Methodological development for a history lesson in 7th grade.
History teacher at municipal educational institution-secondary school in the village of Ershovka, Atkarsky district, Saratov region.
Subject. Enlightened absolutism.
Target. Characterize the features of the Enlightenment, the characteristic features of enlightened absolutism, the activities of outstanding monarchs of enlightened absolutism and their use of the ideas of the Enlightenment in carrying out reforms
Lesson objectives:
Educational:
Learn about the main figures of the era
Understand what enlightened absolutism is
Get to know the outstanding monarchs of Europe and their reforms
Reinforce the material you have learned
Educational:
Development of speech and thinking activity
Development of skills to perceive information visually and auditorily
Development of cooperation skills while working in groups, pairs; listening skills
Development of students' attention and observation
Learn to get information from different sources
Educational:
Nurturing a culture of speech and communication; tolerance, attentive attitude towards other people
Instill respect and interest in European culture
Lesson type
Combined
Lesson Plan
Motivation. Setting a goal.
Activation of learned material
Learning new material through the teacher’s message, students’ presentations with pre-prepared messages, and completing assignments
Reinforcing the learned material, working with cards
Conclusion: questions, answers, discussion, comparisons
Equipment
Textbooks
Portraits of educators
Audio recordings of music by V.A. Mozart, L. Van Beethoven, Bach
Reproductions of paintings by artists (“Oath of the Horatii”, “Brutus”)
Statements of European thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment
Dictionaries of dates and terms
Computer presentation
Routing
Lesson topic, plan
personally
significant
problem
Enlightened absolutism. 1. Features of the Age of Enlightenment.
2. The concept of enlightened absolutism.
3. Outstanding monarchs of Europe and their reforms.
4. Character traits enlightened absolutism.
5. Compare the activities and reforms of Joseph 2 and Frederick 2
Possible personally significant issue: learn to understand inconsistency and complexity historical process critically evaluate ideas, personalities, reforms, respect others’ and one’s own work and culture
Planned results of studying the material
Students gain knowledge about enlightened absolutism, about the most prominent European monarchs and their reforms, which are an attempt to modernize absolutism from above using the ideas of the Enlightenment
Teaching methods and forms of organization educational activities
Problematic or partially search method. Problem tasks: 1. Think about what made the enlightened monarchs, based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, carry out reforms? 2. Which of the ideas of the Enlightenment did they use and which did not? 3. To establish the generalities and differences in the policy of enlightened absolutism in different European countries using the example of Austria and Prussia.
Lesson form: combined lesson.
Techniques of the teacher: guiding students during the preparation of messages, posing problems at the beginning of the lesson, introductory remarks, organizing and correcting work (moderation), summing up
Development of student skills
They learn to plan their activities to prepare a message, work with different sources, develop their research skills, express and prove their point of view, listen to an alternative point of view, ask questions to classmates and answer them, update previously studied material, highlight the main thing and systematize what is highlighted by filling out the table in card
Basic concepts and terms
Age of Enlightenment, enlighteners, enlightened absolutism, enlightened monarchs, modernization
Sources of information: school and out-of-school
Textbook, 25. Assignments in workbook. Cards. Illustrations: portraits of educators, enlightened monarchs, works of 18th century artists, popular science and fiction. Encyclopedia for children: The World History. – M.: Avanta +, 1994. – T. 1.
During the classes
Motivation. Setting a goal.
introduction teachers to 18th century music.
Hello guys! We continue to study events European history 18th century, how socio-political thought and the states of Europe developed during this period and what policies their government pursued. We'll consider characteristics the era of the Enlightenment and the concept of enlightened absolutism, we will discuss the personalities and reforms of the most prominent European monarchs who pursued a policy of enlightened absolutism. At the same time, we will perform a variety of tasks. To successfully complete the first task “Enlightenmentists and their ideas,” let me remind you that the term “enlightenment” was first found among French thinkers (Voltaire), but was finally established after the article of the great German philosopher E. Kant “What is Enlightenment.” This era in Western Europe characterized by belief in the omnipotence of the human mind. Historical progress is one of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment. Voltaire pinned his hopes on an “enlightened monarch”; Montesquieu promoted a constitutional monarchy with the obligatory principle of separation of powers. The Enlightenmentists believed that every person is born free; their ideal was the kingdom of reason. Rousseau's social contract is characteristic, in which he says that, having gotten rid of class, people will create a society in which everyone will limit their freedom for the sake of social harmony. The state will become the bearer of the general will. Thus, the main ideas of the Enlightenment were formulated:
1) faith in human reason and progress;
2) hopes for an enlightened monarch;
3) freedom and equality before the law;
4) separation of powers;
5) abolition of serfdom;
6) abolition of estates;
7) education for the common people;
8) religious tolerance, etc.
Card task No. 1. Select from the statements below those that belong to educators and express your thoughts about the problem raised. Provide the necessary arguments to justify your position.
Card task No. 2. Correlate the names of the educators in the first column and their views in the second column, connecting with arrows.
Name the most prominent monarchs of Europe?
Students’ presentations with messages should be accompanied by a computer presentation:
“Catherine 2 – Northern Semiramis or Tartuffe in a Skirt”
"Maria Theresa - ruler and mother of 16 children"
“Frederick 2 – philosopher or sergeant major on the throne”
Discussion of speeches, questions and assignments for the class:
What ideas of the Enlightenment were more often used by enlightened monarchs? Work in groups: a group of boys and a group of girls.
Name the 2 most outstanding monarchs in your opinion.
Compare their reforms and the results of reforms.
Write down in the 5th column of card No. 2 the characteristic features of enlightened absolutism. Work in pairs.
Summarizing: put a grade for the lesson for each student in the 6th column of card No. 2. Work in groups of boys and girls.
Introspection
What did I succeed in the lesson and what didn’t?
House. Z. § 25
Card No. 1
“The true equality of citizens consists in all of them being equally subject to the laws” (J. Delambert)
“I consider it obligatory for everyone to obey the laws unquestioningly and unswervingly” (Socrates)
“Unjust laws do not make law” (Cicero)
“The law reveals its beneficial effect only to those who obey it” (Democritus)
“Freedom consists in depending only on laws” (Voltaire)
“The cruelty of laws prevents their observance” (Montesquieu)
“True laws rest in human nature; whoever acts contrary to them experiences the consequences of this” (A. Einsiedel)
“We must be slaves of the laws in order to become free” (Cicero)
“I see the imminent destruction of that state where the law has no force and is under someone else’s authority” (Plato)
Card No. 2
Enlighteners of the 18th century.
Basic ideas of the enlighteners
Enlightened monarchs of Europe.
Student messages
Ideas of enlighteners in the reforms of enlightened monarchs
Characteristics of enlightened absolutism
Montesquieu
Enlightened
monarchy
Republic
Constitutional monarchy
Tolerance
Separation of powers
Equality before the law
Abolition of estates
Education
Faith in Reason
Cancel private
property
Rotkin “Catherine 2 - northern Semiramis or Tartuffe in a skirt?”
Presentation with musical accompaniment (Mozart's music is played)
Novikova
"Maria Theresa - ruler and mother of 16 children"
"Joseph 2 - Dreamer on the Throne"
Listratov
"Frederick 2 - philosopher or sergeant major on the throne"
Literature
« General history from ancient times to late XIX in", Zagladin N.V., Simonia N.A.: Textbook for grade 10 educational institutions. - M.: LLC "TID" Russian word- RS", 2006
Noskov V.V., Klimov O.Yu. General. Grade 10. Textbook. A basic level of- Ventana-Graf, 2011
"General history. History of modern times, late 15th to 18th centuries.” O.V. Dmitrieva Textbook for 7th grade of general education institutions. – M. “Russian Word”, 2008.
Duda M.Yu. World history the entire school course in tables. Minsk " Modern school"Kuzma 2009.
Encyclopedia for children. The World History. T.1.
School encyclopedia. History of Russia 18-19 centuries. M. "Olma - Press Education" 2003.
Material from the Internet
The Empress was inspired by the idea of an enlightened monarchy. About the enlightened monarchy in XVIII V. wrote Voltaire, Rousseau and other enlighteners 1. In those days, many believed that history was being made
1 The Enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century who expressed ideas about the “natural equality of people,” fought for the establishment of political freedom in society, the abolition of class privileges, the civil equality of people before the law, in other words, “for the kingdom of reason.” Enlightenment leaders spoke about the need for education and dissemination scientific knowledge. Many educators spoke out against obscurantism and prejudice. They ridiculed and castigated arbitrariness and despotism. The largest educators were: J. Locke - in England; Voltaire, J. J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu, D. Diderot, P. A. Holbach, C. A. Helvetius - in France; G.E. Lessing, I.G. Herder, F. Schiller, I.V. Goethe - in Germany; T. Jefferson, B. Franklin, T. Payne - in North America.
the actions of great people: generals, state dignitaries and, of course, monarchs, on whom the prosperity or misfortune of states depends.
The Enlighteners were indignant at the absurdity, arbitrariness, and injustice of the life around them, but they thought that an enlightened ruler could change all this. You just need to issue perfect laws and see that they are strictly implemented. Then the strong will not be able to offend the weak, the rich will not pull last veins from the poor. And the weak and poor will not encroach on the property and position of the rich out of envy. Social balance and the common good will prevail.
The best minds believed that order can only be imposed by coercion. XVIII centuries, it’s impossible. This is despotism. It is necessary to convince people that laws and order are necessary for the common good. But only educated subjects with developed intelligence can be convinced. Therefore, the main tool for correcting society is education. The more schools, universities, and books there are, the better.
Gradually, as society becomes more enlightened, the monarch must expand the rights and freedoms of his subjects. But there is no need to rush into granting rights and freedoms, so as not to fall into the position of a trainer who unleashed an untamed bear.
Many European monarchs tried to follow the ideas of enlightened absolutism, in particular the Prussian king Frederick II, who corresponded with Voltaire. To the enlighteners and educated crowned persons of the 18th century. I wanted to create a “union of thinkers and kings” in the name of reason and the common good.
But in reality it didn't work out well. “The ruler of thoughts”, “the uncrowned king of Europe” Voltaire could not get along in his fatherland with the “sun king” Louis XIV and his heir Louis XV, because he was constantly convinced how the words of the French monarchs diverged from their deeds. In life, kings were rather guided famous phrase Louis XIV: “The state is me!” Having stayed with Frederick II, seeing the arbitrariness of officials in the country, the wild drill in the army, the “dirt” of court life, Voltaire was very disappointed in the “enlightened absolutism” of the Prussian model.
1. How Enlightenment thinkers explained events public life?
According to the thought of the Enlightenment, events in social life were explained on the basis of simple laws, which ultimately boiled down to the rationality of what was happening. They brought the life of society closer to the life of nature, believing that the laws of interaction between people are easy to calculate if prejudices are discarded.
2. What did the theory of social contract relate to the emergence and functions of the state? Which government structure Did D. Locke consider it ideal?
The social contract theory precisely connected the emergence of the state with this very contract, according to which people voluntarily transferred to the state the function of protecting their natural rights. Taking into account the English experience, for Locke the ideal was a state with a separation of legislative and executive powers (which was already partly done in England with the development of the functions of parliament).
3. Why did France become the spiritual center of European enlightenment? Describe the views of Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot.
France became the center of European enlightenment because even before that it became the center of European culture. Thanks to the latter, education and the written word were held in high esteem here. Almost half of the country's adult men could read. Passion for new ideas, including the ideas of the Enlightenment, became fashionable even among the highest aristocracy. It was in this environment that the greatest minds of the era flourished.
Voltaire was an active champion of natural law and actively spoke out in specific cases of its violation. But the main circle of his ideas was centered around religion. He criticized the ideas of the Catholic Church and absolutism, which based its rights on Catholic ideology. But at the same time, Voltaire just as fiercely criticized atheism, since without religion, society is deprived of moral guidelines.
D. Diderot is known as the publisher of the Encyclopedia, or Explanatory dictionary Sciences, Arts and Crafts”, where he tried to summarize the basic knowledge of his era. He denied the dualistic doctrine of the bifurcation of the material and spiritual principles, recognizing that only matter with sensitivity exists, and complex and varied phenomena are only the result of the movement of its particles. A person is only what the general system of education and changes in facts make of him.
J.J. Rousseau considered the laws of social development and the prospects for it most fully among the encyclopedists. He believed that man by nature has free will and has used this will since the beginning of time. The state, according to his ideas, arose as a result of a natural contract between people. However, with the advent of property inequality, the social contract was distorted, from which all injustices arise.
4. Which of the enlighteners adhered to republican ideas? How did educators explain the need for separation of powers?
According to the enlighteners, the separation of powers is necessary so that none of the branches of government subjugates the others, that is, to avoid autocracy. Sh.L. de Montesquieu took this idea to its logical conclusion when he wrote about the system of checks and balances. Many of the enlighteners were inclined towards a republican form of government. The most followers in this were J.Zh. Rousseau.
5. Why did the ideas of the Enlightenment not spread as widely in the German states as in England and France? What were the features of the German Enlightenment?
There were many German states; there was no such center of culture and education as Paris in France. In addition, the local elite has long been accustomed to communicating on a variety of topics on French, especially on topics of advanced ideas. German aristocrats simply ordered books from France and joined the pan-European Enlightenment centered in Paris.
Therefore, German enlighteners did not so radically call for a reorganization of society. But it was they who focused on interest in own language and traditions, the identity of German culture. It was from German enlightened circles that interest in everything national began, which spread throughout Europe in the next era of romanticism.
6. How do you explain the spread of the ideas of enlightened absolutism? Fill the table.
In the 18th century The ideas of the Enlightenment promised the reconstruction of society on a reasonable basis. It was assumed that it would be possible to establish the state apparatus like a clockwork mechanism and make it work without failures. This idea was very attractive to the monarchs. In addition, these ideas were in fashion in the high society of Europe, and the young princes were carried away by them purely as a human being, and having received power, they tried to realize the dreams of their youth in practice. Moreover, the image of an enlightened monarch was beneficial because it increased his authority among representatives of high society who were equally passionate about education.
7. Draw a conclusion about how consistently the ideas of the Enlightenment were implemented in the activities of rulers. Which of these ideas could not be implemented by enlightened monarchs?
The Enlighteners did not have a single program that the monarchs could consistently carry out: each of the thinkers had their own ideas. The rulers of large European states have implemented some of them. However, they could not, for example, introduce a republican sphere of government, not only because they did not want to deprive themselves of power, but also because at that time some ideas could cause great indignation in society. It was not for nothing that Catherine II wrote to one of the educators that philosophers work with paper that will endure anything, but rulers have to deal with the backs of their subjects, who are more sensitive.
“Enlightened monarchy” in Russia is the name given to the state policy pursued by Empress Catherine II, who ruled from 1762 to 1796. In the style of her leadership of the country, she was guided by the then Western standards. What was the policy of enlightened absolutism? Prussia, the Habsburg monarchy, France - all these countries, like Russia, adhered to this course at that time. It consisted of carrying out reforms that updated the state structure and abolished some feudal remnants.
Power in the country remained exclusively in the hands of the autocratic ruler. This feature contained the main contradiction that distinguished the policy of enlightened absolutism. The Habsburg monarchy, Russia and other major European powers embarked on a path of reform following the emergence of capitalism. The changes were strictly controlled from above and therefore never became full-fledged
Origins
The Russian enlightened monarchy arose under the influence of French culture, which shaped the views of Catherine II, her entourage and a significant part of the country's educated people. On the one hand, it was the fashion of aristocrats for etiquette, European dresses, hairstyles and hats. However, French trends were also reflected in the spiritual climate of the nobility.
Rich merchants and traders, as well as high-ranking officials, began to become acquainted with Western European humanitarian culture, history, philosophy, art and literature under Peter I. During the era of Catherine, this process reached its peak point. It is the educated aristocracy that is the social support of the monarchy during the period of enlightened absolutism. Books and visiting foreigners instilled progressive ideas in the representatives of the nobility. Rich people began to often travel to Europe, explore the world, and compare Western customs and morals with Russian ones.
Catherine's "Order"
Catherine II came to power in 1762. She was German by origin, had a European education and habits, and corresponded with the great French educators. This “intellectual baggage” affected the style of government. The Empress wanted to reform the state, make it more efficient and more modern. This is how the enlightened monarchy of Catherine 2 appeared.
Already in the same 1762, the empress’s adviser Nikita Panin provided her with a project for reform of the imperial council. The statesman argued that the previous system of governing the country was ineffective due to the fact that it allowed the emergence of influential favorites. The transition from absolutism to an enlightened monarchy also consisted in the fact that Catherine contrasted herself with the former rulers of the post-Petrine era, when politics was controlled by all kinds of courtiers.
In general, Panin proposed creating an advisory body. Catherine rejected his project, deciding to supplement this document. Thus was born the plan for a complete overhaul of the previous legislation. The main thing that the empress wanted to achieve was order in governing the country. To do this, it was necessary to completely rework the old laws and add new ones.
Soon, Catherine established a Commission to create a draft of a new Code. As a recommendation for her, the Empress composed “Instruction”. It contained more than 500 articles that formulated the basic principles of the Russian legal system. Catherine's document referred to the writings of the great thinkers of that time: Montesquieu, Beccaria, Just, Bielfeld. The “Nakaz” reflected everything that the enlightened monarchy in Russia represented. The features, content, and significance of this document went back to the ideology of advanced enlighteners.
Catherine's theoretical arguments were even too liberal and therefore inapplicable to the Russian reality of that time, since they struck a blow at the interests of the privileged nobility - the main support of state power. One way or another, many of the empress’s reasoning remained only within the limits of good wishes. On the other hand, in “Nakaz” Catherine stated that Russia is a European power. Thus, she confirmed the political course laid down by Peter I.
Layers of the Russian population
Catherine II believed that the enlightened monarchy in Russia was based on the class division of society. She called the absolutist model an ideal state. The Empress explained her loyalty by the “natural” right of some to rule, and of others to be ruled. Catherine's postulates were justified by references to the history of Russia, where autocracy had the most ancient roots.
The monarch was called not only the source of power, but also a figure that consolidated the entire society. He had no restrictions other than ethical ones. The monarch, Catherine believed, had to show leniency and ensure “the bliss of one and all.” The enlightened monarchy did not aim to limit the freedom of people, but to direct their energy and activity to achieve common prosperity.
The Empress divided Russian society into three main strata: the nobility, the petty bourgeoisie and the peasantry. She called freedom the right to do what remains within the law. Laws were declared the main instrument of the state. They were built and formulated according to the “spirit of the people,” that is, the mentality. All this was to be ensured by the enlightened monarchy of the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II was the first Russian ruler to speak about the need to humanize criminal law. She thought main goal states do not punish criminals, but prevent their crimes.
Economy
The economic pillars on which the enlightened monarchy rested were property rights and agriculture. Catherine called the hard work of all Russian classes the main condition for the country’s prosperity. Calling agriculture the basis of the country's economy, the empress was not lying. Russia in the second half of the 18th century remained a deeply agrarian country, in which industry noticeably lagged behind European ones.
Many villages during the reign of Catherine II were declared cities, but in essence they remained the same villages with the same occupations of the population and appearance. This contradiction was the agrarian and patriarchal nature of Russia. Even with imaginary cities, the country's urban population was no more than 5%.
Russian industry, like agriculture, remained feudal. Forced labor was widely used in factories and manufactories, since the labor of civilian workers cost enterprises an order of magnitude more. Meanwhile, in England Russia had already begun to export mainly semi-finished products and natural raw materials. The economy produced almost no finished products for the foreign market.
Court and religion
The last chapters of Catherine’s “Instructions” were devoted to the courts. The enlightened monarchy in Russia, in short, could not interact with society without this arbiter. Legal proceedings were of fundamental importance, which the empress could not help but understand. Catherine delegated many functions to this institution. In particular, the court had to protect the principle of freedom of religion, which applied to any residents of Russia. Catherine also touched on the topic of religion in her correspondence. She was opposed to the forced conversion of non-Russian peoples of the country to Christianity.
An enlightened monarchy is a state that is firmly based on adherence to regulations and laws. That is why Catherine’s Legislative Commission banned the holding of emergency court hearings. The empress also spoke out against the suppression of freedom of speech. However, this did not stop her from bringing down repression on those who, in her opinion, encroached on public order with their publications.
Peasant question
The main dilemma faced by the enlightened monarchy in Russia was the future of serfdom. During the era of Catherine II, the slave status of peasants was never abolished. But it was serfdom that was most criticized by progressive strata of society. This social evil became the object of attacks in the satirical magazines of Nikolai Novikov (“Wallet”, “Drone”, “Painter”). Like Radishchev, he did not wait for radical changes initiated from above, but was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.
The fallacy of serfdom lay not only in the most inhumane slavish position of the peasants, but also in the fact that it slowed down economic development Empire. Freedom was necessary for the classes in order to work for their own benefit. Working for the landowner, who took away the harvest and earnings, a priori could not be effective. The enrichment of the peasantry occurred only after its liberation in 1861. The enlightened monarchy of Catherine 2, in short, did not dare to take this step for the sake of maintaining internal stability, which consisted in the absence of conflict between the authorities and the landowners. In this case, the remaining transformations of the empress in the village remained only decorations. It was her period of reign that was the era of the greatest enslavement of the peasants. Already under Catherine’s son Paul I, corvée decreased, becoming three days.
Criticism of autocracy
French rationalism and Enlightenment ideas pointed out the shortcomings of feudal forms of government. This is how the first criticism of autocracy arose. The enlightened monarchy, however, was precisely an unlimited form of power. The state welcomed the reforms, but they had to come from above and not affect the main thing - autocracy. That is why the era of Catherine II and her contemporaries is called the era of enlightened absolutism.
The writer was the first to publicly criticize the autocracy. His ode “Liberty” turned out to be the first revolutionary poem in Russia. After the publication of “Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” Radishchev was sent into exile. Thus, the enlightened monarchy of Catherine 2, although positioned as a progressive state, did not at all allow freethinkers to change the political system.
Education
In many ways, the transition from absolutism to an enlightened monarchy occurred thanks to the activities of major scientists. The main luminary Russian science The 18th century was Mikhail Lomonosov. In 1755 he founded Moscow University. At the same time, educational utopianism was propagated in Masonic lodges, which became extremely popular among the nobles.
In the second half of the 18th century there appeared new network closed educational institutions, in which the children of nobles, merchants, clergy, soldiers, and rarities studied. All of them had a pronounced class character. Here, as elsewhere, the advantage was in the hands of the nobles. All kinds of buildings were opened for them, where teaching was conducted according to Western European standards.
Rolling back reforms
The activities of the Statutory Commission of Catherine II are best demonstrated by the relationship between the concepts of “absolute monarchy” and “enlightened absolutism”. The Empress tried to create a state that would resemble those models that were described by the main European thinkers of the 18th century. However, the contradiction was that the Enlightenment and absolute monarchy could not be compatible. While retaining autocratic power, Catherine herself hampered development state institutions. However, not a single European monarch of the Enlightenment era decided on radical reforms.
Perhaps Catherine would have made further changes if not for several dramatic events in the second half of the 18th century. The first happened in Russia itself. It's about about the Pugachev uprising, which swept the Urals and the Volga region in 1773-1775. The revolt began among the Cossacks. Then it covered the national and peasant strata. Serfs destroyed the estates of nobles and killed yesterday's oppressors. At the peak of the uprising under the control of Emelyan Pugachev there were many big cities, including Orenburg and Ufa. Catherine was seriously frightened by the largest riot in the last century. When the troops defeated the Pugachevites, the authorities reacted, and the reforms stopped. Subsequently, Catherine's era became the “golden age” of the nobility, when their privileges reached their maximum extent.
Other events that influenced the views of the Empress were two revolutions: the War of Independence of the American Colonies and the Revolution in France. The latter overthrew the Bourbon monarchy. Catherine initiated the creation of an anti-French coalition, which included all the major European powers with the previous absolutist way of life.
Cities and citizens
In 1785, a charter to cities was issued, in which Catherine regulated the status of city residents. They were divided into several categories based on social and property characteristics. The first class of “real city inhabitants” included the nobles who owned real estate, as well as the clergy and bureaucrats. Next came guild merchants, guild artisans, out-of-towners, foreigners, and posad residents. Eminent citizens stood out separately. These were people with university degrees, owners of large capital, bankers, and ship owners.
A person's privileges depended on status. For example, eminent citizens received the right to have their own garden, country yard and carriage. The charter also defined people with voting rights. The philistinism and merchants received the beginnings of self-government. The charter prescribed that meetings of the wealthiest and most influential townspeople be organized once every 3 years. Elected judicial institutions - magistrates - were founded. The situation formed thanks to the charter persisted until 1870, that is, until the reforms of Alexander II.
Noble privileges
Simultaneously with the Charter, an even more important document was issued to the cities. This document became a symbol of the entire and enlightened monarchy as a whole. He developed the ideas contained in the Manifesto on the freedom of the nobility, adopted in 1762 under Peter III. Catherine’s charter stated that landowners are the only legitimate elite of Russian society.
The title of nobility was made hereditary, inalienable and applicable to the entire noble family. An aristocrat could lose it only if he committed a criminal offense. Thus, Catherine consolidated in practice her own thesis that the behavior of all nobles, without exception, had to correspond to their high position.
Due to their “noble origins,” landowners were exempt from corporal punishment. Their property rights extended to different types property and, most importantly, on serfs. Nobles could choose to become entrepreneurs, for example, engage in maritime trade. Persons of noble origin were allowed to own factories. Aristocrats were not subject to personal taxes.
The nobles could create their own societies - the Assemblies of the Nobility, which had political rights and your own finances. Such organizations were allowed to send projects of reforms and transformations to the monarch. Assemblies were created on a territorial basis and tied to the province. These self-government bodies were appointed by governors.
The charter completed the long process of exalting the class of landowners. The document recorded that it was the nobles who were considered the main driving social force in Russia. The entire domestic enlightened monarchy was based on this principle. The influence of the nobility gradually began to decline under Catherine’s successor, Paul I. This emperor, being an heir who was in conflict with his mother, tried to undo all her innovations. Paul allowed corporal punishment to be applied to the nobles and forbade them to contact him personally. Many of Paul's decisions were reversed under his son Alexander I. However, in the new 19th century, Russia had already entered a new stage of its development. Enlightened absolutism remained a symbol of one era - the reign of Catherine II.
The ideas of the Enlightenment, having conquered minds, became material force, which changed the face of European civilization. It has finally established itself on the path of bourgeois development.
The Enlightenmentists did not abandon Thomas Aquinas’ ideas about the existence of norms of natural law and the order of things, but gave them a secular character. Eighteenth-century thinkers were convinced that the world obeyed relatively simple laws that could be expressed in the language of strict formulas. In accordance with the views of the Enlightenment, social life should also be built on reasonable, rational principles.
The political ideal of the enlighteners of England and France
The ancestor of the ideas of the Enlightenment is considered to be the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704), whose views reflected the experience of the English bourgeois revolution(in particular, many representations of levellers). According to his point of view, every person by nature has an equal right to freedom of choice of his life path, the right to dispose of his property, labor and its results; the state, according to Locke, is a product of a social contract, i.e. voluntary consent of people to transfer to him the functions of protecting their natural rights. It makes laws and enforces them, represents society in the international arena, and maintains its peace and security. At the same time, the government should not interfere in the affairs of citizens unnecessarily (unless there is a threat to the public good).
By violating the social contract, introducing privileges for certain segments of the population, contrary to the principle of equality of citizens before the law, infringing on their freedoms, power, Locke believed, gives the people a basis for rebellion and overthrow of tyranny.
The English philosopher considered the ideal for society to be a state based on the separation of legislative and executive powers. At the same time, the executive branch, the monarch and the government must strictly follow the laws, the right to adopt which is granted exclusively to the parliament elected by the people.
The spiritual center of the European Enlightenment became France The feudal-absolutist order in this country met with condemnation even in the privileged classes, among the aristocracy and clergy. At the same time, in France the printed word had a great influence; almost half of the adult male population was literate. Possession of a library, including books prohibited by censorship, was considered a sign of good taste and wealth among the aristocracy.
One of the leading thinkers of the French Enlightenment was the writer and philosopher Voltaire (real name F. Arouet, 1694-1778). Voltaire proceeded from the idea of natural human rights. He criticized absolutism, as well as the policies of the Catholic Church (he owned the slogan “Crush the reptile”). At the same time, he admitted that religion itself is necessary to accustom people to moral behavior.
Voltaire's views repeatedly brought him into conflict with the authorities. The idea that people are not just subjects obliged to carry out the will of sovereigns, but are citizens with the same human rights as the monarch, was revolutionary for continental Europe at that time. They undermined the existing order of things. In his youth, Voltaire was imprisoned in the royal prison of the Bastille, and spent the last years of his life on an estate on the border of France and the Swiss canton of Geneva. where one could hide in the event of another attempted arrest.
D. Dudro (1713-1784), the initiator of the fundamental publication "Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts", 28 main and 5 additional volumes of which were published from 1751 to 1776, was also imprisoned. According to Diderot's plan, the Encyclopedia was supposed to not only summarize natural scientific views of the world and include practical information about technical achievements, but also present advanced views on society and the state. Brilliant thinkers of that time took part in the work on the encyclopedia articles - Voltaire, S.L. de Montesquieu (1689-1775), J.J. Rousseau (1712-1778), K.A. Helvetius (1715-1771), P. Holbach (172Z-1789), etc.
Encyclopedists believed that enlightenment, moral education people, methods of persuasion will create conditions for legislative reforms, changes in existing orders, they did not have a single political programs, but most of them proceeded from the theories of natural law and social contract, which were further developed in their works.
J.J. Rousseau believed that early stages stories of people having freedom moral choice, proceeded from universal human ideas about justice. With the emergence of property inequality and the division of society into rulers and the governed, laws destroyed natural freedom. This gave rise to tyranny, in which everyone has no rights before the tyrant. The overthrow of tyranny and the acquisition of freedom will create the possibility of concluding a genuine social contract that affirms the sovereignty (supreme power) of the people in accordance with the opinion of the majority of citizens.
Being a supporter of the republican form of government, Rousseau admitted that in certain cases it is compatible with the preservation of the institution of monarchy, but then the functions of the monarch should be reduced to a minimum. Sh.L. de Montesquieu believed that the establishment of a constitutional monarchy or a republican system in itself does not create guarantees against arbitrariness. To prevent abuses, in his opinion, it is necessary not only to separate powers into legislative, executive and judicial, but also to create a system of checks and balances so that one power controls and limits the other. Unlike other educators who believed that a republic could exist only on a small territory. Montesquieu believed that by adopting the principle of federalism, a republican system could be established even in large states.
Some of the enlighteners (French rural priest J. Mellier, 1664-1729, historian and philosopher G.B. de Mably, 1709-1785) believed that the institution of private property prevents the achievement of natural equality of people. They proposed to abolish or limit it. True, such views were not typical of most of their contemporaries.
In the German states the spread of Enlightenment ideas was more limited than in England and France. Given the fragmentation of Germany into small principalities and kingdoms with their own dialects, educated people preferred to communicate in French or Latin. Many works of German educators were published in these languages. Unlike France, they were inaccessible to the majority of the population.
The views of the German enlighteners were more abstract in nature than their French like-minded people. Criticism of the existing order was also more restrained. She addressed herself rather to an enlightened sovereign than to society.
Characteristic of the German Enlightenment was an appeal not only to universal human ideas and the values of natural rights. The emphasis is on national traditions and the cultural identity of peoples. In particular, this approach was characteristic of the historian, poet and philosopher I.G. Herder (1744-1803).
Enlightened absolutism
The appeal of the enlighteners to the sovereigns, whose power they proposed to limit, at first glance may seem naive. However, in the middle of the 18th century, hopes for partial support of the ideas of the Enlightenment by monarchs were not utopian; at that time, in most countries of continental Europe, socio-political forces capable of challenging absolutism had not yet emerged.
At the same time, the interest of the central government in increasing tax revenues to the treasury came into conflict with the aspirations of the provincial nobility and monasteries to preserve feudal liberties, such as the right not to pay taxes, to introduce their own customs duties, and levies on peasants. Peasant unrest, which was frequent during this period, was mainly caused by arbitrariness on the part of the local nobility and was not of an anti-monarchist nature.
The image of an enlightened sovereign, caring for his subjects, the development of trade and crafts, patronizing sciences and art, was beneficial for the central government of European states, allowing it to launch an attack on the privileges of small and medium-sized feudal lords.
In Austria, the period of enlightened absolutism is associated with the reign of Maria Theresa (reigned 1740-1780) and, especially, Joseph II (reigned 1780-1790).
They carried out the most profound transformations during the entire existence of the Habsburg Empire. The recruitment process was streamlined. Financial reform began with the introduction of a universal income tax and inheritance tax, which primarily infringed on the interests of the upper classes, landowners and the church. For the first time, a population census took place, land and livestock were recorded. All this made it possible to increase the efficiency of fiscal policy.
A step towards creating uniform legal norms for all classes was the adoption of new criminal and civil codes. The use of the death penalty has been reduced to a minimum. A system of centralized government management was created. The exercise of judicial functions became the exclusive prerogative of the state; landowners lost the right to judge peasants.
With the adoption of a number of imperial decrees, the situation of the peasantry as a whole improved significantly. In the 1770s corvée (work for a landowner for the right to use his land) was reduced to three days a week, peasants were given the right to purchase land plots. In 1781, Joseph abolished serfdom among the peasants of the Czech Republic, Moravia, Silesia and Galicia, and then it was abolished in other regions of the empire. The peasants became personally free: they received the right to go to the city, start a family, engage in any craft, and enter into trade transactions without the permission of the landowner. In 1789, corvée was replaced by a cash tax, the size of which was strictly limited - no more than 17% of the income of the peasant household.
These measures contributed to the development of commodity-money relations, the growth of the domestic market, and the emergence of new manufactories. Big role There was also the abolition of internal customs borders and duties. Protectionist policies arose, especially in relation to the production of luxury goods. A law was adopted to exempt newly created industrial enterprises from paying taxes for up to ten years.
Mining and Commerce academies began to operate in Vienna, and schools were opened with funds from the crown. Joseph introduced compulsory education for children up to the age of 12. Censorship was reduced to a minimum. The right to implement it was withdrawn from the Catholic church hierarchy, which had a negative attitude towards the ideas of the Enlightenment. The Decree on Tolerance abolished restrictions on the activities of other churches, including Protestant and Orthodox. The encouragement of the arts made Vienna one of the centers of European musical and theatrical life. The work of the great composers V.A. was associated with Vienna. Mozart (1759-1791), J. Haydn (1732-1809), H.W. Gluck (171-1787).
The influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment also affected the second largest German state of the 18th century - the kingdom of Prussia, Frederick II (reigned 1740-1786), who went down in history as Frederick the Great, with youth interested in the ideas of the Enlightenment. He entered into correspondence with Voltaire and invited the French thinker to visit Royal Palace in Potsdam.
The reforms carried out by Frederick II were close to the transformations carried out in Austria, although they were more limited in nature.
These include the introduction of new criminal legislation, the abolition of torture, streamlining the tax system, expanding the system primary education, acceptance of the principle of religious tolerance. The king considered the abolition of serfdom untimely. Nevertheless, he adopted laws limiting the possibility of arbitrariness of landowners against peasants, in particular their forced removal from the land. Peasants on crown lands received ownership rights to the plots they cultivated and passed them on as inheritance to their children.
A policy was pursued to encourage the development of trade and industry, Frederick II founded the Prussian State Bank, allocated subsidies for the construction of roads and bridges, and pursued a protectionist policy. By introducing high duties on foreign goods, he promoted the development of manufactories.
Reforms in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were also carried out in such German states as Saxony, Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria. The ideas of transformation were popular in the states of Italy, in particular Tuscany, Parma, Piedmont, and the Kingdom of Naples.
Sometimes the ideas of the enlighteners about the separation of powers were adopted by the nobility, the ruling class, in order to protect their interests from the danger of establishing or restoring a despotic regime. Thus, in Sweden, on the initiative of the aristocracy, after the death of Charles XII, the constitution of 1719 was adopted and a system of separation of powers was introduced. The parliament, formed on the principle of class representation, played a special role in it.
Enlightened monarchs and the highest nobility did not intend to fully implement the ideas of the Enlightenment on the abolition of class privileges. They expressed sympathy only for those of them whose thoughts they found “reasonable.”
The policy of enlightened absolutism served to boost manufacturing production and to some extent improve the situation of the peasantry. At the same time, benefits and privileges, being granted by monarchs to their subjects, could be canceled if circumstances changed, since there were no guarantees of stability of the reform policy.
A much more complete realization of the views of the Enlightenment was found only at the end of the century. They gained mass support during the war for independence in North America, during the Great french revolution. Many of the ideas of the Enlightenment became the basis of political practice, the basis of legal norms that found wide recognition in the 19th and especially in the 20th century in democracies.
Questions and tasks
1. How did Enlightenment thinkers explain the phenomena of social life?
2. What did the theory of social contract relate to the emergence and functions of the state? What kind of government system did D. Locke consider ideal?
3. Why did France become the spiritual center of European enlightenment? Describe the views of Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot.
4. Which of the educators adhered to republican ideas? How did educators explain the need for separation of powers?
5. Why was the spread of Enlightenment ideas more limited in the German states than in England and France? What were the features of the German Enlightenment?
b. How do you explain the spread of the ideas of enlightened absolutism in Europe in the 18th century? Fill the table:
Table The Politics of Enlightened Absolutism
Draw a conclusion about how consistently the ideas of the Enlightenment were implemented in the activities of rulers. Which of these ideas could not be implemented by enlightened monarchs?
3lagdin N.V., Simonia N.A. , Story. History of Russia and the world from ancient times to the end of the 19th century: Textbook for the 10th grade of educational institutions. - 8th ed. - M.: LLC TID Russian Word - RS., 2008.
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