;
6) planning tactics and management strategies;
7) work with norms, values and corporate culture of production;
8) psychological assistance to enterprise employees;
9) preventive psychological work aimed at creating a healthy lifestyle;
10) development of basic hiring criteria;
12) rational restructuring and renewal of professions. The subject of labor psychology is the psychological characteristics of human activity in working conditions in such aspects as his development as a professional, professional orientation and self-determination, motivation of the work process, the mechanism of work experience, quality of work, human adaptation to labor conditions. The study of human activity in production conditions allows not only to enrich the theoretical basis of labor psychology, but also to delve into the practical activities of the enterprise and make adjustments to the direct work activities of employees.
Main goals of occupational psychology are:
1) optimization of the psychological climate of the enterprise, that is, taking into account the psychological characteristics of each member of the enterprise and optimizing interactive processes within the organization;
2) forecasting the possible results of management decisions, management tactics and strategies, which implies deep knowledge of production processes, taking into account the specifics of business negotiations, a well-organized advertising campaign and information collection.
To achieve these goals, work psychology uses various tools, which is reflected in the tasks and stems from the scope of its application. In many ways, the features of work psychology methods depend on the profile and specifics of production of the organization in which the organizational psychologist operates.
Basic methods of occupational psychology:
The method is understood as a system of theoretical and practical actions, models for studying certain problems and the practical activities of a psychologist. The most effective is the use of multi-method work, since in this case many aspects of the work are visible from different positions and the labor output is most optimal.
The experimental method involves conducting a strictly regulated study aimed at some aspect of the organization's work. During the experiment, the psychologist must select two groups: experimental and control. The experimental group is a group of workers directly in contact with the problem under study, the control group is a group of people not in contact with this problem. In other parameters, the groups must be identical.
According to the method of recruiting experimental groups, the random sampling method and selection according to the principle of correspondence are preferable. A matched group is most effective, but it is more expensive than random selection.
Non-participant observation method. The method is based on the real capabilities of a psychologist to observe people directly in the labor process, identifying real and pressing problem areas. But on the other hand, it is impossible to repeat an observation as an experiment, since the observation conditions change. The method of participant observation is based on the participation of a psychologist in the work activities of the workers being studied, and the main disadvantage of this method is its subjectivity and limited control over the progress of its implementation.
The opinion polling method uses specific surveys or structured interviews.
The survey method often produces a high rate of false responses because respondents want to appear more knowledgeable, accomplished, or confident to the interviewer. Respondents are more sincere if they fill out the questionnaire themselves. In the case of telephone surveys, respondents are often difficult to find because people do not want to waste time and become irritated when answering phone calls.
The interview method involves the participation in the study of qualified interviewers, whose selection is carried out according to several criteria: appearance, communication skills, behavior. Factors such as age, gender, race, and the interviewer's emotional response to the survey questions may influence research results.
Related information.
Human society at all stages of its development was faced with the task of increasing the efficiency of the labor process, improving the methods it uses in the production of products and means necessary for its existence. There are two possible ways to solve this problem, which are determined by the two-dimensionality of any labor process: on the one hand, there is always an object to which a person’s efforts are directed, on the other hand, there is a subject, the person himself, who carries out these efforts. The first way is the optimization of what is associated with the object of labor - means, conditions, tools; this is the main way of development of the productive forces of society. The second way is connected not with the objective components of labor, but with the knowledge of the subject of labor - man, with the need to disclose and take into account his physiological, biological, social, psychological and other properties. Often, the organization of work, based on taking into account human characteristics, turns out to be even more effective than its intensification.
The system of subjective characteristics is denoted by the concept human factor labor process, therefore labor activity is studied from the standpoint of several scientific disciplines, among which the psychology of work occupies an important place. Labor activity is a common object of study for such disciplines as, for example, occupational hygiene, labor physiology, labor sociology, economics, engineering, etc. Each of these disciplines, using special knowledge, tools and methods, strives to solve practical problems aimed at to rationalize and humanize work activity and increase its efficiency. The scope of occupational psychology is very wide, and its boundaries with other psychological disciplines are very conditional.
The problem of identifying the subject of work psychology is primarily associated with defining the subject of study in the general system of all psychological knowledge. Such a subject is the human psyche. The main thing that unites all psychological sciences is human mental activity, which is characterized primarily by its subjectivity. Labor psychology is the concretization of all psychological knowledge in connection with the most important aspect human existence - labor. That's why subject labor psychology is the mental activity of a person, allowing him to reflect the objective reality associated with labor, carry out and regulate labor activity, and give it a subjective character. Subjectivity itself is understood as a readiness to perform certain actions in one’s own way, to act unplanned (and in some cases unpredictably, spontaneously), as well as a readiness to reflect on one’s activities (to realize one’s spontaneity). Respectively, purpose labor psychology is the study of the psyche of the subject of labor. Thus, labor psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies mental processes, states, and personality traits that constitute a necessary internal component of human labor activity.
Work psychology faces two main goals. The first – historically earlier – increase in labor productivity and labor efficiency. The development of labor psychology as a separate branch of psychological knowledge began with the solution of this problem. This task remains the main social order of labor psychology to this day. The second task - the humanization of work activity and the promotion of personal development in it - was formulated for the psychology of work based on the logic of the development of all psychological science, which must first of all ensure the development of man and his personality.
A parallel solution to these problems can lead to an ethical paradox in the subject of labor psychology, which is formulated as follows: “the more we study the subject of labor (its fundamental possibility of spontaneity and reflexivity), the more we deprive a person of his subjectivity... the more we we study (cognize) the subject, the more we deprive him of his psyche” (N.S. Pryazhnikov, E.Yu. Pryazhnikova), i.e. we turn it into an object that is easily predictable in its actions, which does not need reflection at all, since everything is already decided for it by a psychologist or manager, using the results of research and the psychologist’s recommendations on how to “work with personnel.” The real picture is that many managers and “customers” are just waiting for such recommendations from a psychologist, with the help of which it would be easier to manage employees and predict any of their reactions to certain actions of their superiors. However, this creates an “excellent” basis for manipulation, although it is known that it is the manipulation of the consciousness of another person that is the most terrible “sin” for a psychologist.
Some concerns regarding the “removal” of a person’s subjectivity in work activity can be compensated for by the following considerations. Firstly, as knowledge about a person develops, much greater ignorance is often revealed (the learner’s eyes are, as it were, opened to the complexity and diversity of mental life and work activity). Secondly, in the course of cognition of the person being studied, he also develops together with the researcher, especially when studying the worker as an individual, when the interaction of the psychologist with the cognizable subject of labor becomes inevitable. Thirdly, the need for ethical training of the research psychologist himself and the practicing psychologist reduces the “temptation” of manipulation of the employee’s consciousness by the work psychologist (N.S. Pryazhnikov, E.Yu. Pryazhnikova).
Occupational psychology also faces more specific challenges. Currently, there are several classifications of this type of problem. The simplest and most general is the division of the tasks of labor psychology into theoretical (research) and applied (terminal, i.e., aimed at achieving the final practical result of psychological developments).
The first group of tasks is determined simultaneously by the psychological characteristics of the subject of labor, its structure, and the connection between psychology and labor with general psychological problems. Among the main research tasks labor psychology includes (according to A. Karpov): 1) study of the characteristics of mental processes (sensation, perception, attention, representation, memory, thinking, etc.) as regulators of labor activity and their development in activity; 2) study of the basic mental properties of the subject of labor activity and their structure as factors in the organization of labor activity and its effectiveness; 3) study of the characteristics and structure of functional states in work activity (the so-called “praxical states”), as well as their connection with the dynamics of the labor process and its effectiveness; 4) research into the patterns of personality development in the labor process, revealing the features of mutual determination (conditionality) of personality and profession; 5) studying the problem of motivation for work, revealing the basic patterns of the formation and development of a system of professional motives of an individual, establishing the influence of the individual’s motivational system on the effectiveness of work, developing on this basis a psychologically based system of labor incentives;
6) study of the emotional-volitional sphere of the individual as a regulator of work activity, revealing the mechanisms and patterns of stability (resistance) of the individual to extreme conditions activity - its resistance to stress;
7) disclosure of the psychological content, composition, structure and mechanisms of work activity on the basis of general psychological concepts formulated in the theory of activity; 8) development of the psychological problem of abilities in relation to various types and types of work activity, establishment of patterns in the structure of the subject’s abilities and their development in the process of mastering the activity; 9) study of socio-psychological factors of work activity that determine the content of the organizational environment of activity and influence the effectiveness of activity and job satisfaction.
The second group of tasks is determined by those practical needs that most often arise in the course of psychological study and optimization of work activity. The most typical and important among applied problems are: 1) development of methodological foundations and specific applied procedures for professional selection; 2) optimization of vocational training procedures, the problem of vocational training in general; 3) development of research and development on the problem of professional orientation of the individual; 4) psychological rationalization and optimization of the content and conditions of professional activity based on the disclosure and consideration of the psychological characteristics of the subject of labor; 5) development of psychological foundations and specific requirements aimed at taking into account the psychological characteristics of the subject when designing new technologies and means of labor; 6) development of theoretically sound and practically effective systems and procedures for conducting professional certification, carried out for various purposes (professional selection, selection, recruitment, “recruitment”);
7) development of optimal work and rest regimes for different types and types of work activity; 8) determination of socio-psychological characteristics and the most effective ways and means of correcting the organizational environment of work; 9) development of psychological means of motivational enrichment of work activity, increasing its “motivational potential” and thereby promoting the humanization of work, increasing the subject’s satisfaction from its implementation; 10) assistance in reducing occupational injuries and occupational morbidity, development of safety norms, rules and procedures.
These tasks do not exhaust all the problems of labor psychology, all its directions and goals, but are only the main ones. Along with them, there is also a category traditional tasks, which are both research and applied. These, for example, are professional tasks, the essence of which is the psychological characteristics of the main professions, determining the requirements of professions for individuals, and studying the world of professions as a whole. Traditional tasks also include tasks related to the professionalization of an individual, starting from the stages of professional guidance and training and ending with the final stages of a professional biography. Along with the above, there are even more special tasks, formulated in various directions of “private” labor psychology.
1.2. History and trends in the development of applied psychology in the field of professional work
The first steps in the scientific study of work activity are usually associated with the name Frederick Winslow Taylor(1856 – 1915). The system of labor organization and management that emerged at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries is named after him. Taylor was the first to put on a scientific basis the problem of managing people in production conditions. Before him, they talked more about managing a factory as a special “machine”, and even earlier – about managing technology. Taylor managed to move on to the analysis of labor activity itself in real conditions specific production and offer practical recommendations for labor optimization. He believed that an increase in labor productivity is possible only through standardization of methods, techniques, and tools. The system of rationalization and production management proposed by Taylor is aimed at increasing labor productivity through the optimization of labor actions and the intensification of the labor process. Standardization, which primarily concerned individual operations, temporary work schedules and tools, presupposed a preliminary study of individual elements of the labor process, which in itself was already a scientific analysis of a single labor activity. The main objective in the Taylor system is to ensure maximum profit for the entrepreneur combined with maximum welfare for each worker.
There are four main principles of F. Taylor's system: 1) generalization and classification of the skills of all workers; 2) careful selection based on scientifically established characteristics; 3) administrative implementation of “cordial cooperation” with workers (for example, through daily bonuses for fast work, etc.); 4) almost equal division of labor and responsibility between the worker and the manager.
Taylor considered incentives to be the most important aspect of labor organization. Basic principle His theory is the principle of material interest. According to Taylor, every work should have its own price and be paid according to it (the principle of reasonable egoism). Only under such conditions is it possible to develop and expand production. The use of this principle leads to an increase in the individual responsibility of the employee for his own well-being and the effectiveness of his work.
The motives of labor are as important factors of production as tools or methods of labor. Taylor identified a number of socio-psychological phenomena that influence work activity (for example, the phenomenon of “working coolly” - a conscious decrease in output when working in a small group); first formulated and published the principles that became fundamental in management theory:
1) scientific study of labor for the purpose of standardizing it instead of the practice of spontaneous empirical establishment of production standards, based on the experience of workers, their initiative, practice, which was defended by representatives of trade unions. The result of scientific research into the laws of effective work at a specific job position was the establishment of rational ways of working, a “lesson”, i.e. the volume of output per unit of working time, and the requirements for a “first-class” employee, in relation to whom the “lesson” was calculated;
2) selection of “first-class” workers for a rationalized type of work and their instruction. A “first-class” worker was considered a person who had the necessary physical and personal qualities, agreeing to follow all instructions of the administration; a person who wants to work and does not object to the salary offered to him;
3) a new distribution of responsibilities between the administration and performing workers. The administration must voluntarily take on new responsibilities for scientific study laws of each type of labor and the optimal organization of worker labor in accordance with the identified laws. Employees should see their task only as strictly following the “lesson” and the methods of work proposed by the administration, without showing additional initiative. A good worker is a good performer; lack of initiative is encouraged. In this case, everyone together (workers and management) will be able to achieve the implementation of the intended tasks;
4) cultivating the “spirit of cordial cooperation” between workers and management instead of confrontation, mutual distrust and aggression, strikes that undermined the economic foundations of the enterprise, which also affected the well-being of workers.
Taylor proposed technology for conducting scientific research labor in the interests of its rationalization. The technology concerned the research and optimization primarily of working movements accessible to external observation, recording the time of their execution and analysis. In particular, for each type of labor it was proposed: a) to select 10 - 15 workers who are especially skilled in producing this type of work; b) consider the entire range of elementary operations (or movements) used by each selected worker, examine the tools he uses; c) use a stopwatch to record the duration of each operation and choose the fastest way to complete this element; d) highlight all “incorrect” and “extra” (unproductive) elementary movements and eliminate them from the labor process; e) combine all the selected (most rational, fast and economical) movements, methods of working with the best types of tools.
The method of performing a work task developed in this way became standard and a “lesson” was determined on its basis. Next, a standard of a “first-class” worker was developed, in accordance with this standard, candidates were selected and taught the found methods of work, and instructors were trained, who were subsequently supposed to train newly recruited workers. The scientific rationalization procedure was supposed to cover the entire production cycle of the enterprise.
Taylor also proposed the so-called functional structure of enterprise management, allocating an additional staff of administrators to carry out new management responsibilities, each of whom was supposed to control a narrow area of work (for example, only prepare tools or material for work, organize the workplace, or control the time of labor operations and etc.).
Thus, Taylor, based on experimental studies of labor, substantiated the need to divide labor functions into elementary operations and standardized movements. Within the framework of Taylorism, the concept of “engineering design” of work methods is born and practically implemented in production. Using the example of designing simple tools of various sizes and shapes, the Taylor system implements the principle according to which tools must correspond to the physical organization of workers. One of the principles identified by Taylor purely empirically is associated with the definition of rational breaks in work as a way to combat fatigue. In addition, Taylor's system solved the problem of selecting the most suitable workers for a given type of activity from among those willing to get a job. In fact, Taylorism laid the foundations of modern management and scientific organization labor. The emergence of labor psychology is also associated with Taylor’s system: in response to the requests of this system, the main problems of the new scientific discipline were formulated.
Labor psychology arose at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries, when new complex types of work activity were being formed that placed increased demands on reaction speed, unambiguous perception, and other mental processes. Simultaneously with Taylor's system, a number of other scientific studies of labor activity arose. The immediate predecessors of the newest management theories, along with the concept of “scientific management” by F. Taylor, were the sociological theory of the scientific organization of labor by M. Weber, the administrative theory of A. Fayol and the synthetic concept of management by L. Gulik, J. Mooney and L.F. Urvika.
Sociological concept of bureaucracy Max Weber(1864 - 1920), being a development of the basic principles of F. Taylor, proceeded from the fact that the organization is considered as a kind of impersonal mechanism, the main rule of which is clear and error-free functioning aimed at maximizing profits. The main provisions of Weber's concept were as follows: a) the organization is free to choose any means to achieve its sustainability (for example, through strict centralization of tasks); b) individuals can be interchangeable (therefore, each is clearly assigned a separate task); c) work in an organization is the most appropriate measure of an individual’s success and is the basis of existence for him; d) the behavior of performers is completely determined by a rational scheme, which ensures accuracy and unambiguity of actions, and allows one to avoid prejudice and personal sympathy in relationships.
In administrative concept Henri Fayol there are “14 maxims” (principles) that an entrepreneur must follow: 1) broad division of labor; 2) authority and responsibility (where authority is given, responsibility arises); 3) discipline; 4) unity of command (an employee must receive orders from only one immediate superior); 5) unity of direction (all groups and divisions are united by a common goal); 6) subordination of personal interests to general ones; 7) staff remuneration (fair pay for work and initiative); 8) centralization (the optimal proportion between the centralization of power and its decentralization, depending on specific conditions); 9) scalar chain (hierarchical control); 10) order (everyone in his place); 11) justice (a combination of kindness and justice); 12) stability of the workplace for staff (combating turnover); 13) initiative (development of a long-term plan and its implementation as a condition for the energy and strength of the organization); 14) corporate spirit of the organization.
At the same time, Fayol himself, unlike Taylor, did not consider management a privilege of only the top managers, but believed that every employee in his place should be a master, be able to manage or manage his work.
Thanks to the efforts L. Gyulika, J. Mooney And L.F. Urvika the theory of the “classical” school of F. Taylor and A. Fayol acquires relative integrity and completeness. These researchers re-developed three famous principles of industrial organization: specialization, span of control, and unity of command. If Taylor focused on achieving the goal (through organizing the work of performers), then in bureaucratic models of labor organization - on the efforts expended on maintaining the very functioning of the organization (through administrators). Subsequently, bureaucratic models as forms of rational organization of work began to be subject to increasing criticism and self-criticism. Already in the 1930s. dissatisfaction with “classical” approaches became acutely evident, associated with the aggravation of socio-economic contradictions, when not only problems of labor organization, but also human (psychological) factors of work activity increasingly came to the fore.
An important area of management sociology is the concept of “ human relations”, which examine factors of job satisfaction, leadership, cohesion (E. Mayo, A. Maslow, etc.). Subsequently, all this was developed in the concepts of “labor enrichment”, “humanistic challenge”, in the doctrine of “quality of working life”, in the concepts of “humanization of work”, where the psychological factors of work came to the fore. Particular attention should be paid to the theories of work motivation (A. Maslow, W. Reif, F. Herzberg, D. McGregor).
The development of the concept of “human relations” began with the famous Hawthorne experiments, conducted back in 1927 – 1932. at one of the Hawthorne factories in the suburbs of Chicago, where various factors of labor productivity were studied. At the first stage of these experiments, it was found that the results of the work of female workers (assemblers of electrical products) depend not only on the level of lighting, but also on other factors, such as the form of control over their activities, as well as their awareness of the fact that the lighting is changing.
At the second stage, in 1928, a psychologist from Harvard University joined these studies Elton Mayo(1880 – 1949). The six female workers who assembled electric relays participating in the experiments were placed in a separate room, equipped to vary the illumination, and their wages were set higher than for all other female workers. In addition, they were allowed to communicate more freely than was customary during work, which contributed to the establishment of closer relationships between them. Free lunches and work breaks were introduced, and overall work time was reduced, which helped reduce fatigue. The labor productivity of the assemblers of the experimental group grew and outstripped the indicators of the work of the assemblers of the general workshop. At this stage, a paradoxical fact was discovered: the achieved high labor productivity remained consistently high even after all innovations were canceled. This fact contradicted the idea that external organizational and object influences on work act automatically and are the main determinants of professional behavior. A survey of female workers suggested that the labor productivity of female workers in the experimental group is influenced by the relationships that have developed between the assemblers and the special relationship with the manager (in particular, less strict external control over work). It was concluded that improved working conditions are not the main driver of increased productivity, and the research hypothesis was put forward that labor productivity is influenced by management methods and improved relationships.
The third stage of the research consisted of conducting a massive survey of workers about their attitude towards work. As a result of a survey of more than 20 thousand people who worked in the company, it became clear that the attitude of employees to work and the associated labor productivity depended on the employees themselves, as well as on their relationships with management and in the work group.
The fourth stage of research was aimed at identifying the influence of work colleagues on labor productivity. The research was carried out at the bank alarm production site, where labor was paid by the piece. The original hypothesis was that those who work faster than others will stimulate the productivity of others. The hypothesis was not confirmed, because in fact, faster workers slowed down the pace of work so as not to go beyond the standards established by the group. Thus, the previously known fact of deliberately restraining labor productivity in order to prevent a reduction in prices was recorded. Having collected extensive empirical material about people's attitudes toward work, scientists have realized that a worker's standard of output is determined not by his conscientiousness or physical abilities, but by the pressure of the group, which establishes the position and status of everyone who is part of it. In the last series of experiments, where Mayo identified the influence of leadership style and the structure of interpersonal relationships on productivity, the assumption was confirmed that people's social and professional behavior is only a function of certain group norms.
As a result of the Hawthorne experiments, published in the works of E. Mayo and others in the 1930s, a new direction in management emerged, focused on the study and rationalization of human relations among production workers, the study of their work motivation, job satisfaction, and the connection between motivation and labor productivity. A working person began to be viewed not simply as a performer of rationalized work methods (as F. Taylor assumed), but as a personality, a subject of labor, whose behavior is determined by consciousness and motives. Personal and socio-psychological determinants of professional behavior were the subject of research along with the influence of environmental factors and the state of body functions of workers. A New Look on the worker and his work activity, forms of labor organization (not only individual work, conveyor belt, as was the case in Henry Ford’s factories, but also joint group forms) led to the identification of a humanistic approach in the scientific management of the “human relations” school. This direction of management was the object of interest of representatives of humanistic psychology in the United States, which developed in the 1950s. (K. Levin, A. Maslow, D. McGregor, K. Argiris, R. Likert, F. Herzberg, V. Vroom, D. McClelland, etc.).
Based on the approaches of E. Mayo, Abraham Maslow(1908 – 1970) proposed the principle of ascending needs, which, in his opinion, largely determined the motivation of the work itself: 1) physiological and sexual needs; 2) existential needs (for security, stability, including in relation to one’s work); 3) social needs (for affection, belonging to a team, the need for joint work); 4) the need for prestige (career growth, status, respect); 5) higher spiritual needs (self-expression through creativity).
To this we can add such additional needs as the desire for knowledge and aesthetic needs. If the need is not satisfied high levels, it is implemented at lower levels.
Fritz Herzberg identified two main groups of labor factors: work content and working conditions. At the same time, the classification of labor needs itself is close to that proposed by A. Maslow. Herzberg considers higher needs to be the need to achieve success, recognition, promotion, the work itself, the opportunity for creative growth, responsibility; to lower ones - company policy, technical supervision, relations with management, subordinates, colleagues, earnings, safety and job security, personal and family life, working conditions and status. According to Herzberg, inferior factors do not have positive motivational power.
Douglas McGregor proposed "Theory X" and "Theory Y". The first is based on an authoritarian leadership style (the main premise is that the person is lazy and needs to be forced to work). In Theory Y, good work is initially acceptable to the employee - this is positive attitude in relation to labor, which allows the employee to be involved in production management. The “Z-concept” (U. Ouchi) was also proposed, where the goal of working with personnel is the most efficient use of human resources, which is based primarily on the moral mechanisms of labor regulation (interest in the employee as an individual, attention to informal relationships and etc.).
At the initial stage of development of work psychology, its problems were included in a broader sphere psychotechnics – scientific movement, the content of which was the application of psychology to the solution of practical issues. The term “psychotechnics” was proposed in 1903 by the German psychologist W. Stern, who tried to apply his experimental psychological developments in real work conditions. In particular, he developed the most optimal layout of letters on a typewriter, taking into account human reaction time. Founder of psychotechnics, German psychologist Hugo Munsterberg(1863 - 1916) dealt with a variety of issues, which later became classics of labor psychology. Psychotechnics was characterized by a wide range of tasks to be solved: professional selection and professional consultation, professional education, rationalization of labor, combating occupational fatigue and accidents, creating psychologically based designs of machines and tools, mental hygiene, psychology of influence (posters, advertising, cinema, etc.), psychotherapy. Theoretically, psychotechnics was based on differential psychology. To solve many problems in psychotechnics, the test method was used. Psychotechnics received widespread development in the 1920s and 1930s.
Münsterberg understood the term “psychotechnics” as practical psychology, which predicts human behavior and studies how to influence this behavior in the interests of society. Psychotechnical specialists carried out personnel selection in the interests of the employer, advised clients on the choice of profession, studied the connection between productivity and quality of work and the mental characteristics of workers, worked to reduce the level of professional fatigue and prevent accidents, developed methods for assessing professional suitability, and studied the impact of advertising on the conscious and subconscious mind of a person. , developed systems for educating workers and uniting them into single teams with entrepreneurs, etc. This is not a complete list of the problems and interests of psychotechnicians at the beginning of the 20th century.
Of course, the most prominent place in psychotechnics was occupied by professionography and professional selection. One of the brightest pages is included in this section by G. Münsterberg. He developed test systems for the professional selection of telephone operators, carriage drivers, and naval navigators, prefacing his recommendations with a thorough analysis of these professions. Of particular interest is the installation proposed by Münsterberg for selecting tram leaders, which made it possible to evaluate the speed of action, on the one hand, and caution and vigilance, on the other. The installation consisted of a drum with a paper tape, which the subject rotated at a speed convenient for him. Numbers appeared in the slots of the drum, indicating certain elements of the road situation, and the subject had to name the letter index of the situation that he considered dangerous. The integral indicator of success combined both the sign of speed and the sign of error-freeness. Münsterberg wrote that he sought to reproduce the psychological essence of the profession of a counselor, i.e., saying modern language, simulate reality. Naturally, this approach allowed him to achieve significant reliability of forecasts, the number of accidents (and losses of the tram company) decreased sharply, and the popularity of psychotechnics increased noticeably.
However, works like the one described above were the exception rather than the rule in the psychotechnical solution to the problem of professional selection. The main drawback of psychotechnics was the mechanical understanding of the ability to act as a set of properties, unchangeable and unrelated to each other. To diagnose abilities, a set of short-term tests was used - tests that provided very incomplete information about certain mental properties. In the historical market conditions of the early 20th century, where labor supply always foreshadows demand, the goals of professional selection began to be supplemented, and in some cases completely distorted, by political goals (Münsterberg himself adhered to the principle of freedom from politics). The selection was carried out not so much according to the criterion of a person’s psychological suitability for work, but rather according to the principle of his political reliability. Numerous professional selection services and professional consultation offices in many cases became a kind of instrument to pacify workers, a means of racial and political discrimination.
Nevertheless, the desire of psychology to go beyond the boundaries of scientific laboratories and to feel a real connection with practice was at one time a positive phenomenon that aroused interest in it in all countries. Special magazines were published and international psychotechnical congresses were held. However, in the 1930s. psychotechnics actually ceased to exist and was revived only a few decades later as work psychology. As the main reason for the crisis that psychotechnics has experienced, researchers cite the absolutization of the objective, causal method: “The object method, which ignores the integrity of the individual and the role of conscious and semantic regulation of behavior, turned out to be ineffective in solving the problems of professional consultation (because motives and emotional preferences are powerful levers of compensation functional defects, and therefore predicting professional success and satisfaction with the profession is impossible only at the level of diagnosis and prognosis of the individual’s functional capabilities). The same can be said regarding the problem professional achievements, illuminating the functions of the body, but ignoring the conscious-volitional sphere of the subject of labor” (O.G. Noskova).
In addition to this, they also name a reason such as the inability of many psychologists to go beyond the scope of psychological science itself and to implement the idea of an integrated, cultural approach to the study of work as the most important (if not key) element of culture (N.S. Pryazhnikov, E.Yu. Pryazhnikova ).
1.3. History of Russian labor psychology
In our country, psychotechnics as a means of practical application of psychological knowledge experienced a period of intensive development in the 1920s. Psychotechnical laboratories appeared in Moscow, Leningrad, Kazan, Kharkov, and other cities during this period. Work on the study of professions is being carried out widely, and professional selection is being carried out.
The emergence and development of psychotechnics in the USSR is associated with the creation in 1921 (on the direct orders of V.I. Lenin) of the Central Institute of Labor (CIT) headed by A.K. Gastev. Also in 1921, the 1st All-Russian Conference on the Scientific Organization of Labor took place, where V.M. was the chairman. Bekhterev. By 1923, there were about 60 organizations in Soviet Russia studying labor-related problems. In 1927, the All-Russian Psychotechnical Society was created. The journal “Psychotechnics and Psychophysiology” is published (since 1932 – “Soviet Psychotechnics”).
Along with the use of traditional professional selection, Soviet psychotechnology has achieved a number of undoubted achievements. Schemes and methods of professionography were developed that have not lost their significance to this day. Research was carried out on the dynamics of performance and fatigue depending on a number of factors, and the process of mastering skills was studied. In the works of domestic psychotechnicians (I.N. Spielrein, S.G. Gellershtein, A.K. Gastev, A.P. Boltunov, A.I. Shcherbakov, V.V. Chebyshev, A.F. Zhuravsky, N.A. Bernshtein, B.M. . Teplova, etc.) thoughts were expressed about the variability of abilities, about the possibility of compensating some properties with others, the labor method of studying professions was developed and implemented, issues of scientific organization and stimulation of labor were discussed, the characteristics of labor movements and “biological attitudes” to the labor movement were studied, problems were considered interaction between man and technology, laid the foundations for understanding the individual style of work, etc.
Domestic psychotechnics, as noted by V.M. Bekhterev, has as its goal “the rational use of human energy in work.” It is necessary to create such conditions and such a working environment that, “while ensuring the maximum possible production, at the same time would not only protect the human personality from unnecessary wear and tear, but would also be accompanied by conditions that guarantee proper development personality of workers" (cited from: History of Soviet labor psychology. Texts / Edited by V.P. Zinchenko, V.M. Munipov, O.G. Noskova. M.: Moscow University Publishing House, 1983. P. 62).
In 1926, in the psychotechnical laboratory of the Institute of Occupational Safety and Health under the leadership of S. G. Gellerstein, a scheme for a comprehensive description and analysis of the objective and subjective aspects of professional work was developed, which was an attempt to combine the psychophysiology of the worker and external conditions labor and the study of the worker in the general system of his relationships with the external environment. One of the parts of this scheme was a professiogram, which has not lost its significance in modern labor psychology.
Department of Psychotechnics of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute named after. A.I. Herzen in 1932, a profile of a psychotechnician was compiled. It was intended to identify specific areas of the psychotechnician’s future work, to establish his functions, to characterize the requirements for the psychotechnician as a manager in the field of psychotechnics, etc. In all areas of activity, the psychotechnician, after graduating from a university, had to work as a manager or researcher at a psychotechnical office or laboratory. This position required not only special knowledge and skills, but also organizational skills, as well as good orientation in related fields. The profile of the psychotechnician also included a description of the functions and content of work at each site.
The following main problems and directions of research in domestic labor psychology and psychotechnics in 1920–1930 are identified. (according to O.G. Noskova): a) methodological developments (L.S. Vygotsky, V.M. Bekhterev, V.N. Myasishchev, A.K. Gastev, N.A. Bernshtein, S.G. Gellershtein, A.I. Rosenblum and others); b) development of new methods for studying professions (I.N. Shpilrein, M.A. Yurovskaya, etc.); c) development and improvement of labor skills and abilities (S.G. Gellershtein, A.A. Tolchinsky, Yu.I. Shpigel, L.I. Seletskaya, V.V. Chebyshev, K.K. Platonov, etc.); d) rational use of personnel (M.Yu. Syrkin, A.I. Rosenblum, A.P. Shushakov, O.P. Kaufman, A.P. Boltunov, A.I. Shcherbakov, N.Vigdorchik, etc.); e) problems of industrial injuries and accidents (A.I. Kolodnaya, R.I. Pochtarev, P.V. Novikov, D.I. Reytynbarg, S.S. Valyazhnikov, etc.); f) the problem of fatigue and performance (A.A. Ukhtomsky, S.G. Gellerstein, A.A. Neyfakh, K.H. Kekcheev, N.A. Epple, etc.).
In 1936, a decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks was issued “On pedagogical perversions in the system of the People’s Commissariat for Education,” which sharply criticized, among other things, psychotechnics. Over the next three years, research on psychotechnics was curtailed, organizational structures were liquidated, publications on this topic were destroyed, and many psychotechnicians were repressed. For many years, the study of the psychology of work activity was suspended, and scientific information exchange with foreign scientists was interrupted.
Domestic studies of labor activity resumed in the 1960s. and were very active until the end of the 1970s. New names have appeared: I.Ya. Boyko, K.M. Gurevich, V.Ya. Dymersky, V.P. Zinchenko, A.E. Klimov, B.F. Lomov, E.A. Mileryan, D.A. Oshanin, D.Yu. Panov, V.D. Shadrikov and many others. A characteristic feature of the new period in the development of domestic labor psychology was the shift of attention to general theoretical issues, while applied research concentrated on the field of engineering psychology and special areas (for example, vocational training, space psychology, legal psychology, etc.). At this time, issues related to the study of the employee’s personality come to the fore. Research on motivation and organization of the labor process, and work management, predominates. The concept of scientific organization of labor, the foundations of which were laid by A.K. Gastev, is gaining great popularity. The supporters of this concept considered their task to be the development of ways to form adequate motives for work, streamline the processes of goal setting and decision-making in work, improve systems of cognitive actions, and study the mechanisms of formation of subjective reflection.
In the 1970s Four main areas of research into work activity have been formed: a) psychophysiological, concentrating the study of functional states in work, such as performance, stress, fatigue, monotony; b) engineering-psychological, within the framework of the “man-machine” system, the development of system-technical and psychological principles for designing the operator’s activities was carried out, taking into account the psychological support of human reliability; c) study of the reliability of control systems; development of optimal work schedules, standardization of workload, organization of control and many others practical questions labor psychology were a priority for this area; d) career guidance, which combined work on vocational training, professional selection and certification system.
This period is characterized by active development of the methodological foundations of labor psychology. Works by B.F. Lomova, V.F. Rubakhina, V.D. Shadrikova, V.A. Bodrova, D.A. Oshanina, A.A. Krylova, N.D. Zavalova, V.A. Ponomarenko, E.A. Klimov made it possible to identify the priority position of the subject in the “man-machine” system and bring the problem of labor optimization to a new level. Ideas and concepts were developed about the systemic organization of the subject of labor, about the structural processing of information by the operator, about the systemogenesis of labor, about the individual style of work, etc. In parallel with the study of the system and subject of labor itself, there was an active development of a specific methodological framework, methodological approaches, research programs, diagnostic tests and specific techniques for studying the specifics of the psyche in labor activity.
The following years were marked by the development of powerful scientific and educational centers actively involved in the problems of occupational psychology. Among them are the departments of occupational psychology at Leningrad and Moscow universities, the faculty of psychology at Yaroslavl University, research laboratories at the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences and a number of others. In these structural divisions, teams of scientists have been formed to develop various scientific areas.
Today, work psychology is a science that solves various applied problems, such as selecting candidates for vacancies, development of vocational training and retraining programs, design of means of presenting information, planning of organizational changes, psychological problems interactions between subjects of labor and behavior in the organization and many others.
1.4. Methods of occupational psychology
The success of work psychology research is largely determined by the development of the methodological apparatus. The development of specific research methods is based on methodological principles based on the theoretical principles of science. Any research method always bears the stamp of one or another theory, which determines both the choice of the object of research and the methods of deciphering the results obtained.
From the point of view of methodological analysis, three levels are distinguished: 1) general methodology - a general philosophical approach, a general way of understanding the phenomena of reality; 2) special methodology - a set of methodological principles applied in a given field of knowledge; 3) specific research methods, techniques and procedures associated with research practice.
Philosophy reveals the universal laws of development of nature, society and knowledge, and establishes the relationship between these laws. Thus, philosophy provides a general method for systematizing knowledge and plays a methodological role in creating a unified picture of the world, i.e. It is philosophy that is the theory of the universal. However, philosophical principles cannot be applied directly in psychological research: they are refracted through the principles of a special methodology. Specific methods and procedures of psychological research depend on the methodological principles of psychology. Any psychological research is built on the basis of general methodological principles. The effectiveness of research is determined by the correct relationship between methodology, research methods and techniques.
General psychological and special principles of labor psychology. A briefly formulated theory of psychology, reflecting its regularity, summarizing its past experience, tested by practice and time, not having counterfactuals and becoming the initial requirement for further research and construction of its further theories, is reflected in the principles of psychology, equally applicable to all branches of psychological knowledge, including including for the psychology of work. The principles of psychology are associated with the concepts of “psychological regularity” and “law of psychology”. A pattern is an objectively existing, repeatable cause-and-effect relationship of certain phenomena during their interaction, which, if studied well enough, is reflected in the formulation of the law.
A number of principles represent a refraction in psychology of the general laws of dialectics. So, principle of determinism reveals the causality of mental phenomena: some mental phenomena are caused by other mental and social phenomena or have physiological causes. In accordance with development principle the psyche is in constant development, and the characterization of a mental phenomenon is possible with the simultaneous clarification of its features in this moment, history of occurrence and prospects for change. The principle of development is inextricably linked with the principle of socio-historical conditioning consciousness, and therefore personality and activity. IN the principle of historicism the requirement of dialectical logic to analyze any concept in the unity of its logical and historical aspects is fulfilled. The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity It can be briefly formulated as follows: consciousness is active, and activity is conscious. This principle is being approached the principle of unity of personality and activity And the principle of unity of consciousness and personality. The last three principles can be combined into one the principle of unity of personality consciousness and activity, which is formulated as follows: consciousness as the highest integral form of mental reflection, personality, which is a person as a carrier of consciousness, activity as a form of interaction between a person and the world, in which a person achieves a goal, exist, manifest themselves and are formed in their trinity, determined by interactions with their changing causality - investigative connections. In other words, activity is a form of activity of consciousness, consciousness is the result of human behavior and activity, consciousness forms the internal plan of human activity, changing the content of activity contributes to the formation of a qualitatively new level of consciousness. According to system-structural principle any mental phenomenon, taken as a whole and understood as a system, has its elements united into substructures, and this whole, its substructures and elements are interconnected by diverse interactions.
As mentioned above, the basis for the analysis of the mental activity of the subject of labor is the idea that the uniqueness of a person’s mental functions is determined by the characteristics of his objective activity. The highest mental functions of a professional form, in the words of the outstanding Russian physiologist A.A. Ukhtomsky, a functionally mobile organ that relies on previously established functional ensembles and becomes maximally adapted to the professional tasks performed. In other words, there is a natural connection between a task (which is understood as a goal set in specific conditions, when using certain means) and the actions to complete it by a person. L.S. Vygotsky wrote about it this way: “The unity of all processes that make up the highest form is formed on the basis of two points: firstly, the unity of the task facing a person, and, secondly, those means that dictate the entire structure of the behavioral process.” .
In their structure and mechanisms of regulation, actions are united - be they external actions or actions performed by a person on the internal plane, in terms of consciousness. The idea of a unified structure of external and internal mental actions was developed in Russian activity psychology, especially in the works of A.N. Leontyev. There is a limited number of basic types of actions and the mental functions that support them. Having learned to identify in an employee’s activities the types of tasks he performs and the actions corresponding to them, one can learn to judge the uniqueness of the profession’s requirements for the employee’s psyche - in this way, activity principle explanations of the uniqueness of mental functions of representatives of different professions.
Currently, the theoretical and methodological basis of labor psychology includes, in addition to the activity approach indicated above, the following special psychological principles and approaches: an anthropocentric approach to the analysis and optimization of “man-machine” systems (B.F. Lomov); systems approach to solving engineering and psychological problems (B.F. Lomov); ergonomic principles of design and operation of equipment (V.P. Zinchenko); the principle of “turning on” the operator (A. A. Krylov); structural-heuristic concept of layer-by-layer processing of information by the operator (V.F. Rubakhin); functional-algorithmic approach to activity analysis (G.M. Zarakovsky); structural-psychological concept of analysis and multi-level mutual adaptation of man and machine (V.F. Venda); the concept of the genesis of the psychological system of activity (V.D. Shadrikov); the concept of the psychological structure of combined activities and the structural-dynamic approach to the professional selection of operators (V.A. Bodrov); the concept of taking into account the “human factor” when creating technology (V.A. Ponomarenko, N.D. Zavalova); the active operator principle and the concept of mental image (N.D. Zavalova, B.F. Lomov, V.A. Ponomarenko); theoretical provisions of the system of self-regulation of functional states (L.G. Dikaya), etc.
Methodological approaches to occupational psychology. Occupational psychology as a branch of psychological science uses the entire arsenal of general psychological methods, filling them with specific content determined by the characteristics of the object and the goals of the study. In addition to general psychological methods, such as observation, experiment, test, survey method, occupational psychology uses a number of specific techniques for studying human behavior in working conditions: the method of expert assessments; labor method; method of analysis of technical documentation; “photo” of the working day; operational algorithmic and operational-structural description of work activity; collective discussion method; compilation method individual characteristics; method of analyzing errors and records in work; critical incident method; method of analyzing biographies and autobiographies; psychosemantic methods.
There are several classifications of work psychology methods. The generalized classification includes two large categories of methods: a group of non-experimental methods, which is a targeted study of professional activity in natural conditions, and a group of experimental methods, which includes a targeted study of activity in specially organized conditions for its implementation. The first group consists of two main methods - the observation method and the survey method - and a number of additional methods and auxiliary means. The second group includes an experiment in two of its varieties: laboratory and natural (industrial) experiment, as well as a test method.
Observation. Among non-experimental methods, observation occupies a special place and is an integral part of any type of activity of an occupational psychologist. In the process of observation, the psychologist receives information about a wide variety of manifestations of work behavior: about channels for obtaining information, about the loading of analyzers, about environmental conditions, about communicative processes at work, etc. Observation is a purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena, the results of which are recorded by the observer.
The following types of observation are distinguished.
1. Depending on the observer’s position, they differentiate open And hidden observation. Open observation takes place in conditions where the observed person is aware of the presence of unauthorized persons. At the same time, the behavior of a person who knows that he is being watched may change. Behavior changes significantly if a person knows for what purpose he is being observed. Covert surveillance is carried out through a glass wall that allows light to pass in one direction, as well as using a hidden camera. The use of this type of observation is associated with a certain ethical problem.
2. Depending on the activity of the observer, there may be included And not included observation. In the first case, the observer is included in a certain social situation and analyzes the event “from the inside”; he acts as a member of the observed group. In non-participant observation, the researcher observes from the outside.
3. Depending on the quantity and completeness of the observed facts, they distinguish solid And selective observation. Regular observation over a certain period, during which all manifestations of a person’s mental activity are recorded, is called continuous. During selective observation, any one mental phenomenon is recorded.
4. Depending on the duration and chronological organization, they distinguish long-term(longitudinal) and short-term observation. Long-term observation is carried out when studying a mental phenomenon over several hours, days, and sometimes several years. Long-term observation of an employee during the working day shows a change in work behavior under the influence of fatigue. Short-term observation can be periodic or single and limited to several hours, days, weeks.
5. Based on the location of the object of perception, they distinguish external And internal observation. External observation is a way of collecting data about another person by observing him from the outside; it allows you to describe the actions, techniques and movements of the employee, their compliance with normative goals. Methods of operating tools and materials, emotional reactions and communication processes are also subject to external observation. With internal observation, or self-observation, the researcher observes himself, his sensations, experiences, changes occurring in his mental activity.
6. Based on the time of interpretation of the observed phenomena, the observation is differentiated with delayed interpretation And operational observation. In the first case, the explanation of observed psychological facts is carried out after the process of their perception. In the second, interpretation is carried out during the perception of psychological facts that influence operational decision-making (for example, during psychological counseling).
The above classification of observations is conditional and reflects only their most significant features. Due to the specific nature of each type of observation, it should be applied where it can provide the most useful results. Usually, observation is carried out according to a specific plan, since it is quite difficult to organize the perception of all elements of the labor process. It is expected to isolate individual elements from real activities, which are then subjected to observation, to draw up a clear program and plan of observation, and to record its results. An important principle of observation is a comparative approach, which involves studying the behavior of people of varying degrees of success and with different work experience, identifying the sequence of techniques of different people when performing the same operations. This allows us to find out the reasons for success in work and mastering a profession, and clearly identify the psychological structure of activity.
The disadvantages of the observation method include the inaccessibility of some very important elements of professional activity to direct perception or their masking. For example, it is quite difficult to identify during direct observation the decision-making process of a surgeon when performing an operation or a psychologist in the process of providing them with surgery. psychological assistance a person in an emergency situation. This increases the amount of subjectivity when the observer interprets external manifestations of professional behavior.
The disadvantages of the observation method also include the large amount of time required due to the passivity of the observer (waiting position). In the process of observation, it is impossible to control the situation, to intervene in the course of events without distorting them, and it is also difficult to foresee when something important will appear from the point of view of the problem under study. In addition, the impossibility of repeated observation of identical facts, as well as the fusion of observed factors with associated phenomena and many unaccounted conditions significantly complicate generalization and identification of patterns in the functioning of the psyche of the subject of labor. The results obtained and their explanation depend on the experience, scientific views, qualifications, interests, and performance of the observer, which may affect the objectivity of the interpretation and conclusions.
To increase the objectivity and accuracy of observation, a number of additional techniques and methods are used, which primarily relate to recording the results of professional activities. The most common among them are photographs of the working day, timekeeping, and analysis of the products of labor activity.
Working day photo is a recording of the time and sequence of actions, changes in work and rest schedules, forced pauses in work, etc. Methods for recording parameters when organizing this method can be different - from direct accompaniment of the employee by a psychologist and observation of his behavior to the use of telemetric equipment. The use of photography and video allows you to record the actions and movements of an employee during the performance of his main activity, facial expressions, and routes of movement during work.
The results of photographs of the working day are recorded in the form of graphs, which gives a clear idea of the alternation of work and rest during the working day, the ratio of main and auxiliary functions and the specific weight of each of them in the structure of activity. Using this technique, you can also obtain data on the intensity of work at different job positions, and on the real forms of professional behavior of people.
Timing- this is a measurement of the time of labor operations, it allows you to determine their duration, frequency of repetition at certain intervals, and the intensity of the labor process. Psychological timing is carried out within the framework of a psychological analysis of activity in order to optimize it and properly organize industrial training.
Analysis of labor products can be a significant addition to the direct observation method. These can be both material, documented products of activity (products of industrial and construction production, agriculture, tools and devices, documents, results of visual and graphic work, texts, etc.), and functional (procedural) products of activity (verbal products of employees in the form of speeches, reports; as well as behavioral manifestations of employee activity). A variant of this method is error analysis, malfunctions, accidents and emergencies, which makes it possible to reveal the psychological characteristics of professions that place increased demands on the psychological characteristics of the employee, and the specifics of the so-called dangerous professions.
Labor method. Self-observation in work psychology comes in two forms: professional self-report and participant observation. In the first case, the psychologist invites the specialist to think out loud during his activities, reciting each operation, each observation of the labor process. This method allows the employees themselves to pay attention to those elements of the activity that they had not previously paid attention to, which has a positive impact on the success of its implementation. In the second case, the psychologist himself becomes a student and, starting to study the profession, improves in it more and more. Such knowledge of the profession from the inside allows the psychologist to trace the process of mastering professional activity and the difficulties encountered along the way. This method is called the labor method in psychology. .
In Russian labor psychology, this method began to be developed in the 1920s. famous domestic psychotechnician I.N. Spielrein. The essence of the labor method lies in the combination, in the person of a psychologist, of a researcher who is able and willing to describe professional work, and a worker who knows this work. After each day of training, the researcher writes a protocol of the working day according to standardized scheme, which includes the following elements.
1. Description of the working day. It is a diary of all the experiences and incidents of the working day, an impartial account of events.
2. Indications of what exactly in professional work seems most difficult and least amenable to study.
3. Logging the phenomena of the exercise. In particular, under this heading the phenomena are recorded automation, those. such a change in the labor process in which labor movements that previously required conscious attention now occur automatically. This point of the protocols is especially valuable in order to take into account the comparative exercise performance of various psychological qualities, as well as the symptoms of the exercise (I.N. Spielrein).
4. Along with exercise, which is expressed objectively in an increase in the amount of work and in its improvement, fatigue is recorded. The subjective manifestation of fatigue, which is called tired, consists of pain in individual organs (working muscles, head, eyes, etc.), a drop in interest, increasing apathy, uncertainty, or the loss of already achieved automation. As phenomena characteristic of the state of fatigue, one can point out in production professions erroneous movements or the fact that processes that occur completely automatically in a normal state require intense attention or conscious repeated control in a tired state to eliminate feelings of uncertainty (I.N. Spielrein ).
5. Finally, the last point of the protocols is an indication of those defects in the organization of work and in instruction that are noticed by workers. This includes, first of all, the details of the work regime - unsuitability of work premises, incorrect lighting, incorrect seating of workers, defects in the distribution of labor itself (excessive load of workers with extraneous work, lack of proper distribution of labor, irrational arrangement of machines), as well as comments regarding “irregularities” in the learning process itself - the instructor’s incompetence, teaching students incorrect work practices, etc. (I.N. Spielrein).
According to I.N. Spielrein, the labor method has advantages, the main one of which is the ability to combine in one person a worker who knows professional work and a psychologist who is able and willing to describe it. This leads to other advantages of this method, such as: a) understanding by experimenters who compose tests and select people to participate in experiments of individual phases of the labor process; b) the opportunity, through labor experience, as well as self-observation, to obtain that basic information about the features of labor processes that one cannot hope to obtain from a worker through a survey; c) the ability to make self-observation objective, so that when the study of a profession is repeated by different observers at different enterprises, the same results are obtained; d) the opportunity to study a profession not only cross-sectionally (i.e., what is required of experienced workers), but also longitudinally (i.e., in the process of mastering professional skills); e) the possibility of comparative professions based on comparison of the profession being studied with a number of professions already studied, etc.
However, the labor method also has a number of disadvantages. Firstly, it is applicable only to professions that are not difficult to master and do not require a lot of time to learn. When studying other professions, we can only talk about mastering some elements of activity in the form of labor tests. Secondly, recording the results of the method is associated with certain difficulties. If the recording of results is carried out at the end of the working day from memory, when the researcher is in a state of fatigue, this may adversely affect its quality. Recording data during the execution of an activity disrupts the natural process of its occurrence.
Despite these disadvantages, the labor method can provide very valuable material, which has been confirmed by domestic research.
Conversation. Survey methods in occupational psychology are traditionally presented in two forms: oral (conversation, interview) and written survey (questionnaire). Conversation is one of the widely used methods in work psychology and is used to cover a wide range of problems. It is absolutely necessary when studying the individual structure of work, identifying professionally important qualities of an employee, clarifying the characteristics of motivation for work in a given specialty and functional states, personal professional plans of students when choosing a profession or changing it in adults, and assessing jobs.
The conversation can be standardized And non-standardized. In a standardized conversation, precisely formulated questions are asked to all respondents; in a non-standardized conversation, questions are posed in free form.
How scientific method the conversation must meet a number of requirements. First of all, it is necessary to formulate the purpose of the conversation, draw up a plan in the form of target questions, prepare “supporting” questions, determine ways to register answers (tape recorder, recording forms, coding of answers, symbols). When conducting a conversation, preference is given to so-called projective questions, as well as questions formulated in indirect and definitive forms that are as clear as possible to the interlocutor. In projective questions we're talking about not about the interlocutor himself, but about some other imaginary person, so questions of this kind do not cause tension and resistance in the interlocutor. At the same time, when answering them, the interlocutor projects his personality onto the situation and expresses his point of view.
The success of the conversation depends on the degree of its preparedness and on the sincerity of the answers given. A well-prepared conversation has a clear goal and plan, which are formulated and designed taking into account age and individual characteristics interlocutors. When preparing a conversation, you should also think about where and under what conditions it will take place. The conditions of the conversation should encourage the interlocutor to communicate, ensure confidentiality and be comfortable. The sincerity of the interlocutor's answers increases with his emotionally positive attitude towards the conversation, as well as in the absence of psychological barriers in the process of its conduct.
You can make contact at the beginning of the conversation by asking questions that are interesting to the interlocutor and have a positive emotional character for him. You should not start a conversation with questions that cause negative feelings in the interlocutor. If the interlocutor is active and sincere when answering questions, then the psychologist (or other specialist) conducting the conversation must from time to time reinforce this with words, gestures, facial expressions, pantomime and other available extra- and paralinguistic means to express agreement with what the interlocutor is saying, to approve , support him. You can’t rush your interlocutor; you need to give him the opportunity to speak out completely.
During the conversation, it is necessary to monitor the features speech behavior the interlocutor (the accuracy of formulated thoughts, the presence of reservations, the desire to avoid answering, pauses) and emotional reactions expressed by facial expressions, gestures and other non-verbal means of communication in order to confirm or refute the information received from the interlocutor. The psychologist should not express his confirmations and doubts out loud.
A mandatory requirement when conducting a conversation is that the psychologist guarantees all ethical principles of the study (confidentiality of the situation, maintaining professional secrets, respect for the client).
Registration of conversation data can be done both during the conversation and after its completion. The first method of registration can be used when analyzing people's interests, the influence of environmental conditions and other issues that do not deeply affect personal problems. In the case of individual counseling, this method is not recommended, so as not to cause in the client a negative attitude towards the conversation and reluctance to give sincere answers. And although it is associated with the loss of a certain amount of information, it is more justified from an ethical point of view. The use of audio and video technology, of course, significantly increases the accuracy of obtaining and storing information, but it gives rise to a number of ethical problems.
Questionnaire– another type of survey methods in occupational psychology. Questioning involves receiving written responses from respondents to pre-formulated questions, while the psychologist may not come into direct contact with employees. Questioning is carried out in cases where it is necessary to obtain data from large quantity people in short term. Questionnaires are used to determine the value orientations of employees and their attitudes towards the profession and individual elements of work; motives and factors influencing the choice of profession; significant aspects of professional activity; professionally important qualities. The survey can be carried out either in the presence of a psychologist or in absentia (when the questionnaire is filled out at home). The latter method is convenient because it does not distract the employee from completing his work. labor responsibilities and allows you to take a more thoughtful approach to answering questions.
To obtain reliable information using the survey method, proper organization of the study is necessary. It assumes: 1) the presence of an introductory article outlining the goals and objectives of the study and instructions for filling out the questionnaire; 2) correct formulation of questions; they must be clearly understood, relate to specific aspects of the employee’s behavior and activities, and not contain rarely used foreign words and highly specialized terms, not to be suggestive, to assume that all proposed answer options are equally likely to be chosen; 3) preparing a questionnaire that is easy to read, printed without blots or corrections, conveniently graphically designed with the relevant sections highlighted.
The selection of subjects for the survey must correspond to the goals and objectives of the study. It can be random, in which case the questionnaire is given to every worker at the enterprise, or carried out in accordance with certain criteria, when a certain contingent is selected (for example, young workers under 25 years old).
Compared to a conversation, which is characterized by protractedness and slow accumulation of data during mass surveys, questioning is more time-efficient, which ensures its widespread use in practice.
Method of expert assessments. This is one of the specific techniques of labor psychology used to study human behavior in working conditions, which involves interviewing specialists about certain elements of the work situation or the personality of a professional in order to draw a responsible conclusion. For example, an expert must make a conclusion about the psychological causes of an accident or about the personal characteristics of a schoolchild choosing a profession. It should be noted that the examination situation often goes beyond the scope of any one method and involves the use of a complex of them.
Method for generalizing independent characteristics. Expert assessment can be individual, when its subject is one person, or group. One of the types of group assessment is the method of generalization of independent characteristics. It is used to describe the professionally important qualities of a particular professional. Its essence lies in obtaining information about a person from various sources, which can be the heads of an organization or department, colleagues, subordinates, who, due to certain circumstances, know the specialist being studied well.
Experts of 5–7 people are asked to evaluate this or that personality trait on the proposed scale. At the same time, the assessment of each individual personality trait should be based on the system of vital indicators proposed by him, which are a description of typical situations in life and activity this person, in which this trait is manifested. The development of such a detailed list does not require special knowledge from experts; a psychological interpretation of their judgments is provided by a psychologist. The scores received from each expert are averaged by calculating the arithmetic mean score.
Critical Incident Method. Its essence is that psychologists conduct a survey of workers in the profession being studied, asking them to describe a critical situation at work and its outcome. An incident can be any observable and analyzable human activity, which allows us to draw certain conclusions about the employee based on the features of its implementation. An incident becomes critical if the purpose of the activity is clearly presented to the observer and the consequences of work behavior (successful, unsuccessful) are determined.
Each description must contain the following elements: 1) display of the professional situation and prerequisites for the employee’s behavior, specified in time and space; 2) an accurate reproduction of the employee’s actions, which are considered effective or ineffective for a given situation; consequences of the employee's behavior; 3) assessment of the dependence of results on the employee’s actions or on external reasons.
Researchers are accumulating a bank of such descriptions. The criterion for sufficiency is the appearance of no more than two or three essentially new plots for every 100 different situations. Next, cards with descriptions of situations are offered to experts for grouping according to the criterion of the causes of problems and the subjective factors of success in resolving them. The method has gained recognition in work on professional selection, vocational training, in drawing up professional training programs, in work on personnel certification and other areas.
Anamnesis method. It involves collecting data on the history of the development of a specific individual as a subject of work activity and is usually used in professional counseling to determine the degree of stability of motives, to identify certain abilities and personal characteristics that are not directly observable, to make forecasts professional career personality. A psychologist studies a person’s biography, features of his mental and physical development, living conditions, and features of his professional path. The information basis of this method is the statements of the subject himself (subjective anamnesis), statements about him by other people and documents characterizing him (objective anamnesis). Documentary sources of anamnesis include a personal file, certification documents (diplomas of education, certificates of advanced training, certificates and certificates), insignia and awards for professional success, photographs, medical records, personal correspondence and diaries, results of professional activities, etc. This method is applicable to the problem of retrospective analysis of situations of choice of profession, professional reorientation, typology of professional career.
Method of analyzing biographies and autobiographies. If the subject of a psychologist’s research is professional values, motives, professional career options, and the dynamics of a person’s professional identity as they become professionalized, then published biographies and autobiographies of representatives of the professions being studied can serve as a useful tool. In addition, you can conduct a series of conversations with currently working professionals or older people who have already left their professional activities. In order for the collected material to make it possible to make representative generalizations that would reflect not only the unique professional fate of the respondent, but also something typical for the professional community, it is important to think through the method of sampling, the program of the conversation, the method of recording the material, the ways of its processing and interpretation.
Experimental methods. These include experiment and tests. An experiment is a method of collecting facts in specially created conditions that ensure the active manifestation of the studied mental phenomena. The experiment is characterized by the following features: a) the active position of the researcher himself: the experimenter can cause a mental phenomenon as many times as necessary to test the hypothesis; b) creation of a pre-thought-out artificial situation in which the property being studied is best manifested and can be more accurately and easily assessed.
The essence of the experiment is that the experimenter: a) varies certain factors, the influence of which on the phenomena of interest to him he wants to establish; b) registers changes in the phenomena of interest to him; c) controls external (side) variables.
The factor that is changed by the experimenter is called the independent variable. A factor that changes under the influence of another factor is called a dependent variable. An experimental hypothesis consists of an independent and dependent variable and the hypothesized relationship between them. The dependent variable is usually the subject of the study. To obtain more objective research data, it is necessary to ensure complete equality of all other conditions under which the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is studied. Only the independent variable should change. The reliability of the hypothesis being tested is achieved either by repeating experiments many times, or by using a sufficient number of subjects followed by mathematical processing of the data.
The results of each experiment are recorded in a protocol, which records general information about the subjects, the nature of the experimental task, the time of the experiment, the quantitative and qualitative results of the experiment, the characteristics of the subjects, their actions, speech, expressive movements, etc. are indicated.
The experiment can be laboratory or natural.
Laboratory experiment is a simulation of professional situations in a laboratory environment. Such a model allows you to establish precise control over variables, adjust the dosage, create the conditions necessary for the experiment, and repeat it repeatedly under the same conditions.
Modeling of integral activity in a laboratory experiment is typical for complex species labor (transport, energy systems) and involves the use of a variety of simulators.
Conducting a laboratory experiment at an enterprise requires a psychologist to carefully study the real situation, highlighting its main key points, general and specific features. The experimenter must have accurate information about the variables and factors under study, their grouping, know the method of conducting the experiment, study all possible errors that arise during its conduct, and the reasons for their occurrence.
The advantages of a laboratory experiment include the ability to create conditions that cause the necessary mental process, and to ensure strict accounting of the measurement of stimuli and responses, the possibility of repeating experiments and mathematical processing of the results.
Among the disadvantages of a laboratory experiment, the following can be identified: a) the operating conditions of the subjects do not correspond to reality; b) subjects know that they are the objects of research.
Natural laboratory experiment. To remove negative influence An experiment was developed for the subject under laboratory conditions, which is carried out in the natural conditions of a group, training workshop, etc. In other words, the employee is asked to perform his usual actions, manipulate familiar objects, tools, etc., and therefore the research conducted by the experimenter does not cause caution. An example of an experimental study is the study of employee behavior in situations of artificial deautomation to clarify the structure of work activity and the difficulties that arise in mastering it. The use of this technique is associated with the employee performing his functions in new conditions (for example, a new type of task is given) in order to remove automatism and expand the process of activity.
The main advantage of a natural experiment is that the experimental conditions are closer to life and natural conditions of activity. The disadvantage of a natural experiment is the need to obtain information in a short time to avoid disruption of the production process.
Laboratory and natural experiments can be stating, i.e. aimed at establishing the actual state and level of certain features of mental development at the time of the study, and formative, aimed at studying mental phenomena directly in the process of active formation of certain mental characteristics. If any new knowledge, skills, abilities are being taught, then the formative experiment becomes educational. If the formation of certain personality properties occurs, then the formative experiment is educating. A formative experiment requires the researcher to develop theoretical ideas about the parameters of the mental phenomena being formed, clearly plan the course of the experiment, and fully take into account various factors of reality that influence the occurrence of the mental phenomena being studied.
Test method. This method is used when studying the subject of labor. In domestic psychodiagnostics, three main approaches to the study of the psychological characteristics of a subject are proposed (and, accordingly, three groups of tests): objective, subjective and projective.
Objective approach involves diagnosing personality traits based on the results of performing certain tasks and the method of performing them. Tests that implement this approach are called objective. These include intelligence tests and tests of abilities, achievements, some personality tests.
In occupational psychology, specially designed intelligence tests are used for the purposes of career guidance (the “Mental Abilities Test” method, which is a Russian version of R. Amthauer’s structure of intelligence test) and batteries of professional abilities, among which the most famous are OAVT and VAT. Batteries of professional abilities are aimed at diagnosing the complex of abilities necessary to master many professions. Unlike intelligence tests, the validation of these tests is focused on professional criteria, and not on the success of training.
Objective personality tests include action tests and situational tests. In occupational psychology, situational tests are used to a greater extent for the purposes of professional selection. In particular, a type of such tests is the situation of a group without a leader, designed to assess organizational abilities and leadership traits. In such tests, a task is given that requires a joint effort, where no leader is appointed and no one is assigned responsibility.
Subjective approach involves the diagnosis of properties based on a person’s self-assessment and self-description of his behavior and personal characteristics. This group of tests includes a wide variety of personality tests - questionnaires, which are divided into tests that assess personality traits and tests that diagnose people's interests and attitudes. In professional psychodiagnostics, both general psychological personality tests (16-factor questionnaire by R. Cattell, questionnaire by G. Eysenck) and specially developed tests for the professional sphere are used. An example of interest questionnaires is the differential diagnostic questionnaire by E.A. Klimova.
Specifics projective approach is to conduct a diagnosis based on an analysis of the characteristics of the subject’s interaction with seemingly neutral, impersonal material onto which the subject projects his attitudes, desires and personal qualities.
One of the main methods in occupational psychology is professionography– is a comprehensive method of studying and describing the content and structural characteristics of professions in order to establish the characteristics of the relationship between the subject of labor and the components of the activity (its content, means, conditions, organization) and its functional support. The description of professional activity is the first and most important stage of any research in occupational psychology. It is based on a comprehensive study of activities and a certain systematization of data. Thus, professionography represents both the first (descriptive) stage of the psychological analysis of activity and a comprehensive method of studying it, including the use of all known methods.
The main result of professionography as a method is the compilation of a professionogram - a documentary description of the socio-economic, production and technical, sanitary and hygienic, psychological and other features of the profession. A comprehensive analysis of the profession description includes the following elements: 1) production characteristics profession and its specialties; 2) assessment of the economic significance of the profession; 3) socio-psychological characteristics of the profession (prestige in society, features interpersonal interaction); 4) determining the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for successful professional work, especially those that determine professional skills, training time and promotion prospects; 5) sanitary and hygienic characteristics of working conditions with an emphasis on “occupational hazards”; 6) compiling a list of requirements for the employee’s health status and medical contraindications for this profession; 7) formulation of the requirements for the psychological characteristics of a person and the identification of professionally important qualities.
The main component of the professionogram - the psychogram - is a characteristic of the requirements imposed by the profession on the human psyche. The content and scope of the psychogram depend on the purpose of studying the profession. This may include professional selection, vocational training, rationalization of work and rest, and vocational guidance (for more details, see 4.4).
1.5. The place of occupational psychology in the system of sciences. Occupational psychology as a field of knowledge, a branch of science, an academic discipline and a profession
The place of occupational psychology in the system of sciences is determined by the position of psychology in the system of sciences, its relationships with the humanities, technical, social and natural sciences.
Psychology integrates the knowledge of all scientific disciplines that study humans. This largely determines its special position in the system of sciences. B.M. Kedrov placed psychology almost in the center of the “triangle of sciences,” moving it closer to philosophy and emphasizing the “ancestral connection” with the theory of knowledge. J. Piaget, polemicizing with Kedrov, placed psychology at the center of the “triangle,” emphasizing its global role in the holistic knowledge of the world and its multilateral connection with the totality of all scientific disciplines.
B.G. Ananiev examined the connections between psychology and other sciences in the context of the concept of complex human science he developed. Following Ananyev, the connections between psychology and other sciences were analyzed by B.F. Lomov. He identified a system of connections between psychology: 1) with the social sciences (through the branch of psychology - social psychology and related disciplines); 2) with the natural sciences (through psychophysics, comparative psychology and psychophysiology); 3) with medical sciences (through pathopsychology, medical psychology, neuropsychology and psychopharmacology); 4) with pedagogical sciences (through developmental psychology, educational and special psychology); 5) with technical sciences(via engineering psychology). According to Lomov, the differentiation of psychology is due to its relations with other sciences. He especially emphasized the relationship of psychology with philosophy and mathematics.
The relationship between occupational psychology and other sciences has its own specifics, determined by the object and subject of its study and their connection. Labor psychology, social psychology, labor sociology, history and other social sciences have common ground in solving the following problems: establishing patterns of development of a collective subject of activity, the influence of communication in the work collective and professional communication on the process and result of activity, studying the patterns of formation, development and functioning large groups, etc.
The connection between labor psychology and the natural sciences is due to the fact that a person studied as a subject of labor is a natural being, subject to laws natural world. When studying functional states, the dynamics of performance and fatigue, the dynamic characteristics of the subject of labor, his sensory-perceptual processes at work, psychosomatics, etc. Occupational psychology uses knowledge of medicine, physiology, anatomy, physics and other natural sciences. Labor psychology has a special connection with mathematics and cybernetics: psychology actively uses mathematical apparatus and cybernetic schemes to process material, build models of specific activities and optimize the labor process.
Labor psychology is connected with technical sciences through engineering psychology. The latter studies the objective laws of the processes of information interaction between man and technology with the aim of using them in the practice of designing, creating and operating “man-machine” systems. In engineering psychology, the main subject of labor is the operator, a person interacting with complex equipment through information processes.
Traditionally, the following main tasks of engineering psychology are distinguished: a) methodological: defining the subject and objectives of the study (i.e., clarifying the subject); development of new research methods; development of research principles; the establishment of engineering psychology in the system of human sciences (and in science in general); b) psychophysiological: study of operator characteristics; analysis of the operator’s activities; assessment of the performance characteristics of individual actions; study of operator states; c) systems engineering: development of principles for constructing elements of the “man – machine” system; design and evaluation of the man-machine system; development of principles for organizing the “man-machine” system; assessment of the reliability and efficiency of the “man-machine” system; d) operational: professional training of operators; organization of group activities of operators; development of methods to improve the performance of operators.
Separately, we can highlight the task of strengthening connections between engineering psychologists and related sciences: management, technical design, occupational health, cybernetics, ergonomics.
Through the problems of vocational training, labor psychology is also connected with the pedagogical sciences. Pedagogical psychology provides labor psychology with knowledge about the functioning and conditions for the development of professional activity at different stages of education, offers innovative strategies for vocational training, etc.
Thus, occupational psychology has close connections with many sciences. Nevertheless, the uniqueness of the subject and tasks of occupational psychology allows it to maintain the status of an independent science.
1.6. Basic sections of labor psychology. The concept of "ergonomics"
Labor psychology is a branch of psychological knowledge that solves many problems related to human labor activity. This set of tasks determines the specialization of knowledge in line with labor psychology and, accordingly, the identification of sections of labor psychology, among which we can conditionally identify the following main sections.
1. Traditional labor psychology, which studies the history of the development of knowledge about labor, the theoretical and methodological foundations of labor psychology, psychological characteristics of labor and specific professional activities, the identification of professionally important qualities, human development in work, professional crises and personality destruction in work, psychophysiological foundations labor, etc.
2. Engineering psychology, which studies the information interaction of a person with complex equipment, as well as various characteristics and functional states of the human operator.
3. Management psychology (organizational psychology), which studies the hierarchical relationships of workers in an organization, as well as the conditions for optimizing these relationships in order to increase labor productivity, personal development of workers and work teams.
4. Career guidance, which involves the following areas: vocational information, vocational advertising, vocational education, vocational diagnostics, vocational selection, vocational selection, assistance in the final choice of profession (decision making), moral and emotional support for the client, etc.
5. Vocational education: vocational training, more focused on the targeted formation of the personality of a professional and professional self-development of the subject of work, involving psychological and pedagogical support (or accompaniment) of a self-determined personality in work.
Also distinguished additional sections labor psychology, often formed at the junction of its main sections: psychophysiology of labor; occupational psychohygiene; psychological (and psychophysiological) aspects of labor rehabilitation; career guidance for people with disabilities; space psychology; psychology of legal activity; psychology of management, marketing, etc. (N.S. Pryazhnikov, E.Yu. Pryazhnikova).
In each section of labor psychology, its subject is also specified. If the subject of labor psychology in a broad sense is the subject of labor, then in engineering psychology the subject of labor is considered in relationships with complex technology (the “man-machine” system); in management psychology, the subject of labor is considered, included in various hierarchical production structures and relationships; in career guidance, the subject is a subject who self-determines in the world of professional work and in the “space” of personal meanings of work activity itself, etc.
The complex of sciences that study man as a subject of activity is very complex and heterogeneous. It changes depending on the objective characteristics of the activity that is the object of research. According to B.G. Ananyev, the general theory for studying the subject of activity is philosophy. The dialectic of the sensory and logical in the process of cognition, the structure of this process as a whole, the role of practice in the process of cognition - all this constitutes the fundamental problems of the theory of knowledge and dialectics.
The subject of labor and labor itself as a cultural phenomenon are studied by such sciences as industrial medicine, general theory technology, history of technology, technical aesthetics, physiology of labor processes, legal sciences, labor psychology, etc. Thus, labor psychology is only part of the diverse knowledge about labor. Psychology on its own is not able to fully understand such a global cultural phenomenon as work. This raises the problem of integrating the knowledge of various labor sciences.
To denote the general direction devoted to the study of labor activity, the term is used « ergonomics» How comprehensive study of a person in work at the intersection of different sciences, the study of the diverse system “man - team - machine - environment - society - culture - nature”, which is referred to as the “ergonomic system”. More specific areas of labor psychology are also studied by more specific systems: engineering psychology in its traditional version considers the “man-machine” system, organizational psychology studies the “person-collective (organization)” system or the “manager-subordinate” system, etc.
The term “ergonomics”, first proposed in 1921 by V.N. Myasishchev and V.M. Bekhterev, was not widely used at that time. In 1949, a group of English scientists led by K. Marell organized the Ergonomic Society, after which the term became widespread. Unfortunately, the idea of integrating the efforts of different specialists in the field of labor studies has never been fully realized, which indicates the complexity of this issue and the need to search for new approaches in this direction.
E.B. Morgunov gives a definition of the subject of ergonomics used in the domestic tradition: “The subject of ergonomics as a science is a comprehensive study of the patterns of interaction between a person (a group of people) and technical means, the subject of activity and the environment in the process of achieving the goals of the activity and with special preparation for its implementation. Ergonomics is both a scientific and a projective discipline.” However, according to N.S. Pryazhnikov and E.Yu. Pryazhnikova, such a definition significantly narrows the original understanding of ergonomics, where the subject was a working person (and not just a person in interaction with “technical means”).
1.7. Ergatic system, ergatic functions
As already mentioned, ergonomics is a science that combines the knowledge of all other sciences about labor and the subject of labor. Thus, the subject of ergonomics study is ergatic system, which is understood as the interaction of the subject and object of labor, in a more expanded form it is the system “man – machine – environment – society – culture – nature”.
E.A. Klimov identified the main ergatic functions, which are the basis for various types of labor and professional activities. The ergatic function is defined as “any reduction in the uncertainty of the connection of elements within the ergatic system and its connections with external circumstances, considered from the point of view of the purposes for which this system was created, i.e. this is any labor function (function of the ergatic system).”
The following main groups of ergatic functions are distinguished (according to N.S. Pryazhnikov, E.Yu. Pryazhnikova): a) spiritual production (building ideologies, education, art, science); b) production of orderliness of social processes (lawmaking, means mass media, planning - economics, management of large socio-economic and political systems); c) production of useful actions of service and self-service (life support of subjects of labor, organization of work activities, medical care, repair service, improvement of ergatic systems); d) material production (operational-gnostic: information processing, decision-making; operational-practical: organization of the workplace, organization of the social environment; operational self-organization of the subject of labor: transportation, management of means of labor, influence on objects of labor).
To organize the work of an occupational psychologist, it is important to highlight the main principle of his work, which is reflected in « golden rule» occupational psychology. « Golden Rule“is a rule for organizing the intercorrespondence of the elements of the system “man – object of labor – means of labor – environment”. Thus, if new requirements are introduced for a human worker, this must be compensated for in other elements of the ergatic system, for example, by improving working conditions or modernizing means of labor.
