What kingdoms of living organisms are distinguished in nature? What is the largest kingdom of living organisms. Questions and assignments. I. Organizational moment Classification of the kingdom of living nature species

№ Biology

Subject Division of kingdoms into groups.

Target: introduce students to the main kingdoms of living nature.

Tasks:

give initial ideas about the classification of living organisms and the kingdoms of living nature.

repeat and consolidate knowledge about the cell, the history of its discovery, the diversity of cells;

develop students’ verbal and logical thinking, ability to compare and analyze;

Alarmingly, the oldest trees, one hundred to three hundred years old, are dying, scientists warn in the latest Science. This phenomenon applies to forested landscapes, savannas, farms and even cities around the world. This appears to affect trees in most forest types,” said the paper’s lead author, Prof.

The fact that this is not good with old trees, Prof. Researchers have found that older trees are being killed en masse by fires, and in years without fires they are dying 10 times more often than before, most likely due to drought, warmer temperatures, logging, etc. Scientists have begun to look at this phenomenon around the world. Similar trends are observed in various geographical areas, such as California's Yosemite National Park, African savannas, Brazilian rainforests, temperate forests in Europe and boreal forests in the north.

continue to develop skills in working with the textbook, test tasks, reference diagrams;

To instill in students a caring attitude towards nature, the ability to listen to the teacher and their classmates.

Equipment: computer; projector; interactive board; multimedia presentation “Diversity of living organisms”, table “Development diagram flora”, table “Scheme of the development of the animal world”

The losses of large trees have also been clear in agricultural areas and in cities, where people are intensely trying to protect them. We are talking about the loss of the largest living organisms in the world, the largest angiosperms on Earth, organisms that play a key role in regulating and enriching our world, says Professor Bill Laurence from James Cook University.

He emphasizes that large, old trees play an important ecological role. There are ecosystems in which up to a third of all birds and animals live in the branches and hollows of these trees. These trees sequester enormous amounts of carbon and also help circulate water and nutrients from the soil. They work together to create vegetation strips that provide habitat for other organisms. They influence the local climate. Large trees provide food for many animals in the form of fruits, flowers, leaves and nectar, and birds and animals protect themselves in their cavities, such as the endangered Australian leader.

During the classes

I. Organizing time.

II. Repetition of covered material. Multimedia presentation “Diversity of living organisms

Today in class we continue to explore the diversity of living organisms, but before we continue our research, we need to remember what we already know about living organisms and highlight what we will need to work on.

The loss of trees could mean the extinction of such creatures, the researchers write. Old trees are declining so quickly due to direct cutting, harvesting for agricultural purposes, insect attacks or rapid climate change, estimates Prof.

Researchers are looking at the global loss of old trees in the context of the disappearance of large mammals, such as elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers or cetaceans. “As in many parts of the world, these large animals are disappearing, so we have growing evidence that old, large trees may be threatened in this way,” the authors of the publication warn.

For this purpose, I have prepared a quick survey, your task is to answer with a complete answer. Please, anyone who wants to show us their knowledge.

What are the most important characteristics of living organisms?

How are plants different from animals?

Why did botanists for a long time believe that mushrooms are plants?

Tell us about the most microscopic organisms.

What does taxonomy study?

Name the main divisions of plants and their representatives

What are taxonomists guided by when grouping organisms into different groups?

III. Learning new material. There are many classifications of living organisms. Let's get to know some of them.

1. Division of organisms into eukaryotes and prokaryotes. By the presence of a nucleus in cells.

2 . Teacher's story with examples of eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. Write the diagram in your notebook:

Prokaryotes are single-celled living organisms that do not (unlike eukaryotes) have a formed cell nucleus. These include ONLY bacteria and archaea.
For example: Escherichia coli (bacterium), gray anaerobic bacterium (archaea).

Eukaryotes are living organisms whose cells contain nuclei. All organisms except bacteria and archaea are nuclear (viruses and viroids are also not eukaryotes, but not all biologists consider them living organisms).
For example: cat, human, fish, cancer, fly, etc.)) In short, all fungi, animals, plants and protists (any protozoa)

All multicellular organisms are usually eukaryotes.

2. Characteristics of the kingdoms of living nature. Name, show, give explanations.

. Examples of organisms , which the students name. Write the diagram in your notebook.

The largest groups of life on Earth are organized into kingdoms. Let's see what kingdoms scientists have united into various shapes life.

***
Kingdom of bacteria (prokaryotes).

It combines microscopic (usually single-celled) organisms that do not have a nucleus in their cells. In addition to the bacteria themselves ( staphylococci, vibrios etc.) primitive unicellular algae are often included here - cyanea (or blue-green algae). Blue-green algae is one of the ancient forms life on Earth. They appeared, according to scientists, more than 2 billion years ago. They can only be called algae conditionally, due to the primitiveness of their structure.
Kingdom of protists (eukaryotes).

Unlike representatives of the kingdom of bacteria, the kingdom of protists is represented by microorganisms that have a nucleus in their cells. The most famous representatives This kingdom includes diatoms (diatomaceous algae), peridinea and euglenaceae, as well as other flagellated algae.
Single-celled diatoms are among the most common representatives of the protist kingdom. There are more than 10 thousand varieties of them, most of which are marine inhabitants. Under the lens of a conventional microscope, diatoms look like circles, ovals, stars, etc. However, if you look at a diatom under a more powerful microscope, you can see that its gelatinous body rests in a tiny, durable mesh shell. This animal's exoskeleton is built from silica. Diatoms cannot move independently and are transported by water currents. But among the procysts there are also animals capable of independent movement, for example, the single-celled flagellated alga Euglena.
Euglenaceae number about 60 species in their ranks. They live only in fresh waters.
Plant kingdom.

This kingdom unites multicellular organisms that are not able to move independently and use the energy of sunlight to convert inorganic substances into organic ones (photosynthesis). I think there is no need to give examples of representatives of this kingdom - these are the most different kinds plants of water and land with a more complex organization than unicellular ones.
Kingdom of mushrooms.

It is not by chance that mushrooms are allocated to a separate kingdom. These living organisms are neither animals nor plants, and do not fall under the classification characteristics of representatives of these kingdoms. Fungi include many spore-bearing organisms, molds, and mushrooms themselves (poisonous and edible).
Animal Kingdom.

The most numerous and representative kingdom. This includes all organisms that feed on ready-made organic compounds (plants or other animals, including their remains). Animals include single-celled living organisms (amoebas, ciliates), and huge mammals (whales, elephants, fish, giant jellyfish, etc.)
The sharks that interest us, and even you and me, are also included in this kingdom.

2. Characteristics of the kingdom of Bacteria. Structural features, lifestyle, examples of representatives of the kingdom.

Kingdom of bacteria. General characteristics.

About 2500 species are known. They have a cellular structure, but do not have a nucleus, separated by a membrane from the cytoplasm.

Most do not contain chlorophyll and feed on ready-made organic substances - heterotrophically.
They live almost everywhere: in the soil, in dust, in the air, in water, on the body of animals, inside living organisms.

They reproduce every 20–30 minutes.

They are very important for humans.

1) During the activity of soil bacteria, humus is formed, which is decomposed organic matter containing all the necessary substances for plant life.

2)For cleaning Wastewater microorganisms are used that short time can convert most organic compounds into inorganic ones.

3) The intestines of many animals and humans contain microflora that are able to digest the food consumed by the body and synthesize vitamins (symbiont bacteria).

4) Through fermentation, a person can receive various substances, for example, acetic acid, silage, alcohol, fermented milk products.

5) Production of antibiotics. These substances are secreted by some bacteria and fungi. They inhibit the activity of other bacteria.

6) Production of feed protein.

7)Production of enzymes and Genetic Engineering. The ability to industrially produce insulin, obtain alcohols, organic acids, and polymeric substances.

8)Biological methods of pest control, various bacteria can infect and cause the death of pests Agriculture.

3. Characteristics of the plant kingdom. Classification of the kingdom with examples. .

Draw students’ attention to the table in the class “Scheme of the development of the plant world,” focusing on lower and higher plants. Write the diagram in your notebook, paying attention to the spelling of new words.

General characteristics of the plant kingdom All living organisms can be divided into four kingdoms: plants, animals, fungi and bacteria. The characteristics of the plant kingdom are as follows:

are eukaryotes, that is, plant cells contain nuclei;

are autotrophs, that is, they form from inorganic organic matter in the process of photosynthesis using the energy of sunlight;

lead a relatively sedentary lifestyle;

unlimited growth throughout life;

starch is used as a reserve nutrient;

presence of chlorophyll

4. Characteristics of the Animal Kingdom. List the features of the kingdom. Dividing them into vertebrates and invertebrates. .Give examples.

IV. A moment of relaxation. Gymnastics for the eyes (done while standing at your workplace).

– Close your eyes tightly for 5 seconds, then open. (Repeat 10 times..)
– Look out the window, choose the farthest point outside the window and the closest point in the classroom. Alternately look at these points for 10 seconds. (Repeat 10 times.)

V. Consolidation of the studied material.

2. L/R No. 1 “Diversity of plant divisions.”

Independent work

VI. Result: got acquainted with the main kingdoms of living nature, the diversity of living organisms.

VII. Homework: par.4 p.16-17 (questions)

Laboratory work №1

Draw your version of representatives of plant departments. Write the names of the departments.

A little history. Aristotle tried to systematize all natural objects. He had a "ladder of creatures". At the bottom are the most primitively organized rocks, then plants, animals and humans. The desire for a linear classification persisted for quite a long time, but then it had to be rejected, since objects of living nature do not line up in a single ladder. The division into plants and animals has been known for a long time. These groups are called kingdoms: the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. Then simple one-celled plants and animals were described, about which it is not always clear whether they are plants or animals. They were classified into the unicellular group (Protists). Then they discovered the bacterium and separated them into a separate kingdom. Later, mushrooms were separated into a separate kingdom. To us, they seem similar to plants, but, nevertheless, they differ significantly from plants, in particular, in that, like animals, they store glycogen, not starch.

So, living organisms were divided into the kingdoms of Plants, Fungi, Animals and Protozoa (single-celled), and the kingdom of bacteria, which included all prokaryotes. But when bacteria were studied, it turned out that they were also divided into two very different groups. Accordingly, they had to be divided into two kingdoms: Eubacteria (actually bacteria) and Archaebacteria (another name is Archaea). The latter also do not have a nucleus, but their structure is very different from bacteria.

This division has arisen recently. In 1990, a publication devoted to this topic was published. The division was made based on the ribosomal RNA sequence. If earlier, in order to describe a new species, it was necessary to study the organism, describe how it feeds, its morphology, and only after that it could be classified, but now the classification of an organism can be carried out without even knowing what it looks like . It is enough to sequence (determine the nucleotide sequence) its ribosomal RNA. And since for many organisms the sequence of ribosomal RNA is known, classification is based on the degree of similarity of these RNAs, and not on external similarity or metabolic characteristics. Some groups of archaebacteria have been described in this way: there are ribosomal RNAs, but no one has yet seen the organisms themselves. What is the point of moving to classification according to the degree of similarity of ribosomal RNA? Ribosomal RNA reflects relatedness by origin, while completely unrelated animals can have the same form. If you remember the frog, crocodile and hippopotamus, you will find that their eyes stick out of the water in a similar way. But these animals belong to different classes. That is, constructing a classification based on ribosomal RNA reflects the relatedness of organisms, but often does not reflect the similarity in their lifestyle. Why was ribosomal RNA chosen? Because it is the most conservative, i.e. the slowest changing part of the genome. The figure below shows the relationship tree of different organisms. It distinguishes groups of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. These groups are of a higher rank than kingdoms. They are called superkingdoms or domains. The term domain is used in various sciences. In this case, in taxonomy, a “domain” refers to a group (ranked above a kingdom) that unites different organisms that share a certain set of common traits.

What do bacteria and archaea have in common that distinguishes them from eukaryotes?

Prokaryotic cell structure

Prokaryotic cells have a cytoplasmic membrane, just like eukaryotic cells. Bacteria have a two-layer membrane (lipid bilayer), while archaea often have a single-layer membrane. The archaeal membrane is composed of substances different from those that make up the bacterial membrane. The surface of the cells may be covered with a capsule, sheath or mucus. They may have flagella and villi.

Prokaryotes do not have a cell nucleus, such as in eukaryotes. DNA is found inside the cell, folded in an orderly manner and supported by proteins. This DNA-protein complex is called a nucleoid. In eubacteria, the proteins that support DNA are different from the histones that form nucleosomes (in eukaryotes). But archbacteria have histones, and in this way they are similar to eukaryotes. Energy processes in prokaryotes take place in the cytoplasm and on special structures - mesosomes (outgrowths of the cell membrane that are twisted into a spiral to increase the surface area on which ATP synthesis). Inside the cell there may be gas bubbles, reserve substances in the form of polyphosphate granules, carbohydrate granules, and fat droplets. Inclusions of sulfur (formed, for example, as a result of anoxic photosynthesis) may be present. Photosynthetic bacteria have folded structures called thylakoids on which photosynthesis occurs. Thus, prokaryotes, in principle, have the same elements, but without partitions, without internal membranes. Those partitions that are present are outgrowths of the cell membrane.

The shape of prokaryotic cells is not so diverse. The round cells are called cocci. Both archaea and eubacteria can have this form. Streptococci are cocci elongated in a chain. Staphylococci are “clusters” of cocci, diplococci are cocci united in two cells, tetrads are four, and sarcina are eight. Rod-shaped bacteria are called bacilli. Two rods - diplobacillus, elongated in a chain - streptobacilli. Other species include coryneform bacteria (with a club-like extension at the ends), spirilla (long curled cells), vibrios (short curved cells) and spirochetes (curl differently from spirilla). All of the above is illustrated below and two representatives of archaebacteria are given.

Although both archaea and bacteria are prokaryotic (nuclear-free) organisms, the structure of their cells has some significant differences. As noted above, bacteria have a lipid bilayer (when the hydrophobic ends are immersed in the membrane, and the charged heads stick out on both sides), and archaea can have a monolayer membrane (charged heads are present on both sides, and inside there is a single whole molecule; this structure may be more rigid than a bilayer). Below is the structure of the cell membrane of an archaebacterium.

Bacteria and archaea differ in the structure and size of their RNA polymers. Bacterial RNA polymerases include 4-8 protein subunits, eukaryotic RNA polymerases include 10-14 protein subunits, and archaea have an intermediate size: 5-11 subunits. Bacterial ribosomes are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes and smaller than archaeal ribosomes (which are also intermediate in size).

Photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation

Some species of bacteria and archaea are capable of nitrogen fixation. Approximately half of the nitrogen contained in living organisms is fixed by bacteria. Nitrogen fixation, that is, the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into various compounds, is carried out by the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation is one of the most expensive biochemical processes: 16 ATP molecules are consumed to fix one nitrogen molecule. There are less effective fixation systems that consume up to 35 ATP molecules for these purposes. There is also non-biological nitrogen fixation. After they began to produce fertilizers (industrial nitrogen fixation), humans can quite successfully compete with biological fixers and the biosphere in the amount of nitrogen fixed.

Only prokaryotic organisms can fix nitrogen. All organisms capable of fixing nitrogen have similar nitrogenase enzymes. Nitrogenase can only work under anaerobic conditions; in the presence of oxygen, the enzyme is inactivated and nitrogen fixation stops.

Fixed nitrogen goes into organic compounds. This process can be carried out by bacteria and plants. We can only translate organic compound into ammonia. Ammonia compounds can also turn into nitrogen oxides, which, after fixation by bacteria, produce nitrogen again.

Nitrogen fixation is carried out by about 250 strains of eubacteria: azotobacteria, clostridia, etc. Half of these strains are different types cyanobacteria, formerly called blue-green algae.

As already mentioned, nitrogenase is sensitive to oxygen. In its presence, it is inactivated and then irreversible. And blue-green algae engage in photosynthesis, which produces oxygen, and the process of nitrogen fixation is incompatible with the process of photosynthesis. As a result, during the day the filamentous cyanobacterium oscillatorium is engaged in photosynthesis, and at night, when photosynthesis does not occur, it is engaged in nitrogen fixation.

The only organism capable of simultaneously performing both nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis is the cyanobacterium Anabaena. How is this done? Photosynthesis occurs in most cells (green cells in the figure) in the light, and the cyanobacterium can use sources of nitrogen dissolved in the environment. However, if there is not enough nitrogen, it switches to nitrogen fixation. To do this, individual cells that previously engaged in photosynthesis differentiate. They are called heterocysts. These are larger cells covered with a dense membrane. Photosynthesis in them stops, and photosynthetic enzymes disappear from them. But the synthesis of nitrogenase begins. The thick shell does not allow oxygen to enter, and nitrogen fixation occurs in the heterocysts, while all other cells are engaged in photosynthesis. Everything that the heterocyst needs to work (including nitrogen) it receives from neighboring cells through special intercellular contacts, and the heterocyst itself gives the neighboring cells the amino acid glutamine (see the structure of amino acids in lecture 4), which is synthesized after nitrogen fixation.

Many representatives of prokaryotes are capable of photosynthesis. We mentioned earlier that photosynthesis can be oxygenic and anoxygenic photosynthesis. Both of these species are again combined by cyanobacteria. Most bacteria are capable of only one of two types of photosynthesis. Photosynthetics are also found among archaea.

Photosynthesis requires light. In this case, they are used light waves a certain range, which depends on the “tuning” of the bioantennas that capture the light quantum. Hard ultraviolet light cannot be used as it damages DNA and proteins. Plants respond to light with wavelengths up to 700 nm.

Prokaryotes use a wider spectrum of radiation. Most simple circuit photosynthesis - in the archaea halobacteria living in the Dead Sea. The reddish coloration of these bacteria is due to the presence of carotenoid pigments, which protect cells from photodamage, which is quite possible under high intensity sunlight. Photosynthesis in halobacteria is carried out by a special protein, bacteriorhodopsin. This protein is located in the cell membrane, captures a quantum of light and converts its energy into an electrochemical charge on the membrane (DmH). The quality of the “antenna” that catches light in bacteriorhodopsin is retinal, a light-sensitive molecule, the same as that found in rhodopsin, the light-sensitive protein of higher organisms.

Chlorophylls serve as photoantennas in cyanobacteria and higher plants. These are complex polycyclic compounds with conjugated bonds.

Where do bacteria live

We have looked at some features of the structure and functioning of prokaryotes, now we will look at where they live.

Bacteria can enter into symbiosis with both unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes. Examples are the cyanophora flagellate and the rhizopod. A cyanophora cell contains two cyanobacteria. When a flagellated cyanophore divides, each daughter cell receives one cyanobacteria, which then also divide to restore the number of cyanobacteria per cyanophora cell. When a flagellate contains cyanobacteria, it exhibits phototaxis, i.e. movement towards or away from the light.

The rhizome also contains cyanobacteria inside the cell, but of a different type. Free-living bacteria and symbiont bacteria differ in their properties. Some types of symbionts are capable of leaving their host and switching to an independent lifestyle, while other types of cyanobacteria cannot live separately from the host. Such cyanobacteria that have lost their independence are called cyanella. It is believed that it was through symbiosis that the chloroplasts of higher plants arose. The ancestors of chloroplasts are free-living cyanobacteria.

An example of the symbiosis of an animal with photosynthetic unicellular organisms is the tridacna mollusk. The mantle of the mollusk is filled with zooxanthellae algae. Moreover, there are so many of them that the mollusk cannot drag the mantle inside. Algae carry out photosynthesis, and the mollusk ensures their safety.

Many nitrogen-fixing bacteria can live on their own. Some species can also live in the nodules of legume plants. As mentioned above, eukaryotes are not capable of nitrogen fixation. Therefore, some bacteria, in symbiosis with higher plants, provide them with nitrogen. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in nodules that form on the roots of plants in response to bacteria from the soil. The picture below shows the nodules on the roots of a legume plant. The cells of such a nodule are filled with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. To isolate bacteria from oxygen, plants synthesize the protein leghemoglobin, similar in structure to hemoglobin, which binds oxygen and protects symbionts from its effects.

Very interesting organisms, similar to plants, are formed through the symbiosis of certain types of fungi and bacteria, including the already familiar cyanobacteria. These are lichens. To live, they need only minimal amounts of water, since the bacterium provides photosynthesis, and the hyphae of the fungus protect the bacteria from drying out and produce water. In a symbiotic state, the bacterium produces a large number of nutrients that are transferred to the fungus, whereas in a free state it provides only its needs. When conditions improve, the bacteria and fungi that make up lichens can leave the symbiotic interaction and live independently. Lichens are also a form of bacteria.

Another type of symbiosis is represented by luminous bacteria. The luminescence of some underwater fish is due to the fact that symbiotic bacteria live in their luminous organs. The glow is caused by the work of the bacterial enzyme luciferase. The gene encoding this enzyme has been isolated and used in scientific research /

Human bacterial symbionts constitute its normal microflora. They live in the intestines, on the skin, on the mucous membranes, providing either protection (by competitively preventing other, harmful bacteria from colonizing these areas), or participating in the digestion of food and the synthesis of some vitamins necessary for humans. We already mentioned the human symbiont coli. In total, the normal human microflora includes about 500 species of bacteria. If you kill all the bacteria on a person’s skin or intestines, nothing good will come of it. The role of normal microflora has been studied in sterile animals. Animals (rats or mice) are raised under special conditions and they see what happens to them in the absence of bacteria. It should be noted that they do not live very well. So everyone a real man- this is not just a representative of the species Homo sapiens , but a whole collection of different organisms.

Viruses, such as the herpes virus, can also be transmitted sexually. The herpes virus causes the formation of blisters on the skin filled with viral particles (a “fever”). Among the population of Western countries, 70-90% are infected with the herpes virus, 30% have rashes, and 10% have genital forms of the disease. Human immunodeficiency viruses (causes AIDS - progressive immunodeficiency syndrome), hepatitis B and C (affect the liver), papillomaviruses (cause overgrowth of the skin epithelium and the formation of warts; some types provoke the development of cancer) can be transmitted sexually.

Among the causative agents of sexually transmitted diseases, gonococcus, spirochete pallidum and the eukaryotic organism Trichomonas were described earlier than others. For a long time, the patient had signs of a genitourinary infection, but none of these three pathogens were identified, and he was diagnosed with “nonspecific urethritis.” However, in the second half of the twentieth century, causative agents of “nonspecific” inflammation were found. These include gardnerella, chlamydia, ureaplasma, mycoplasma and some other species. The diseases they cause are distinguished by the fact that they often have few symptoms, go unnoticed by the carrier and become chronic. At least one of these pathogens is found in 30-50% of people; in some people (who have several sexual partners) a whole “bouquet” of pathogens can be found. Until now, some doctors believe that these bacteria are harmless. This is incorrect, it has long been shown that these bacteria are not only the causative agents of genitourinary infections, one of the most serious complications of which is infertility, but also a number of common diseases, it’s just that established ideas are changing slowly.

Bacterium gardnerella, causing gardnerellosis - an inflammatory disease of the genitourinary tract - was described in the mid-twentieth century. Gardnerella is slightly larger than gonococcus and has a structure characteristic of prokaryotes. In preparations obtained from patients, the epithelial cells of the reproductive tract look as if “peppered”; These peppercorns are exactly gardnerellas. They also cause inflammation of the urogenital tract, and the most severe consequence of such a disease is infertility.

Let's move on to viruses.

Viruses are not prokaryotes. Sometimes they are isolated into a separate kingdom, sometimes they are described outside the kingdoms of nature. There are some problems with the classification of viruses, and there are disputes about whether viruses should be considered living or non-living. Previously, viruses were considered the simplest organisms, since they are the smallest and have the least proteins and DNA, and it was believed that all other organisms originated from viruses. But now that it has been established that viruses cannot live without a cell, there is no reason to think that they appeared before the cell. Apparently, the idea that viruses are “gone mad” is closest to the truth, i.e. these are genes that have become autonomous and acquired a system of their own reproduction.

Despite all the differences in shape and size, all viruses are formed in a similar way. All of them are covered with a protein shell and contain nucleic acid - RNA or DNA. DNA can be circular or linear, RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded.

Let's look at the structure of virus particles using the example herpes virus. The protein shell of the virus, called the nucleocapsid, is built from proteins and is a regular hexagon. There is a shell around which the virus builds up from pieces cell membranes, which the body does not attack, since these are the membranes of its own cells. True, these membranes are encrusted with viral proteins, so the immune system can still recognize the herpes virus. “Wrapping” in a membrane is a way to protect the virus. Inside the protein hexagon there is a linear double-stranded DNA molecule. The picture below on the right shows a cell “stuffed” with particles of a maturing virus. The herpes virus multiplies in the cells of the skin epithelium, but when multiplying, the virus particles infect the nerves, and the virus penetrates the nerve into the spinal cord. There, the viral DNA is integrated into the genome of the cells of the spinal cord roots, therefore, once infected, a person carries the viral DNA. It is impossible to cure it forever, unless it is removed along with the spinal cord cells. From time to time, genomic copies may synthesize new viral DNA. But if a person’s immune system works well, then he has antibodies that protect him from this virus. These antibodies prevent the virus from getting out of its hiding place. But when the immune system is weakened, for example, with a cold, the titer of antibodies in the blood drops, viruses leave the cells of the spinal cord and travel along the nerve to the skin epithelium, and there it begins to multiply. Therefore, blisters that appear in those places through which the virus entered the body - most often on the face, on the lips - are called a “cold.”

A close relative of the herpes virus is the chickenpox virus. A person gets chickenpox once in a lifetime, usually in childhood. The child's entire body is covered with herpetic blisters; then the chickenpox virus also settles in spinal cord, and activation of the virus causes inflammation of the nerves and skin rashes called shingles. The process is quite painful and can deprive a person of working capacity for a month.

The papillomavirus is much smaller compared to the herpes virus. The structure is fundamentally the same. It is transmitted through direct contact, including sexual contact. Papillomavirus is quite common; it causes epithelial proliferation (warts and papillomas are formed). Some strains of this virus are oncogenic - they cause cervical cancer in women. That is, it is a form of cancer that is sexually transmitted. Vaccines have now been developed to protect people from this form of cancer.

Over the entire history of humankind, a lot of knowledge has accumulated about the diversity of living nature. With the help of the science of taxonomy, everything Live nature divided into kingdoms. In this article we will tell you which kingdoms of living organisms biology studies, about their features and characteristics.

The difference between living nature and inanimate nature

Distinctive features of living nature are:

growth and development;
breath;
nutrition;
reproduction;
perception and response to environmental influences.

However, to distinguish living organisms from inanimate nature not so easy. The point is that in its own way chemical composition many objects are similar. For example, salt crystals can grow. And, for example, the seeds of plants that belong to living nature, for a long time are at rest.

All living organisms are divided into two types: non-cellular (viruses) and cellular which are made up of cells.

Unlike all existing living organisms, viruses do not have cells. They settle inside the cell, thereby causing various diseases.

Also a characteristic feature of all living things is the similarity of internal chemical compounds. An important factor is metabolism with environment, as well as response to influences from the external environment.

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All living nature has its own classification. Kingdoms, types, classes of living organisms are the basis of biological systematics. Cellular organisms consist of two superkingdoms: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Each of them is divided into separate kingdoms, levels of hierarchy scientific classification all existing biological species. Scientists group bacteria, plants, fungi and animals into separate kingdoms.

Rice. 1. Kingdoms of living organisms.

The human body belongs to the animal kingdom.

Bacteria

These organisms are classified as prokaryotes because they do not have a nuclear membrane. There are no organelles inside the cell; DNA is located directly in the cytoplasm. They live everywhere, they can be found in the depths earth's surface, and on mountain peaks.

Another type of prokaryotes are archaea, which live in extreme conditions. They can be found in hot springs, the waters of the Dead Sea, animal intestines, and soil.

Mushrooms

This group of wildlife is quite diverse. They are divided into:

cap mushrooms (outside they have a leg and a cap, which are attached to the surface of the soil using mycelium);
yeast ;
mukor - a single-celled fungus of microscopic size. If it is present, a fluffy grayish coating is formed, which turns black over time.

Plants

Inside plant cell there are organelles, for example, chloroplasts, capable of carrying out the process of photosynthesis. Plant cells are surrounded by a strong wall, the basis of which is cellulose. Inside the cell there is a nucleus, cytoplasm with organelles.

Rice. 2. The structure of a plant cell.

Animals

An animal cell does not have a strong wall like a plant cell, so some of them are able to contract, e.g. muscular system. Animals move actively and have a musculoskeletal system. Inside the animal's body there are entire systems of organs that regulate the functioning of the entire organism.

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KINGDOM OF VIRUSES. Virus- a noncellular infectious agent that can reproduce only inside living cells. Studying virology.

Viruses infect all types of organisms, from plants and animals to bacteria and archaea (bacterial viruses are commonly called bacteriophages).

Viruses that infect other viruses have also been discovered ( satellite viruses).

Viral particles (virions) consist of two or three components: genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA (some, such as mimiviruses, have both types of molecules); a protein shell (capsid) that protects these molecules, and, in some cases, additional lipid shells.

Examples of the most well-known human viral diseases include the common cold (it can also have a bacterial etiology), influenza, chicken pox and herpes simplex. Many serious diseases, such as Ebola hemorrhagic fever, AIDS, avian flu and severe acute respiratory syndrome, are caused by viruses. The relative ability of a virus to cause disease is characterized by the term virulence.

KINGDOM OF PROKARYOTES. Includes the oldest inhabitants of the planet, which appeared about 3 billion years ago, bacteria (in everyday life microbes). Microscopic single-celled organisms, but lacking a formed nucleus. Based on their shape, they are divided into cocci, bacilli, vibrios, spirilla, etc. Most are heterotrophic. They reproduce by dividing in two. Studying microbiology.

Table 4 - Diversity of forms of living organisms of the kingdom of prokaryotes

Table 5 - Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of representatives of the kingdom Mushrooms

PLANT KINGDOM. Studying botany. Over 350 thousand species. They make up about 95% of the planet's biomass. The main producers of organic matter of the Earth. Main characteristics of plants:

1. Capacity for photosynthesis;

2. The presence of pigments in lctecs (chlorophyll, carotenoids);

3. Release of phytohormones that regulate their vital processes (auxins-growth accelerators);

4. Cells are surrounded by a cell wall formed by cellulose;

5. They have unlimited growth;

6. They have vacuoles filled with cell sap, which is released as a result of metabolism. Juice provides turgor.

Table 6 - Number of species and representatives of the plant kingdom

Departments	Number of species	Representatives
Subkingdom lower plants (the body is not divided into organs)
Green algae	13 thousand	Chlorella, chlamydomonas (unicellular); ulothrix, ulvacaceae, characeae
Red algae (purple algae)	4 thousand	In tropical and subtropical seas. Phyllophora - agar-agar is obtained from it.
Brown algae		The main source of organic matter in the coastal zone. Kelp
Subkingdom higher plants (the body is divided into organs: vegetative: root, stem and leaves and reproductive - flowers and fruits)
Bryophytes		Liver moss, splagnum, sphagnum, cuckoo flax
Moss-moss		Moss ram
Horsetails		Horsetail
Ferns		Bracken, tree-like, liana-like
Gymnosperms		90% of forests are represented by gymnosperms: pine, spruce, etc.
Angiosperms (flowering)	250 thousand	Monocots: onion, garlic, wheat, rye Dicotyledons: cabbage, radish, apple tree, potato

ALGAE – team group lower plants, which can be unicellular, colonial and multicellular. The body of multicellular algae does not have vegetative organs. They reproduce sexually and asexually. They inhabit all bodies of water on the planet, living in the soil, on the surface of the earth and in the air.

MHIs are higher plants that have vegetative organs (stems, leaves) and multicellular organs of sexual reproduction. Fertilization is possible only in water. They have rhizoids - thread-like outgrowths consisting of one or more cells. Mosses cause waterlogging; when they die, they form peat.

Horsetails and mosses have a stem, leaves and root. In their life cycle, there is an alternation of gametophyte (sexual generation) and sporophyte. The most important condition sexual reproduction – availability of water.

FERNES – their life cycle is dominated by the sporophyte. Distributed in humid places from the tropics to northern latitudes.

Gynosperms have a seed that protects the embryo from adverse influences and provides it with nutrients in the early stages. Fertilization does not depend on the presence of water. The most common are representatives of the coniferous class.

Angiosperms (FLOWERING) are the most common plants on Earth. They are characterized by the presence of flowers and seeds enclosed in the fruit.

ANIMAL KINGDOM. Studying zoology. Over 1.5-2 million species. Main characteristics of animals:

1. Heterotrophic nutrition;

2. Absence of a cell wall;

3. Active movement, the presence of special organs of movement;

4. Metabolism in the body is carried out by organ systems;

5. Cells have centrioles;

6. Have limited growth;

7. Characterized by clear symmetry of the body.

Table 7 - Description of representatives of the animal kingdom

Types	Number of species	Representatives
SUBKINGDOM SINGLE CELLS – over 40 thousand species
Sarcoflagellates		Amoebas – common, dysenteric, volvox
Sporozoans		Malarial plasmodium
Ciliates (ciliates)		Ciliate slipper
SUBKINGDOM MULTICELLULAR
Sponges	5 thousand	Freshwater sponge
Coelenterates	10 thousand	Freshwater hydra, jellyfish, corals
Flatworms	12.5 thousand	Planaria, liver fluke, bovine tapeworm
Roundworms (nematodes)	20 thousand	Soil nematode, whipworm, pinworm, roundworm.
Annelids	9 thousand	Nereid, earthworm, leech
Shellfish	130 thousand	Toothless, oyster, mussel, scallop, pearl mussel, squid, snail, cuttlefish, octopus, nautilus
Arthropods	1.5 million	Arachnids, crustaceans, insects
Echinoderms	6 thousand	Sea stars, marine
Chordata	40 thousand	n/t skullless – lancelet; n\t larval-chordates – tunicates; vertebrates - Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals

Subkingdom unicellular. Most unicellular organisms, or protozoa, have microscopic sizes (from 3-4 to 50-150 microns). The cell contains organelles special purpose. Under unfavorable conditions they form a cyst. Reproduction is mostly asexual, but sexual reproduction also occurs. Habitat: fresh water bodies, seas, soil. Many parasitic species (sporophores). Some form colonies (volvox).

Traditionally, all living organisms are divided into three domains (superkingdoms) and six kingdoms, but some sources may indicate a different classification system.

Organisms are placed into kingdoms based on similarity or general characteristics. Some of the traits that are used to define a kingdom include: cell type, nutrient acquisition, and reproduction. The two main types of cells are and cells.

Common methods of obtaining nutrients include absorption and ingestion. Types of reproduction include and.

Below is a list of the six kingdoms of life and a brief description of organisms contained in them

Kingdom of Archaea

Archaea growing in Morning Glory Lake in Yellowstone National Park produce vibrant color

Initially, these prokaryotes with one were considered bacteria. They are found in and have a unique type of ribosomal RNA. The composition of these organisms allows them to live in very challenging environments, including hot springs and hydrothermal vents.

Domain: Archaea;
Organisms: methanogens, halophiles, thermophiles, psychrophiles;
Cell type: prokaryotic;
Metabolism: depending on the type - metabolism may require oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, sulfur, sulfide;
Method of nutrition: depending on the species - food consumption can be carried out by absorption, non-photosynthetic photophosphorylation or chemosynthesis;
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction by binary fission, budding or fragmentation.

Note: in some cases, archaea are classified as a member of the Kingdom of Bacteria, but most scientists classify them as a separate Kingdom. In fact, DNA and RNA data show that archaea and bacteria are so different that they cannot be combined into one Kingdom.

Kingdom Bacteria

Escherichia coli

These organisms are considered true bacteria and are classified under the domain of bacteria. Although most bacteria do not cause illness, some can cause serious illness. Under optimal conditions, they reproduce at an alarming rate. Most bacteria reproduce by binary fission.

Domain: ;
Organisms: bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), actinobacteria;
Cell type: prokaryotic;
Metabolism: depending on the species - oxygen may be toxic, transportable or necessary for metabolism;
Method of nutrition: depending on the type - food consumption can be carried out by absorption, photosynthesis or chemosynthesis;
Reproduction: asexual.

Kingdom Protista

Domain: Eukaryotes;
Organisms: amoebas, green algae, brown algae, diatoms, euglena, slimy forms;
Cell type: eukaryotic;
Feeding mode: depending on the species - food consumption includes absorption, photosynthesis or ingestion;
Reproduction: predominantly asexual. occurs in some species.

Kingdom Mushrooms

Includes both single-celled (yeast and mold) and multicellular (fungi) organisms. They are decomposers and obtain nutrients through absorption.

Domain: Eukaryotes;
Organisms: fungi, yeast, mold;
Cell type: eukaryotic;
Metabolism: Oxygen is necessary for metabolism;
Nutrition method: absorption;
Reproduction: sexual or asexual.

Plant Kingdom

They are extremely important for all life on Earth, since they release oxygen and provide other living organisms with shelter, food, etc. This diverse group contains vascular or avascular plants, flowering or non-flowering flowering plants, and etc.

Domain: Eukaryotes;
Organisms: mosses, angiosperms (flowering plants), gymnosperms, liverworts, ferns;
Cell type: eukaryotic;
Metabolism: Oxygen is necessary for metabolism;
Nutrition method: photosynthesis;
Reproduction: Organisms undergo alternating generations. The sexual phase (gametophyte) is replaced by the asexual phase (sporophyte).

Animal Kingdom

This Kingdom includes everyone. These multicellular eukaryotes depend on plants and other organisms for sustenance. Most animals live in aquatic environments and range from tiny tardigrades to extremely large blue whales.

Domain: Eukaryotes;
Organisms: mammals, amphibians, sponges, insects, worms;
Cell type: eukaryotic;
Metabolism: Oxygen is necessary for metabolism;
Method of feeding: ingestion;
Reproduction: in most animals sexual reproduction, but in some it is asexual.

Kingdom is one of the divisions of the classification of living organisms in nature with scientific point vision. One of the five main kingdoms of living organisms is the kingdom of bacteria. Otherwise they are called crushers.

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This level of classification unites such subkingdoms as:

bacteria.

The subkingdom of bacteria of the latter unites representatives of archaebacteria and. Bacteria are the smallest prokaryotic organisms characterized by a cellular structure. are 0.1-30 microns, and it is impossible to see them visually. Today, about 2,500 have been studied in nature. Microbiology studies bacteria. She examines representatives of the kingdom of bacteria that are not visible without special equipment (microorganisms):

bacteria,
microscopic mushrooms,
seaweed.

Microbiology systematizes them into kingdoms, analyzes morphology, biochemistry, physiology, evolution and role in ecological systems.

A distinctive feature of representatives of the kingdom of bacteria is the absence of a membrane-surrounded nucleus separated from the cytoplasm. Some of them have , which makes them resistant to phagocytosis. Representatives of this kingdom are capable of reproduction every 20-30 minutes. Possibly both sexually and by budding in some species. There are also varieties capable of sporulation (like mushrooms).

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Classifications of microorganisms

Depending on the shape of the bacterial cell, there are:

(balls);
(sticks);
vibrios (curved like a boomerang);
spirilla (spirals);
(chain-shaped);
(bunch-shaped).

According to the method of absorption of nutrients from surrounding nature representatives of this kingdom, and are divided into the following groups:

In terms of their feeding method, bacteria are similar to fungi (saprotrophs, symbionts). Bacteria live in nature wherever there is at least some organic matter: dust, water, soil, air, on animals, inside other living organisms. Their numbers grow every 20-30 minutes. In addition, there is another group of microscopic organisms that are. These are cyanobacteria. They are able to photosynthesize thanks to pigments similar in properties to those found in plants and algae. , thanks to the pigment, can be blue-green and green. They live colonially, in filamentous formations and alone. Due to their similarity to algae, they can be in symbiosis with fungi, forming a group of lichens. :

obligate aerobes - live in conditions of free access to oxygen;
obligate anaerobes - live in conditions of complete absence of oxygen;
facultative anaerobes - can exist under any conditions of oxygen access.

Functions of microorganisms in human life

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They play a huge role, which is explained by the following facts:

by the process of their life activity they contribute to the formation of humus (an organic fertilizer necessary for plant life).
Some microorganisms are capable of converting organic substances into inorganic ones in nature in a short time, which is especially important for.
In the human and animal body there are microorganisms involved in the digestion of food consumed and the formation of vitamins.
Bacteria capable of causing are widely used to produce alcohol, acetic acid, fermented milk products, silage.
Some bacteria can produce substances that can inhibit the vital activity of other living organisms, which has found its application in the production of antibiotics.
Feed protein synthesis.
Participation of some bacteria in the synthesis of insulin, organic acids, alcohols, and polymeric substances.
The ability of some microorganisms to cause the death of the host.
Live bacteria are also used to make vaccines.

Negative effects of bacteria

In addition to all the positive properties of microorganisms listed, it should be mentioned that some bacteria can cause diseases. They are called, which can provoke the occurrence of diseases such as syphilis, stomach cancer, leprosy, and others.

Bacterial diseases can affect both fauna and flora. There are a number of living microorganisms that are constantly present inside the human body, without manifesting themselves in any way, but when the immune system is weakened, they cause the development of pathology.

Mushrooms form a separate kingdom. They differ markedly from the animal and plant world. , found in any habitat. According to the type of nutrition, mushrooms also belong to the group of heterotrophs. Fungi reproduce asexually, sexually and vegetatively.