In accordance with environmental legislation Russian Federation standardization of environmental quality natural environment carried out for the purpose of establishing maximum permissible exposure limits , guaranteeing the environmental safety of the population, preserving the gene pool, ensuring the rational use and reproduction of natural resources in sustainable development economic activity. At the same time, under influence refers to anthropogenic activities related to the implementation of economic, recreational, cultural interests and introducing physical, chemical, biological changes to the natural environment.
Environmental regulation involves taking into account the so-called permissible load on the ecosystem. Acceptable such a load is considered, under the influence of which the deviation from the normal state of the system does not exceed natural changes and, therefore, does not cause undesirable consequences in living organisms and does not lead to a deterioration in the quality of the environment. To date, only a few attempts are known to take into account the load on land plants and communities of fishery reservoirs.
Both environmental and sanitary-hygienic regulation are based on knowledge of the effects exerted by various factors influencing living organisms. One of important concepts in toxicology and in regulation is the concept of a harmful substance. In the specialized literature it is customary to call harmful all substances whose effects on biological systems may lead to negative consequences. Moreover, as a rule, everything xenobiotics (alien to living organisms, artificially synthesized substances) are considered harmful.
The establishment of environmental and food quality standards is based on the concept of exposure thresholds. Threshold of harmful effects - this is the minimum dose of a substance, under the influence of which changes occur in the body that go beyond the limits of physiological and adaptive reactions, or hidden (temporarily compensated) pathology. Thus, a threshold dose of a substance (or a threshold effect in general) causes a response in a biological organism that cannot be compensated by homeostatic mechanisms (mechanisms for maintaining internal balance organism).
Standards limiting harmful effects are established and approved by specially authorized state bodies in the field of environmental protection, sanitary and epidemiological supervision and are improved as science and technology develop, taking into account international standards. The basis of sanitary and hygienic regulation is the concept of maximum permissible concentration.
Maximum permissible concentrations (MPC)– standards establishing the concentration of a harmful substance per unit of volume (air, water), mass (food, soil) or surface (skin of workers), which, when exposed over a certain period of time, practically do not affect human health and do not cause adverse consequences for him offspring.
For substances about the action of which sufficient information has not been accumulated, temporary permissible concentrations (TPC) – standards obtained by calculation, recommended for use for a period of 2–3 years.
There are other characteristics of pollutants. Toxicity – the ability of substances to cause disturbances in the physiological functions of the body, which in turn leads to diseases (intoxication, poisoning) or, in severe cases, death. In fact, toxicity is a measure of the incompatibility of a substance with life.
Sanitary, hygienic and environmental standards determine the quality of the environment in relation to human health and the state of ecosystems, but do not indicate the source of exposure and do not regulate its activities. The requirements for the sources of exposure themselves reflect scientific and technical standards . These include standards for emissions and discharges of harmful substances (MPE and MPD), as well as technological, construction, urban planning norms and rules containing requirements for environmental protection. The basis for the establishment of scientific and technical standards is the following principle: provided that these standards are observed by enterprises in the region, the content of any impurity in water, air and soil must meet the requirements of sanitary and hygienic standards.
Scientific and technical regulation involves the introduction of restrictions on the activities of economic facilities in relation to environmental pollution, in other words, it determines the maximum permissible flows of harmful substances that can come from sources of exposure into the air, water, and soil. Thus, enterprises are required not to actually ensure certain MPCs, but to comply with the limits for emissions and discharges of harmful substances established for the facility as a whole or for specific sources included in its composition. A recorded excess of MPC values in the environment is not in itself a violation on the part of the enterprise, although, as a rule, it serves as a signal of non-compliance with established scientific and technical standards (or evidence of the need for their revision).
Basic concepts and definitions
Both environmental and sanitary-hygienic standards are based on knowledge of the effects exerted by various impact factors T alive organisms. One of the important concepts in toxicology and regulation is the concept of a harmful substance.
In the specialized literature, it is customary to call all substances harmful, the impact of which on biological systems can lead to negative consequences. In addition, as a rule, all xenobiotics (alien to living organisms, artificially synthesized substances) are considered harmful.
The establishment of environmental and food quality standards is based on the concept of exposure thresholds. The threshold of harmful action is the minimum dose of a substance, upon exposure to which changes occur in the body that go beyond the limits of physiological and adaptive reactions, or latent (temporarily compensated) pathology. Thus, a threshold dose of a substance (or a threshold effect in general) causes a response in a biological organism that cannot be compensated by homeostatic mechanisms (mechanisms for maintaining the internal balance of the body).
Standards limiting harmful effects are established and approved by specially authorized state bodies in the field of environmental protection, sanitary and epidemiological supervision and are improved as science and technology develop, taking into account international standards. Let us note that the standards approved in the USSR were very strict, but were rarely observed in practice. The basis of sanitary and hygienic regulation is the concept of maximum permissible concentration.
Maximum permissible concentrations (MAC) - standards establishing the concentration of a harmful substance per unit volume (air, water), mass (food, soil) or surface (skin of workers), which, when exposed over a certain period of time, have virtually no effect on human health and do not cause adverse effects in its offspring.
Thus, sanitary and hygienic regulation covers all environments, various routes of entry of harmful substances into the body, although it rarely (reflects a combined effect (simultaneous or sequential action of several substances with the same route of entry) and does not take into account the effects of complex (receipt of harmful substances into organism in different ways and with different environments - with air, water, food, through the skin) and the combined influence of the whole variety of physical, chemical and biological environmental factors. There are only limited lists of substances that have a summation effect when they are simultaneously contained in atmospheric air.
An analysis of how the values of maximum permissible concentrations change over time indicates their relativity, or rather, the relativity of our knowledge about the safety or danger of certain substances. Suffice it to remember that in the fifties, DDT was considered one of the safest insecticides for humans and was widely advertised for household use. For substances for which sufficient information has not been accumulated, temporary permissible concentrations (TAC) can be established - standards obtained by calculation, recommended for use for a period of 2-3 years. The appendices provide the VAC values for various pollutants in air, water, and soil.
We emphasize that in accordance with Resolution No. 1 of 02/06/92 of the State Committee for Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance of the Russian Federation, on the territory of Russia, until the adoption of the relevant regulatory acts of the Russian Federation, sanitary rules, norms and hygienic standards approved by the former Ministry of Health of the USSR are in force, to the extent that does not contradict sanitary legislation Russian Federation.
Sometimes other characteristics of pollutants are also found. Under toxicity understand the ability of substances to cause disturbances in the physiological functions of the body, which in turn leads to diseases (intoxication, poisoning) or, in severe cases, death. In fact, toxicity is a measure of the incompatibility of a substance with life.
Degree of toxicity of substances It is customary to characterize the value of a toxic dose - the amount of a substance (referred, as a rule, to a unit of mass of an animal or person) that causes a certain toxic effect. The lower the toxic dose, the higher the toxicity.
There are moderate lethal (LD50), absolutely lethal (LD100), minimally lethal (LD0-10) and other doses. The numbers in the index reflect the probability (%) of a certain toxic effect occurring - in this case, death, in a group of experimental animals. It should be borne in mind that the magnitude of toxic doses depends on the routes of entry of the substance into the body. The LD50 dose (death of half of the experimental animals) gives a significantly more quantitatively defined toxicity characteristic than LD100 or LDO. Depending on type
dose, animal species and route of exposure chosen for evaluation, the order of substances on the toxicity scale may vary. The toxic dose value is not used in the standardization system.
Sanitary, hygienic and environmental standards determine the quality of the environment in relation to human health and the state of ecosystems, but do not indicate the source of exposure and do not regulate its activities. The requirements for the sources of exposure themselves reflect scientific and technical standards . Scientific and technical standards include standards for emissions and discharges of harmful substances (MPE and MPD), as well as technological, construction, urban planning norms and rules containing requirements for environmental protection. The basis for the establishment of scientific and technical standards is the following principle: provided that these standards are observed by enterprises in the region, the content of any impurity in water, air and soil must meet the requirements of sanitary and hygienic standards.
Scientific and technical regulation involves the introduction of restrictions on the activities of economic facilities in relation to environmental pollution, in other words, it determines the maximum permissible flows of harmful substances that can come from sources of exposure into the air, water, and soil. Thus, enterprises are required not to actually ensure certain MPCs, but to comply with the limits for emissions and discharges of harmful substances established for the facility as a whole or for specific sources included in its composition. A recorded excess of MPC or MPC values in the environment is in itself a violation on the part of the enterprise, although, as a rule, it serves as a signal of non-compliance with established scientific and technical standards (or evidence of the need for their revision).
Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated August 3, 1992 No. 545 adopted the “Procedure for the development and approval of environmental standards for emissions and discharges of pollutants into the environment, limits on the use of natural resources, and waste disposal.”
Air quality regulation
Atmospheric air quality is understood as the totality of atmospheric properties that determine the degree of impact of physical, chemical and biological factors on people, flora and fauna, as well as on materials, structures and environment generally.
Air quality standards determine the permissible limits for the content of harmful substances both in the production area (intended to accommodate industrial enterprises, pilot production of research institutes, etc.) and in the residential area (intended to accommodate housing stock, public buildings and structures) settlements. Basic terms and definitions relating to atmospheric pollution indicators, observation programs, and the behavior of impurities in atmospheric air are defined by GOST 17.2.1.03-84. Protection of Nature. Atmosphere. Pollution control terms and definitions.
Maximum permissible concentration of a harmful substance in the air of a working area (MPCrz) - a concentration that during daily (except weekends) work for 8 hours, or for another duration, but not more than 41 hours per week, throughout the entire working experience should not cause diseases or deviations in health, detected by modern research methods, in the process of work or in the long-term life of the present and subsequent generations. A working area should be considered a space up to 2 m high above the floor or area where workers permanently or temporarily reside.
As follows from the definition, the MPC is a standard that limits the exposure of the adult working population to a harmful substance for a period of time established by labor legislation. It is completely unacceptable to compare the levels of pollution in a residential area with the established MPCs; also talk about maximum permissible concentrations in the air in general, without specifying what standard we are talking about.
Maximum permissible concentration maximum one-time (MPKmr) - concentration of a harmful substance in the air of populated areas that does not cause reflex (including subsensory reactions) in the human body when inhaled for 20 minutes.
Table 3. Correlation various types Maximum concentrations in the air for some substances
Substance MPCss, mg/m3 MPCmr, mg/m3 uPDKrz, mg/m3
Nitrogen oxide (II) 0.06 0.6 30
Cobalt sulfate 0.0004 0.001 0.005
4-chloroaniline 0.01 0.04 0.30
The concept of MPCmr is used in establishing scientific and technical standards - maximum permissible emissions of pollutants. As a result of the dispersion of impurities in the air under unfavorable meteorological conditions on the border of the sanitary protection zone of the enterprise, the concentration of the harmful substance at any time should not exceed the maximum permissible concentration limit.
Maximum permissible average daily concentration (MADC) is the concentration of a harmful substance in the air of populated areas, which should not have a direct or indirect effect on a person if inhaled for an unlimited period of time (years). Thus, the MPC is designed for all groups of the population and for an indefinitely long period of exposure and, therefore, is the most stringent sanitary and hygienic standard establishing the concentration of a harmful substance in the air. It is the MPCs value that can act as a “standard” for assessing the well-being of the air environment in a residential area. But using this standard as a unit of measurement (five MPCs for nitrogen oxides) is absurd!
A number of complex indicators of air pollution have been proposed (combining several pollutants); The most common and recommended by the methodological documentation of the State Committee for Ecology is the comprehensive air pollution index (API). It is calculated as the sum of the average contents of various substances normalized by MPC and normalized to the concentration of sulfur dioxide.
To compare data on atmospheric pollution by several substances in different cities or city districts, complex air pollution indices must be calculated for the same number (n) of impurities. When compiling an annual list of cities with the highest levels of air pollution, the values of the unit indices Yi of the five substances for which these values are the highest are used to calculate the complex index Yn.
IN Lately There is a growing number of publications describing the effects of pollutants on biota, including atmospheric pollutants on vegetation. Thus, it has been established that coniferous trees and lichens react more sensitively than other species to the presence of acid gases in the air, primarily sulfur dioxide. Researchers propose to establish maximum permissible concentrations for wild species in order to use these standards when assessing damage and limiting the impact on specially protected natural sites. However, plant sensitivity has found wide application only in biological monitoring; Environmental regulation of the state of atmospheric air has not actually been implemented in practice.
Water quality regulation
In accordance with the Sanitary rules and regulations SanPiN 2.1.4.559-96, drinking water must be safe in terms of epidemics and radiation, harmless in chemical composition and must have favorable organoleptic properties. Water quality in general refers to the characteristics of its composition and properties, which determine its suitability for specific types of water use; in this case, quality indicators are signs by which water quality is assessed.
Requirements for the quality of water from non-centralized water supply are determined by Sanitary Rules and Norms SanPiN 2.1.4.544-96, and the smell, taste, color, turbidity, coli-index are standardized, and it is also indicated that the content chemical substances should not exceed the values of the corresponding maximum permissible concentrations (MPC).
The maximum permissible concentration in the water of a reservoir for domestic, drinking and cultural water use (MPCv) is the concentration of a harmful substance in water, which should not have a direct or indirect effect on the human body throughout his life and on the health of subsequent generations, and should not worsen the hygienic conditions of water use.
The maximum permissible concentration in the water of a reservoir used for fishing purposes (MPCvr) is the concentration of a harmful substance in water, which should not have a harmful effect on fish populations, primarily commercial ones.
Substance MPCv, mg/dm3 MPCv,
Mercury inorganic compounds(by Hg) 0.0001
Ammonium fluoride (by fluorine) 0.05 0.7
Triethanolamine 0.01 1.0
When interpreting the results of monitoring the state of the aquatic environment, it is important to know what type of water body a river, lake, or reservoir belongs to and use the appropriate standards to assess the situation.
In hydrochemical practice it is also used method of integral assessment of water quality, by the totality of pollutants contained in it v frequency of their detection.
In this method, for each ingredient, based on actual concentrations, scores are calculated for the multiplicity of exceeding the MPCvr - Ki and the frequency of occurrences of exceeding Hi, as well as the overall assessment score - Bi.
Ingredients for which the total score is greater than or equal to 11 are identified as limiting contamination indicators (LPI). The combinatorial contamination index is calculated as the sum of the total evaluation scores of all ingredients taken into account. Based on the value of the combinatorial pollution index, the class of water pollution is determined.
Also water quality assessment and comparison current state of a water body with the characteristics established in previous years are carried out on the basis of the water pollution index according to hydrochemical indicators (IZV). This index is a formal characteristic and is calculated by averaging at least five individual water quality indicators. The following indicators are required to be taken into account: concentration of dissolved oxygen, pH value pH and biological oxygen demand BOD5).
Chapter 2. Environmental regulation and activities in the field of environmental management
Chapter 3 Water quality regulation
3.1 Water quality and water uses
3.2 Types of water use
3.3 Formation of the chemical composition of natural waters
3.4 Classification of waters according to integral quality indicators
List of used literature
INTRODUCTION
The total amount of water on earth is estimated at 14,000 million km3. However, stationary reserves of fresh water suitable for use account for only 0.3% of the volume of the hydrosphere (about 4 million km3).
Water on our planet is in a state of circulation. Under the influence of solar energy, water evaporates from the surface of the world's oceans and land, and then falls in the form of precipitation.
About 412 thousand km3 per year evaporates from the surface of the world's oceans, and the amount of atmospheric precipitation falling on the surface of the seas and oceans is about 310 thousand km3 per year. The difference represents river flow from land to seas and oceans.
The one-time supply of water in all rivers of the globe is approximately 1200 km3, and this volume is renewed approximately every 12 days.
River flow consists of underground and surface flow. The most valuable is the underground water source.
There is no water in nature that does not contain impurities. Even atmospheric precipitation contains up to 100 mg/l of various pollutants.
Centralized water supply to cities, towns and industrial enterprises is a complex set of technical, economic and organizational measures. Their rational solution determines the level of sanitary improvement of cities and towns, ensures normal living conditions for the population, and guarantees the uninterrupted operation of industry.
Reserves fresh water limited and distributed unevenly over the surface and in the earth's crust.
A huge amount of fresh water is necessary for the functioning of industrial enterprises. Even larger amounts of fresh water are used in agriculture and fish farms. Promotion standard of living The population also requires large amounts of fresh water for economic and domestic needs. On average, one person uses about 250 liters of water per day. A disproportion is created between the natural supply of fresh water and its consumption. There is a threat of water shortage. In this regard, the question arises about the rational use of water resources.
Few people these days doubt that the water we drink and use in everyday life needs additional purification, no matter where it comes from - from a well, an artesian well or a water supply system. According to statistics from the State Construction Committee of Russia, about 40% of the city’s water supply network is now in disrepair, not to mention country cottages and
holiday villages, where the quality of natural water often exceeds sanitary standards. In their reports at scientific conferences, scientists are increasingly stating that what flows from our tap is not only non-potable, but not even “household” water.
All household and drinking water used is pre-purified and disinfected at treatment facilities. It is taken from surface sources. At the time of purification, having reached clean water reservoirs, it, as a rule, complies with the highest SanPiN standards. However, when moving along many kilometers of highways made of cast iron and steel pipes that are susceptible to corrosion, its quality noticeably deteriorates, an odor appears, transparency decreases, and content of iron, copper, zinc and other heavy metals, toxic components and bacteria from construction and sealing materials enter the water.All this can lead to the development of allergies and blood diseases.
The presence of mechanical impurities and iron compounds in domestic water contributes to premature wear of plumbing fixtures. Hard water forms hard-to-remove deposits on plumbing fixtures and tiles, and scale in water heating devices. Therefore, water needs additional purification directly at the point of consumption, which is especially necessary for drinking water, the purity of which is important for human health.
Requirements for the quality of drinking water are set out in the current GOST 2874-82 "Drinking water" and SanPiN 2.1.4.559-96. But the regulatory and methodological base of GOST no longer meets modern requirements. For decades, data on water quality in Moscow has not been published, a situation that continues to this day.
Chapter 1. Environmental regulation
Objectively, in the process of social development, a person cannot help but influence the state of the environment. Thus, it cannot help but extract mineral resources, cannot help but take water, and for economic and technical reasons cannot, for now, not emit pollutants into the natural environment. The problem is that scientifically based limits for such impacts should be established based on long-term public interests in preserving the quantitative and qualitative properties and characteristics of nature. This goal is achieved through environmental standards, which determines the place of environmental standards in the mechanism of environmental law. Environmental regulation refers to the establishment of environmental standards by authorized state bodies in accordance with legal requirements. In the Russian Federation there are many regulatory legal acts regulating relations in the field of environmental regulation. Among the main ones we should mention the Law on Environmental Protection, Ch. V of which - “Regulations in the field of environmental protection” defines the system of environmental standards and the criteria for their establishment. Some special requirements for environmental regulation in relation to the regulation of the protection and use of certain natural resources are established in acts of natural resource legislation: the Land Code of the Russian Federation (Part 5 of Article 13), the Water Code of the Russian Federation (Article 109), the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (Article 62), Laws on exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation (Article 30), on the protection of atmospheric air (Articles 11, 12), on wildlife (Article 17), on production and consumption waste (Article 18). The Law on the Sanitary and Epidemiological Welfare of the Population defines the requirements for sanitary and hygienic standards in the field of environmental protection. An important role in environmental regulation is played by the Procedure for the development and approval of environmental standards for emissions and discharges of pollutants into the environment, limits on the use of natural resources, and waste disposal, approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of August 3, 1992 (as amended and supplemented).
The system of environmental standards includes:
environmental quality standards;
standards for maximum permissible harmful effects on the environment;
standards for permissible extraction of natural resources.
Being approved by specially authorized state bodies in the field of environmental management and environmental protection within their competence, environmental standards are mandatory. Compliance with these standards serves as a criterion for assessing the legality of the behavior of subjects of environmental legal relations in the field of environmental impact assessment, environmental assessment, licensing, certification, control, etc. According to Art. 22 of the Law on Environmental Protection, for exceeding the established standards of permissible impact on the environment, subjects of economic and other activities, depending on the harm caused to the environment, are liable in accordance with the law. Limits serve as regulators of environmental management. Limitation is a system of environmental and economic restrictions on territories, terms and volumes of maximum indicators for the use of natural resources, emissions and discharges of pollutants into the environment and waste disposal (Article 19 of the Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection” No. 2060-1 dated 12/19/91, as amended by the Laws of the Russian Federation dated 02/21/92, No. 2397-1, dated 06/02/93, No. 5076-1). Nature management is carried out by removing natural substances from nature and introducing pollutants into it. In accordance with this, limitation is carried out by establishing maximum standards for the withdrawal of resources, as well as standards for emissions and discharges into the environment and waste disposal. Limits are set on the size of land allocation for the construction of roads and railways, airports, pipelines, and reclamation canals. Water consumption limits are applied for irrigated agriculture, industrial and agricultural facilities. The limits for the use of forest resources are the indicators of the estimated cutting area by territory, i.e. maximum annual cutting rate. There are quotas for fishing and hunting. The limits for emissions and discharges of pollutants are environmental quality standards (Articles 25-34 of the Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection” No. 2060-1 dated December 19, 1991, as amended by the Laws of the Russian Federation dated February 21, 1992 No. 2397-1 , dated 02.06.93. No. 5076-1). These standards are called MPE - maximum permissible emissions into the atmosphere; MDS - maximum permissible discharges into water sources; MPC - maximum permissible concentrations; MPL - maximum permissible levels of exposure to noise, vibration, magnetic fields; MDN - maximum permissible load on the natural environment (number of visitors per excursion in the reserve, load of livestock per unit of pasture land). The standards are approved by the State Committee for Environmental Protection of the Russian Federation. Types, limits of economic activity, environmental requirements for the use of resources are recorded in licenses (permits) for integrated environmental management issued by government authorities, which indicate:
types, volumes and limits of economic activities on the use of natural resources;
environmental requirements under which the use of natural resources is allowed, the consequences of non-compliance with these requirements (Article 18, Part 3 of the Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection” No. 2060-1 dated December 19, 1991, as amended by the Laws of the Russian Federation dated February 21, 1992. No. 2397-1, dated June 2, 1993. No. 5076-1).
Chapter 2. Environmental regulation and activities in the field of environmental management
The modern Russian concept of environmental regulation defines it as an activity aimed at establishing a system of state standards and standards of maximum permissible impact on ecosystems necessary for the effective implementation of environmental management. It is assumed that state standards should be based on those characteristics of ecosystems that most informatively respond to anthropogenic impacts that are significant for the state of a given ecosystem as a whole. It is also understood that, in turn, the establishment of standards for maximum permissible impacts on ecosystems helps to regulate environmental pollution, the extraction of natural resources, and limit the anthropogenic transformation of ecosystems. Thus, the development of environmental regulation is intended to ensure the creation of a system of real guidelines for minimizing anthropogenic impact, reflecting fundamental natural processes and the capabilities of modern technologies. One of the internationally recognized tools for reducing the impact on the environment is environmental management - a process of internally motivated, proactive activities of economic entities aimed at consistent improvement in achieving their own environmental goals and objectives, the implementation of projects and programs developed on the basis of independently adopted environmental policies. In a number of Russian documents (including translations of the GOST R ISO 14000 series of standards), the term “environmental management” is replaced by the phrase “environmental management”, which in many ways makes it difficult to understand the essence of the activity being described. Strictly speaking, the environment is not an object of management (management) for economic entities. Planning of activities, monitoring and control directly in relation to environmental objects is practically not carried out by enterprises. The main object of management is various environmental aspects of enterprise activities (for example, sources of environmental impact, the use of hazardous substances and materials, the economic efficiency of environmental activities, etc.). In the international standards of the ISO 14000 series, environmental aspect is defined as an element of an enterprise's activities, products or services that interacts or may interact with the environment. The international standard ISO 14001 provides guidance on an environmental management system to enable any organization to formulate policies and objectives, taking into account legal requirements, regulations and information on significant environmental aspects and environmental impacts. An environmental management system considers those environmental aspects of an organization's activities that it can control and which can be expected to be affected. The core of the environmental management system is the program - a comprehensive document that describes the organization of the enterprise’s activities in the field of environmental management, as well as specific activities and actions for its implementation, developed in accordance with environmental policy, goals and objectives. When developing environmental management programs, enterprises are guided by the principle of consistent improvement, that is, achieving the best performance in all environmental aspects of the enterprise, where this is practically possible. At the same time, consistent improvement must be demonstrated and proven to stakeholders: government agencies, the public, partners, investors, competitors. Evaluation of the implementation of environmental management programs and demonstration of achievements are carried out using specific indicators that reflect the nature of the organization’s activities as a whole. Among such indicators, there are groups of indicators that describe the effectiveness of the environmental management system, the functioning of the main and auxiliary production processes and the state of the environment. The performance indicator of the environmental management system is a specific indicator, an indicator that reflects the effectiveness and efficiency of the implementation, operation and development of the environmental management system, manifested in the nature of the organization’s activities. Without going into details, we note that relative change the number of citizens' complaints about the enterprise's violation of established standards or, conversely, the increase in the activity of employees participating in the development of proposals to improve the environmental performance of the organization are classified as indicators of the effectiveness of the environmental management system. The performance indicator of the main and auxiliary production processes is a specific indicator, an indicator that reflects information about the real environmental parameters of production processes. Along with indicators that are widespread in the Russian Federation, such as the mass of emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere, their discharge into water bodies and the volume of waste disposal, enterprises use internal quantitative indicators for planning activities in the field of environmental management. Among them, it should be noted such as specific consumption of extremely hazardous and highly hazardous substances, specific volumes of recycled materials and reagents, specific emissions and discharges of pollutants, specific waste generation and its accumulation on the territory of an industrial site, etc. Finally, whenever possible, organizations use environmental indicators that reflect information about local, regional or global environmental conditions when developing and evaluating environmental management programs. As can be seen, almost all indicators used in environmental management systems are in one way or another related to the standards for maximum permissible exposure and standards for the state of the environment. In fact, even residents' complaints about violations committed by enterprises are based on people's perceptions of the extent to which the impact of economic entities can affect the state of the natural environment. When planning indicators that reflect the functioning of production processes, the complete use of resources (associated with limiting their withdrawal), losses, and typical procedures, for example, the handling of hazardous substances and materials, are taken into account. Assessing the implementation of programs and the effectiveness of measures aimed at reducing anthropogenic impact involves organizing systematic observations of changes in selected indicators. The most desirable situations are those in which indicators are measurable (in the broadest sense of the word), verifiable not only for the enterprise itself, but also for other interested parties. Therefore, identification of environmental aspects, activity planning, selection of indicators, their discussion, coordination of the positions of business entities, government agencies, public organizations represent one of the fundamental stages in the development of an environmental management system. Further presentation is devoted to a discussion of the features of environmental regulation of the state of water bodies, a description of general, summary, and specific indicators of natural quality and composition Wastewater. When developing environmental management programs, when distributing responsibilities between enterprises, government bodies and public organizations in relation to industrial, state and public environmental monitoring, these indicators can be used as private and marker parameters reflecting the state of water systems and the features of anthropogenic impact on the watershed.
Chapter 3. Standardization of water quality
3.1 Water quality and types of water use.
Water quality in general is understood as a characteristic of its composition and properties that determines its suitability for specific types of water use (GOST 17.1.1.01-77), while quality criteria are the characteristics by which water quality is assessed. The maximum permissible concentration in the water of a reservoir for domestic, drinking and cultural water use (MPC) is the concentration of a harmful substance in water, which should not have a direct or indirect effect on the human body throughout his life and on the health of subsequent generations, and not should worsen the hygienic conditions of water use. The maximum permissible concentration in the water of a reservoir used for fishing purposes (MPC VR) is the concentration of a harmful substance in the water, which should not have a harmful effect on fish populations, primarily commercial ones. Water quality regulation consists of establishing for the water of a water body a set of acceptable values for indicators of its composition and properties, within which the health of the population, favorable conditions for water use and the environmental well-being of the water body are reliably ensured. The rules for the protection of surface waters establish standards for the water quality of reservoirs and watercourses for the conditions of domestic, drinking, cultural, domestic and fishery water use. A substance that causes a violation of water quality standards is called a pollutant.
3.2 Types of water use
Types of water use in water bodies are determined by the bodies of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation and the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Environmental Protection and are subject to approval by local government bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Household and drinking water use includes the use of water bodies or their sections as sources of household and drinking water supply, as well as for supplying food industry enterprises. In accordance with Sanitary Rules and Standards SanPiN 2.1.4.559-96, drinking water must be safe in terms of epidemics and radiation, harmless in chemical composition and must have favorable organoleptic properties. Cultural and domestic water use includes the use of water bodies for swimming, sports and recreation of the population. The water quality requirements established for cultural and domestic water use apply to all areas of water bodies located within populated areas, regardless of the type of their use by objects for the habitat, reproduction and migration of fish and other aquatic organisms. Fishing water bodies can fall into one of three categories:
· To highest category include locations of spawning grounds, mass feeding and wintering pits of especially valuable species of fish and other commercial aquatic organisms, as well as protected zones of farms of any type for breeding and growing fish, other aquatic animals and plants;
The maximum permissible concentration of a substance in water is established:
· for household, drinking and cultural and domestic water use (MPC v) taking into account three hazard indicators:
· organoleptic;
general sanitary;
· sanitary-toxicological.
· For fishery water use (MPC vr), taking into account five hazard indicators:
· organoleptic;
· sanitary;
· sanitary-toxicological;
· toxicological;
· fishery.
The organoleptic hazard indicator characterizes the ability of a substance to change the organoleptic properties of water. General sanitary - determines the influence of a substance on the processes of natural self-purification of water due to biochemical and chemical reactions with the participation of natural microflora. The sanitary-toxicological indicator characterizes the harmful effects on the human body, and the toxicological indicator shows the toxicity of a substance for living organisms inhabiting a water body. The fishery indicator of harmfulness determines the deterioration of the quality of commercial fish.
The lowest of the harmless concentrations for three (five) hazard indicators is taken as the MPC with an indication of the limiting hazard indicator. Fishery MPCs must satisfy a number of conditions under which they should not be observed:
· death of fish and food organisms for fish;
· gradual disappearance of fish species and food organisms;
· deterioration in the commercial quality of fish living in a water body;
· replacement of valuable fish species with low-value ones.
The quality of natural waters is influenced by natural and anthropogenic factors.
3. 3. Formation chemical composition natural waters
The formation of the chemical composition of natural waters is determined mainly by two groups of factors:
· direct factors that directly affect water (i.e., the action of substances that can enrich water with dissolved compounds or, conversely, release them from water): composition of rocks, living organisms, human economic activity;
· indirect factors that determine the conditions under which the interaction of substances with water occurs: climate, relief, hygienic
etc.................
Under environmental quality understand the degree to which a person’s living environment corresponds to his needs. Surrounding a person environment are natural conditions, workplace conditions and living conditions. Life expectancy, health, morbidity levels of the population, etc. depend on its quality.
Standardization of environmental quality – establishing indicators and limits within which changes in these indicators are allowed (for air, water, soil, etc.).
The purpose of standardization is to establish maximum permissible standards (environmental standards) human impact on the environment. Compliance with environmental standards should ensure the environmental safety of the population, the preservation of the genetic fund of humans, plants and animals, and the rational use and reproduction of natural resources.
Maximum permissible standards harmful effects, as well as methods for their determination, are temporary and can be improved as science and technology develop, taking into account international standards.
The main environmental standards for environmental quality and impact on it are as follows:
Quality standards (sanitary and hygienic):
– maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of harmful substances;
– maximum permissible level (MPL) of harmful physical influences: radiation, noise, vibration, magnetic fields, etc.
Impact standards (production and economic):
– extremely permissible emission(maximum limit) of harmful substances;
– maximum permissible discharge (MPD) of harmful substances.
Comprehensive standards:
– maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment.
Maximum permissible concentration (quantity) (MPC)- the amount of a pollutant in the environment (soil, air, water, food), which, with permanent or temporary exposure to a person, does not affect his health and does not cause adverse consequences in his offspring. MPCs are calculated per unit volume (for air, water), mass (for soil, food products) or surface (for workers’ skin). MPCs are established on the basis of comprehensive studies. When determining it, the degree of influence of pollutants is taken into account not only on human health, but also on animals, plants, microorganisms, as well as on natural communities as a whole.
Currently, in our country there are more than 1900 maximum permissible concentrations for harmful chemicals for water bodies, more than 500 for atmospheric air and more than 130 for soils.
When standardizing quality atmospheric air They use such indicators as the maximum permissible concentration of a harmful substance in the air of the working area, the maximum one-time maximum permissible concentration and the average daily maximum permissible concentration.
Maximum permissible concentration of harmful substances in the air of the working area (MPCrz) – this is the maximum concentration that, during daily (except weekends) work for 8 hours or for another duration, but not more than 41 hours per week, throughout the entire working experience, should not cause diseases or health abnormalities detected by modern research methods, in the process of work or in the long term of the life of the present and subsequent generations. A working area should be considered a space up to 2 m high above the floor or area where workers permanently or temporarily reside.
Maximum permissible maximum single concentration (MPCm) – This is the maximum concentration of a harmful substance in the air of populated areas, which does not cause reflex (including subsensory) reactions in the human body (sense of smell, change in light sensitivity of the eyes, etc.) when inhaled for 20 minutes.
Maximum permissible average daily concentration (MPCss) – This is the maximum concentration of a harmful substance in the air of populated areas, which should not have a direct or indirect effect on a person if inhaled for an unlimited period of time (years).
When standardizing quality water They use indicators such as maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances for drinking waters and fishery reservoirs. They also standardize the smell, taste, color, turbidity, temperature, hardness, coli index and other indicators of water quality.
Maximum permissible concentration" in water of a reservoir for domestic, drinking and cultural water use (MPCv) – This is the maximum concentration of a harmful substance in water, which should not have a direct or indirect effect on the human body throughout his life and on the health of subsequent generations, and should not worsen the hygienic conditions of water use.
Maximum permissible concentration in the water of a reservoir used for fishing purposes (MPCvr) – This is the maximum concentration of a harmful substance in water, which should not have a harmful effect on fish populations, primarily commercial ones.
When standardizing quality soil They use an indicator such as the maximum permissible concentration of a harmful substance in the topsoil. Maximum permissible concentration in the arable soil layer (MPCp) – this is the maximum concentration of a harmful substance in the upper, arable layer of soil, which should not have a direct or indirect effect negative influence on human health, soil fertility, its self-purifying ability, the environment in contact with it and not leading to the accumulation of harmful substances in agricultural crops.
When standardizing quality food They use an indicator such as the maximum permissible concentration of a harmful substance in food. Maximum permissible concentration (permissible residual amount) of a harmful substance in food (MPCpr) – This is the maximum concentration of a harmful substance in food products, which for an unlimited period of time (with daily exposure) does not cause diseases or deviations in human health.
Maximum permissible level (MAL)- this is the maximum level of exposure to radiation, noise, vibration, magnetic fields and other harmful physical influences, which does not pose a danger to human health, the condition of animals, plants, or their genetic fund. MPL is the same as MPC, but for physical impacts.
In cases where MPC or MPL have not been determined and are only at the development stage, indicators such as TAC – approximate permissible concentration, or ODU – approximate permissible level, respectively.
It should be noted that there are two approaches to regulating environmental pollution. On the one hand, it is possible to standardize the content of pollutants in environmental objects, on the other hand, the degree of transformation of the environment as a result of its pollution. Recently, more and more attention has been paid to the shortcomings of the first approach, in particular, the use of maximum permissible concentrations for soils. However, the approach to standardizing the quality of the environment based on indicators of its transformation (for example, the state of biota) is practically not developed. It seems better to use both approaches in combination with each other.
Maximum permissible emission (MPE) or discharge (MPD) – This is the maximum amount of pollutants that a given specific enterprise is allowed to emit into the atmosphere or discharge into a body of water per unit of time, without causing them to exceed the maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants and adverse environmental consequences.
If in the air or water of populated areas where enterprises are located, the concentrations of harmful substances exceed the maximum permissible concentration, then for objective reasons the values of the maximum permissible concentration and maximum permissible concentration cannot be achieved. For such enterprises the values are set temporarily agreed emissions of harmful substances (TSE) And temporarily agreed upon discharges of harmful substances (HSD) Accordingly, a gradual reduction in emissions and discharges of harmful substances to values that ensure compliance with maximum permissible limits and maximum permissible limits is introduced.
Currently in Russia, only 15–20% of polluting industries operate at MPE standards, 40–50% operate at VSV standards, and the rest pollute the environment based on limit emissions and discharges, which are determined by actual emissions over a certain period of time.
A comprehensive indicator of environmental quality is the maximum permissible environmental load.
Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment– this is the maximum intensity of anthropogenic impact on the environment that does not lead to a violation of sustainability ecological systems(or, in other words, to the ecosystem going beyond its ecological capacity).
The potential ability of the natural environment to tolerate one or another anthropogenic load without disrupting the basic functions of ecosystems is defined as capacity of the natural environment, or ecological capacity of the territory. The resistance of ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts depends on the following indicators: 1) stocks of living and dead organic matter; 2) efficiency of organic matter formation or vegetation production; and 3) species and structural diversity. The higher they are, the more stable the ecosystem.
Water quality standards are given in the Sanitary Rules and Standards for the Protection of Surface Waters from Pollution (SanPiN 4630-88) and the Rules for the Protection of Surface Waters (1991). The standards are given for water for domestic and drinking water, municipal and domestic and fishery water use. They used 5 groups of indicators - organoleptic, general sanitary, sanitary-toxicological, toxicological and fishery. The last 2 groups are used only in places of fishery water use. Students become familiar with the specific indicators of each group when performing laboratory work.
Using organoleptic indicators, substances are assessed
va, changing the color, smell and taste of water, and general sanitary indicators - substances and properties of water that affect the speed of self-purification processes. Sanitary and toxicological indicators characterize the content of 3B toxic to humans, and toxicological indicators characterize the same, but only for fish. And finally, fishery indicators are used for those properties of the aquatic environment to which fish are more sensitive than humans (for example, to elevated temperatures).
Sanitary-toxicological and toxicological indicators represent the maximum permissible concentration of several hundred 3B, poisonous to humans and fish, respectively. Consequently, two types of maximum permissible concentrations for substances in water have been established: hygienic (for 1630 substances) and fishery (for 704 substances). They are approved by the State Committee for Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision of the Russian Federation and Roskomrybolovstvo, respectively.
The hygienic MPC of a substance in water is the maximum concentration of an individual pollutant in water, above which the water is not suitable for the specified type of water use. At concentrations equal to or less than the MPC, water remains as harmless to all living things as water that does not contain this substance. Hygienic maximum concentration limits for substances in water are based on subthreshold concentrations of 3B, at which no noticeable change in the functional state of the human body, determined by modern methods, is observed. Fishery MPCs of substances in water are the maximum concentrations of substances in water that do not cause the death of fish and their food organisms, do not impair the commercial qualities of fish, do not cause the gradual replacement of some (more valuable) with other (less valuable) fish species and their food organisms, i.e. do not degrade the fishery value of the water body.
In the absence of maximum permissible concentrations for 3B contained in water, at the stage of preventive control, the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance of the Russian Federation establishes approximate permissible levels (TAL) for the content of these substances in water (so far for 116 substances), developed on the basis of calculation and express experimental methods for predicting toxicity.
The assessment of the quality of drinking water for each 3B or property is carried out consistently across all groups of indicators, i.e. First, there is an organoleptic assessment, then general sanitary characteristics are checked, and at the end - sanitary-toxicological characteristics. For each 3B, three different MPCs are determined, the smallest of which is called the limiting indicator of harmfulness - LPV. For example, for phenol, the LPV will be organoleptic, since phenol makes water unfit for drinking due to changes in its taste and smell at a content that does not pose a danger to human health. For zinc, the LPV is general sanitary, and for lead, arsenic and mercury, it is sanitary-toxicological.
With the simultaneous use of a reservoir for fishing purposes and as a source of domestic and drinking water use, the choice of water resources is based on all 5 groups of indicators. At the same time, the maximum permissible concentration for series 3B in the case of domestic and drinking water use is higher than for fishery use. Accordingly, the LPV for such substances will be toxicological, and not sanitary-toxicological. Examples of LPV and MPC of some 3B are presented in table. 5.5.
Table 5.5. LEL and maximum permissible concentration of some substances for various types of water use
If there are several pollutants with the same LPW in water, their combined action is taken into account according to the rule
where is the concentration of the substance in water, mg/l.
The sanitary requirements for drinking water are as follows: the severity of odors and tastes should not exceed 2 points; there should be no films or oil stains on the water; its temperature should not exceed the average monthly temperature of the hottest month in the last 10 years by more than 3 C; permissible pH range 6.5...7.5; the free content in the sample taken at 12 o'clock is not less than 4 mg/l, BODpol - 3 mg/l, COD - 1.5 mg/l. The disadvantage of the above standardization system is the need to simultaneously take into account a large number of particular indicators. Therefore, all over the world there is an intensive search for integral indicators of water quality and its pollution. The most promising of them seems to be the absolute indicator of the total load, which is calculated only for conservative ones, i.e. substances that do not disintegrate during the self-purification process.
In addition, the rules for the protection of surface waters establish technical standards for water users. It is the maximum permissible discharge (MPD) of harmful substances into a water body from the SW.
MDS is the mass of a substance in the water supply, the maximum permissible for disposal with the established regime at a given point of a water body per unit of time in order to ensure water quality standards in the controlled area (see below) or not deteriorate the established water quality, if it is not worse than the standard one. It is established for each waste water discharge and each controlled pollutant in this discharge on the basis of calculation. At the same time, the background concentrations of controlled 3Bs, categories of water use, water quality standards in the water body, its assimilative abilities and the optimal distribution of the mass of pollutants discharged from the wastewater system between water users are taken into account. Therefore, such a calculation, as a rule, is carried out simultaneously for all water consumers of a river basin or water management area, considering the mutual influence of waste water discharges at their maximum (average hourly) flow rates for the actual period of time.
Operating water-using enterprises that discharge SW in excess of the established MAP are required to develop and coordinate with local authorities (city or district administration) and the State Committee for Ecology of the Russian Federation (Tverioblkompriroda 5 action plans for achieving the MAP within the regulatory time frame, ensuring full financial and material-technical resources. For the period of implementation of these plans, enterprises are issued temporary permits by Tverioblkompriroda, which indicate discharge limits 3B, temporarily agreed upon discharge (TAD) of substances with wastewater. Limits, TCA (maximum mass of pollutants for the year) are established according to best results, which can be achieved at a given enterprise with the presence and effective operation of existing water recycling systems (see below), treatment and other water protection facilities. They are periodically revised by Tverioblkompriroda in the direction of reduction as individual stages of the plan of water protection measures are completed within the regulatory time frame. If the planned volumes of work are not fulfilled or limits are exceeded, the VSS of substances from the waste water to the enterprise and
its officials are subject to appropriate sanctions (see subsection 6.4 and section 7).
End of work -
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Ecology
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Initial theoretical concepts of ecology
Highest value for ecology had biological science and especially evolutionary theory Ch. Darwin. Provisions on heredity and variability, natural and artificial selection
Relationship between organism and environment
Conditions of existence or environmental conditions include factors necessary for an organism, without which its existence is impossible. The most general classification of environmental factors
Ecology of populations and communities
The purpose of studying the ecology of populations and communities is to obtain knowledge about their most important characteristics and properties, types of development and other features necessary to solve problems.
general characteristics
Ecosystem is the basic concept of ecology. It can be represented by formations of various sizes - from an ordinary puddle to an aquarium, to the biosphere as a whole. Close to this concept
Energy transformations in ecosystems
The main source of energy for ecosystems is solar energy. It is she who creates heat on the surface of the planet, kinetic energy air flows and potential energy of the hydrosphere. Requirements
Evolution and sustainability of ecosystems
Ecosystems are dynamic formations with pronounced daily, seasonal and long-term rhythms. The first of them is due to the circadian (circadian) periodicity of physiological processes
Composition and boundaries of the biosphere
The creator of the doctrine of the biosphere was Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945), one of the last great encyclopedist scientists. He predicted man's mastery of nuclear energy and space exploration
Circulation of elements in the biosphere
The circulation of energy and matter in ecosystems was discussed above. The biosphere is a unique planetary ecosystem with established biogeochemical circulation cycles, the most important
Evolution of the biosphere
Living organisms that appeared 3 billion years ago transformed the planet, dramatically changing its air and water shells, surface and soils. In the progressive evolution of the planet it is possible to
Man in the biosphere
Man is rightly considered the crown of evolution of the organic world. The extraordinary complexity of such a phenomenon as man has become the reason for the variety of approaches to the study of man, both
Human living environments and forms of adaptation to them
As stated above, humans are the only biological species distributed throughout the biosphere. There are regions with high population density, there are places where people only appear
Adaptive types and races
When analyzing humanity as a large system, the following biological levels of complexity are distinguished: individual, reproductive group, ecological population, adaptive type, race, species-Homo sapiens. P
Modern human impacts on the biosphere
The main impact of humans on the biosphere is associated with their economic activities. Other aspects of a person’s contact with OS are less significant, although in certain conditions they can be significant.
Current environmental problems of humanity in the biosphere
According to Fig. 2.3 The end of the 20th century is characterized by a sharp acceleration of the vector of human influence on the biosphere and the entry of our life into a continuous strip of environmental crises and problems
The Problem of Population Growth
About 10 thousand years ago, the total number of people on the planet was approximately 5 million people, and its doubling period was 3 thousand years. The population increased with increasing
The problem of urbanization
In the 20th century, parallel to the growth of the planet's population, there was a process of urbanization, i.e. concentration of population and economic life in cities. If in 1900 there were 224.4 people living in cities
Global consequences of air pollution
Most dangerous consequences air pollution consists of the destruction of the ozone screen and the development greenhouse effect. Both of these processes were the result of the influence of practical
The danger of nuclear disasters and radioactive contamination
After opening the first known to man the type of ionizing radiation (IR) in 1895 - X-ray radiation - a little more than 100 years had passed. The danger of IR for health and life would be
The problem of natural resource depletion
Under natural resources(PR) refers to specific types of matter and energy that ensure development human society, but are formed in the PS and are its components. B with
Regional environmental problems of the Tver region
The most unfavorable environmental conditions are in the regional center. The city of Tver does not belong to cities with very high levels of pollution (total pollutant emissions
Forecasting and assessing environmental risk
Overview of the main environmental problems modernity, it is advisable to supplement with comments regarding the concept of environmental risk, which in the last 1.5...2 decades has been widely
Ecological principles of nature conservation and rational environmental management
Nature conservation (NP) is understood as a system of measures that ensures the conservation of nature’s resource and environment-reproducing functions, as well as biological diversity. Nature management including
Concept of environmental safety and sustainable development of the Russian Federation
IN last years In our country there is a wide discussion of the concept of environmental safety and sustainable development of the Russian Federation. A significant part of the proposed measures is enshrined in Decree of the President of the Russian Federation N236-94
International cooperation on OS protection
The Russian Federation carries out such cooperation in the field of OS protection on a bilateral and multilateral basis. We are developing bilateral cooperation with the UK, Germany, Denmark, India
Basic forms and methods of protecting the natural environment and solving environmental problems
Specific (i.e., used to solve specific environmental problems) methods and approaches are discussed in section 3. In this subsection, conservative and active ones are first carried out
Protection of biosphere components
5.1. Protection of the atmosphere from material pollution* 5.1.1. Ecological characteristics of the atmosphere. The gaseous shell of the Earth is important
The atmosphere consists of gas oxides and has a total mass of m, or approximately one millionth of the mass of the Earth. About 50% of its mass is concentrated in the ground
Standardization of air pollution
In Russia and the CIS countries, 3B standards have been established in atmospheric air for hygienic and technical purposes. Hygienic standardization is based on three basic principles of harmfulness:
Monitoring the cleanliness of the atmosphere
On the territory of the Russian Federation, state control over the cleanliness of the atmosphere is carried out within the framework of the Unified State System for Environmental Monitoring (for details, see subsection 4.3 above). According to GOST 17.2.3.01-86 and RD 52.04.186-89, except stationary
Atmospheric air protection
Currently, to protect the atmosphere from material pollution, organizational and technical methods of protection are widely used and almost forgotten about technological methods. The latter are radically reduced
Dispersion of emissions into the atmosphere
At thermal power plants, thermal power plants, metallurgical plants, chemical plants, etc. A fairly effective solution so far remains the dispersion of several purified emissions into the atmosphere using high vertical
Emission treatment methods
To purify emissions from aerosols, various purification methods are used, used in the corresponding PUs. The latter are classified according to the principle of purification into the following four groups. 1. Dry P
Ecological characteristics of the aquatic environment
The hydrosphere is the most important regulator of the balance of life on Earth. Water covers up to 71% of the planet's surface, its total reserves amount to 1.37 billion km3, 98% of which comes from the seas
Water use and its types
The use of water to meet the needs of the population and human economic activities is called water use, which can be carried out with the withdrawal of water from the reservoir (for drinking, irrigation
Water pollution is understood as such a change in its composition and properties that makes water unsuitable for one or more types of water use. Water clogging means the accumulation of
Water quality control and regulation of waste disposal into water bodies and city sewers
Monitoring the condition of water bodies is carried out by both water users and state control bodies - the State Committee for Ecology of the Russian Federation, Roshydromet through the Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring, the State Committee for Sanzpidemnadzor of the Russian Federation, Roskomrybovodstvo, and their agencies.
Main directions of protection of the aquatic environment
The growth of water consumption in industry and agriculture, along with large-scale pollution of water bodies, makes it urgent to develop measures to protect the aquatic environment and limit consumption in
Wastewater treatment methods
The rules for the protection of surface waters prohibit the discharge of untreated wastewater. Their cleaning consists of neutralization (i.e. removal of harmful substances, the entry of which into water bodies can make the water unusable
Recycling water supply of enterprises
- this is a water supply in which waste water, after their purification, is again used in the technological processes of these enterprises. It is the most promising way to reduce water consumption
Ecological significance of soils
Soil is the fertile surface layer of the earth formed under the influence of air, water and living organisms. Land is a broader concept that
Anthropogenic impacts on soils
Soils are classified as natural objects that form very slowly (it takes about 100 years to increase soil thickness by 2...2.5 cm) and are destroyed quickly. The following forms of violation can be distinguished:
Protection of flora
Flora is one of the two main forms of life on Earth. In any ecosystem and in the biosphere as a whole, plants play the role of producers and create the bulk of biomass, annually absorbing about 16
Protection of wildlife (fauna)
Although the biomass of animals on our planet is only 2% of living matter, their role in the biosphere is irreplaceable. Animals are distinguished by high levels of energy, great mobility and diversity.
Subsoil protection
The subsoil is part of the earth's crust located below the soil layer or the bottom of reservoirs and watercourses, extending to depths accessible for geological study and development (or
The most important parameters of AI and their units of measurement
The severity of the consequences caused by exposure to AI depends on the intensity and duration of their effect on a person. The intensity of AI depends on the number of radioactive substances that evaluate its activity
The radiation situation in the Russian Federation is determined by: 1) the global radioactive background (natural radiation background or NRF plus the background caused by previously conducted nuclear tests in the world); 2) on
Radiation control (RC) in the Russian Federation
The legislation of the Russian Federation establishes state supervision and control, industrial and public control over the radiation situation in the country and ensuring the safe operation of artificial sources
AI protection
The main protective measure is the complete elimination of exposure of people, reducing it to a level not exceeding the standards for NRB-96 (see Table 5.7), and reducing the number of people exposed to radiation.
Principles of providing RB population
Under normal operating conditions of IR sources, RB is ensured by the implementation of: 1) the principle of standardization, i.e. not exceeding permissible limits (see Table 5.7) of individual radiation doses to citizens
Protection of the population from acoustic pollution
Elastic vibrations propagating in air, solid and liquid media under the influence of any disturbing force are classified as acoustic vibrations. In the frequency range f = 16 Hz... 20 kHz they
Protection of the population from vibrations
Vibrations are mechanical vibrations material points or bodies directly transferred to the human body or its individual parts. Vibrations transmitted to the human body through its supports
Protection of the population from the effects of industrial frequency pollutants
Non-ionizing EMFs occur along power lines and near electrical substations operating at voltages above 1000 V. As is known, the electric field (EF) is characterized by electrical intensity E, k
Protection of fire alarm systems from thermal pollution (STZ)
They are caused by high energy consumption and dissipation in industrial centers and cities. From an environmental point of view, surface waters in areas with thermal power plants are the most vulnerable to hazards
Environmental assessment of economic and other activities
Environmental impact assessment (EE) is the establishment of compliance of planned economic and other activities with environmental requirements and determination of the admissibility of the implementation of an EE facility.
Assessment of damage from environmental pollution
As is known, hazardous pollutants damage not only nature, but also the national economy, health and well-being of people. It manifests itself simultaneously in several aspects: moral, aesthetic,
Economic mechanism of environmental management in the Russian Federation
The main elements of the modern economic mechanism for environmental management in the Russian Federation are payments for polluting pollutants and for the use of natural resources. Thus, since 1993, the Government of the Russian Federation introduced a new
Economic incentives for environmental activities and environmental funds in the Russian Federation
The Law of the Russian Federation "On the Protection of Environmental Protection Products" (1991) provides enterprises, institutions, organizations, as well as citizens with tax, credit and other benefits when they introduce low-waste products.
Fundamentals of environmental law and nature conservation management in the Russian Federation
7.1. Sources and content of environmental legal norms The legal basis of environmental law and environmental activities in the Russian Federation sos
Responsibility for environmental violations
Offenses are understood as a culpable unlawful act (action or inaction) committed by a sane person who has reached the legal age. Offenses
Nature conservation management in the Russian Federation
Public administration environmental activities in the Russian Federation are carried out by higher authorities authorities: the Federal Assembly (State Duma and Federation Council) on the one hand (through the Committee on E
Conclusion
The state of environmental crisis has become characteristic feature life in all industrialized countries of the world, including the Russian Federation. Environmental problems in the Russian Federation lead to
Bibliographic list
1. Berezhnoy S.A., Romanov V.V., Sedov Yu.I. Ecology: Textbook. - Tver: TvePI, 1993. 2. Collection of standard calculations and tasks on ecology: Textbook / S.A. Berezhnoy, V.V. Romano
