General decision-making scheme. Types and parameters of economic optimization and management problems
Any decision-making task is characterized by the presence of a certain number of individuals who have certain capabilities and pursue certain goals. Therefore, to build a decision-making model, it is necessary to answer the questions:
· who makes decisions;
What are the goals of the decision?
What is the decision making process?
· determine the range of options;
· under what conditions the decision is made.
In order to build a model, you need to introduce some notation.
N is the set of all parties making a decision. N=(1; n), i.e. available n participants. Each participant is called a decision maker (individual, legal entity).
Suppose the set of all feasible solutions has been previously studied and described in the form of an inequality (mathematically).
If we denote by x 1, x 2,…, x n presented alternatives, then the decision-making process boils down to the following: each person selects a specific element from the entire set of decisions, i.e.
As a result, the set x 1, x 2,…, x n can be called a certain situation.
To evaluate the vector from the point of view of the pursued goals, a function is constructed, which is called the objective function, which assigns numerical values (estimates) to each situation. For example, the income of firms in a situation or the costs of the same firms in a given situation.
Based on the above, the goal i the th decision maker can be formulated as follows: choose such that in the situation X the number will be either the maximum or minimum.
However, the influence of other parties on this situation complicates the process, i.e. there is an intersection of interests of individuals. Conflict arises, which is expressed in the fact that the function, in addition to x i also depends on x j, . Therefore, in decision-making models with several participants, their goals have to be formalized differently than maximizing (minimizing) the values of the function.
Thus, the general scheme of the decision-making problem can be formulated as follows:
This is the totality of all characteristics (conditions) under which a decision has to be made.
If in the formula (*) N consists of only one element, and all the conditions and prerequisites of the original real problem can be described in the form of a set of feasible solutions, then we obtain the structure of an optimization or extremal problem:
This scheme is used by the decision maker as a planning one and can be used to describe two extreme tasks:
If this problem takes into account the time factor, it is called an optimal control problem.
If the decision maker has several goals, then equation (*) will look like . In this case, the functions are defined on the same set X. Such problems are called multicriteria optimization problems.
There are decision-making problems that are named based on their purpose: queuing systems, network and scheduling problems, reliability theory, etc.
If the elements of the model (*) do not depend on time, i.e. the decision-making process is instantaneous, then the problem is called static, otherwise it is called dynamic.
If the elements (*) do not contain random variables, then the problem is deterministic, otherwise it is stochastic.
Examples of tasks:
1. Optimal cutting problem
The company manufactures products from several parts (p). Moreover, these parts are included in one product in quantities. For this purpose, cutting is carried out m parties. IN i-th batch available b i units of material. Each unit of material can be cut n ways. In this case it turns out a ijn number of details. It is necessary to draw up a cutting plan in order to obtain the maximum number of products.
2. Transport task
Available n suppliers and m consumers of the same product. The output of each supplier and the needs of each consumer for it are known, as well as the costs of transporting products from supplier to consumer. It is required to build a transportation plan with minimal transport costs, taking into account the wishes of suppliers and consumer demand.
3. Job assignment problem
Available n works and n performers. Cost of performing the work i performer j equal to c ij. It is necessary to assign performers to work in order to minimize wages.
4. Investment distribution problem
Available n projects. And for j of the th project, the expected effect of implementation is known d and the required amount of investment g j. The total volume of capital investments may exceed given value b. It is necessary to determine which projects need to be implemented so that the overall effect is greatest.
5. Production location problem
Planned release m types of products that can be produced at n enterprises. The costs of production, sales of a unit of production, the planned volume of annual production and the planned cost of a unit of production of each type are known. Required from n enterprises to choose such m, each of which will produce one type of product.
In decision-making problems, the principle of optimality is understood as a set of rules with the help of which the decision maker determines his actions, and in such a way as to maximally ensure the achievement of a certain goal. This solution is called optimal.
The ultimate goal of researching any problem is to find the optimal solution for all those involved.
The principle of optimality is chosen without taking into account the specific conditions of decision-making (number of participants, goals, opportunities, nature of conflict of interests).
Formalization of optimal behavior is one of the complex stages of mathematical modeling.
The development of any optimality principle is justified if it meets the following requirements:
2. Existence of an optimal solution under various additional assumptions.
3. Possibility of detection distinctive features optimal solutions for their detection (necessity and sufficiency of optimality).
4. Availability of methods for calculating the optimal solution (exact or approximate).
In decision theory it has been developed a large number of formal principles of optimal behavior:
1. The principle of maximization (minimization) is used mainly in mathematical programming problems designed to find the optimal minimum or maximum.
2. The principle of criteria convolution is used mainly in problems when optimizing many criteria by one coordinating center (multi-criteria optimization problem).
For each of the criteria or objective functions, weights or numbers are assigned by expert means, each of them being positive and their sum equal to 1. Each shows the importance or significance of its criterion. The decision made must maximize or minimize the convolution of criteria, and the decision X selected from a set X.
3. The principle of lexicographic preference. First, the optimality criterion is ranked by importance and compiled as a set of objective functions. Some solution X is preferable to the solution if one of the conditions is met:
Contained n+1 equations. n+1– when everything matches: .
4. The minimax principle is applied when the interests of opposing parties collide, i.e. in conditions of conflict. Each decision maker calculates a guaranteed result for each of his strategies. Then he finally chooses the strategy for which this result will be the greatest. This action does not provide the maximum gain, but it is the only reasonable principle in conflict conditions. In particular, any risk is eliminated.
5. The Nash equilibrium principle is a generalization of the minimax principle, when many parties participate in the interaction, each of which pursues its own goal, but there is no direct confrontation. If the number of decision makers is equal n, then the set of selected situations x 1, x 2,…, x n is called equilibrium if a unilateral deviation of any person from this situation can only lead to a decrease in his winnings. In an equilibrium situation, participants do not receive the maximum payoff, but they are given the opportunity to stick with the situation.
6. The Pareto optimality principle assumes as optimal those situations in which improving the payoff of an individual participant is impossible without deteriorating the payoffs of other participants. This principle makes weaker demands on the concept of optimality than the Nash equilibrium principle, so Pareto-optimal situations almost always exist.
7. The principle of non-dominant outcomes is a representative of many principles of optimality in collective decision-making problems. This leads to the concept of a decision kernel. In this case, all participants unite and, through joint coordinated actions, maximize the overall gain. The principle of non-dominance is one of the principles of fair division between participants of the common gain. A situation arises when one of the participants cannot reasonably object to the proposed method of division.
8. The principle of stability (threats and counter-threats). Each team of participants puts forward its proposal with certain conditions. If these conditions are not met, certain sanctions will follow. The optimal solution is when against every threat there is a counter-threat from the other team.
9. Arbitration schemes based on the situation of the conflict and its resolution with the help of an arbitration judge. The optimal solution is constructed using a system of axioms that includes several principles of optimality.
10. The principle of extreme pessimism or the Wald criterion. According to this principle, playing with nature or making a decision under conditions of uncertainty is conducted as if it were with a reasonable aggressive opponent, doing everything in order to achieve a certain success.
11. The principle of minimum-maximum risk is pessimistic in nature, but when choosing the optimal strategy it is guided not by winnings, but by risk, i.e. risk is defined as the difference between the maximum winnings and the real winnings. The minimum winning amount is considered optimal.
12. The principle of pessimism-optimism or the Hurwitz criterion. The principle uses a maximum weighted average between extreme optimism and extreme pessimism. Options are selected for subjective reasons, based on the danger of the situation.
The concept of dynamic stability is as follows. Since all the stated principles are formulated in relation to statistical problems, their application in dynamic problems is accompanied by complications, since any optimality principle chosen in the initial state remained optimal until the end of the dynamic process. This property is called dynamic stability and can be considered as a principle of the feasibility of statistical principles of optimal behavior in dynamic decision-making models.
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M.: PROMEDIA
<...> <...> <...> <...>
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Activity approach in social and educational work with difficult teenagers
M.: PROMEDIA
Object of study: adolescents with deviations in social behavior.<...>environment, several types of teenage and youth associations; socio-pedagogical conditions for optimal<...>A number of researchers, in particular I.A. Nevsky, connect “deviant behavior” and “deviant behavior”<...>Here it was very important from the very beginning to find the optimal combination of activities.<...>For the optimal organization of collective activities of adolescents in a new society for them, special importance
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Currently, when developing oil and gas fields, drilling, development, and commissioning of a well are carried out using the “bottom-up” method, according to which the well is drilled into the base formation located at the greatest depth of the stratigraphic section. However, achieving the greatest depth, especially when constructing directional horizontal wells, is associated with the risk of accidents and complications, the elimination of which requires significant time and money, up to a complete loss of investment. The article proposes the use of the “top-down” method, in which a well is drilled into a formation that is overlying the base formation and has an economically justified predicted oil or gas flow rate with a minimal risk of accidents and complications. Such a well (“reserve”) will provide compensation for drilling costs due to the sale of reservoir products on a schedule much earlier than provided for in the project. Development of the base reservoir will continue after recovery of investment costs and profit is achieved
<...>It should be noted that the FNIP "Safety Rules in the Oil and Gas Industry" provides: "optimal
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OPTIMAL PLANNING OF CAPITAL INVESTMENTS IN COLLECTIVE FARMS (BASED ON MATERIALS OF COLLECTIVE FARMS OF THE ABKHAZ ASSR) ABSTRACT OF DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
The purpose of the dissertation work is to improve the cladding of capital investments, taking into account the specifics of agricultural production on collective farms in the subtropical zone and to develop an appropriate optimal planning methodology.
. _ ". . . " As a manuscript KHUBULAVA Noe Mikhailovich V, OPTIMUM PLANNING OF CAPITAL INVESTMENTS<...>The methodology for optimal planning of capital investments was discussed at the Scientific Research Institute of Horticulture of the Non-Chernozem Region<...>The methodology for optimal planning of capital investments in collective farms with a large share of<...>in dynamic mode and obtaining real characteristics (normative data) about further behavior<...>Optimal planning of capital investments in perennial plantings.
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With the awareness of the exceptional importance of labor resources in the successful development of a modern company, with an understanding of their decisive role in winning competition in Russian science and practice, issues of labor economics have acquired and continue to increase in relevance. Modern environmental requirements and intra-organizational conditions indicate an increase in the importance of personnel management in Russian companies, indicate the presence of serious inconsistencies in this area and dictate the need for changes in the organization and implementation of personnel management activities in the organization. Therefore, many companies have already experienced, are experiencing, or are on the verge of reforming their activities in the field of personnel management. To implement these transformations, a clear understanding of the areas of discrepancy and the degree of their severity is necessary. In this regard, today the problem of most effectively diagnosing such an important area of organizational functioning - conducting a personnel audit - is so acute. Therefore, the topic of developing personnel audit is becoming very relevant and in great demand.
<...>whose effectiveness is determined by the ratio between its utility and the costs of obtaining it, then the “optimal<...>In addition, it is difficult to predict labor behavior for objective and subjective reasons.
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The influence of various pre-start states of a chess player on sports results. abstract dis. ...cand. ped. sciences
The purpose of the work is to experimentally establish the dependence of the effectiveness of a chess player’s competitive activity (ECA) on the psychophysiological characteristics of the pre-start state.
The highest efficiency of competitive activity of chess players is manifested with optimal<...>Compile a psychophysiological characteristic of the optimal pre-start state (combat state<...>Currently, the most advanced structure of behavior is outlined in the concept of a functional system<...>The functional state is included in the composition of goal-directed behavior as a means for its successful<...>The highest efficiency of competitive activity of chess players manifests itself with optimal
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OPTIMAL PLANNING AND DESIGN OF LAND USE IN CONDITIONS OF WATER SOIL EROSION (BASED ON THE EXAMPLE OF FARMS IN THE CENTRAL CHERNOZEM ZONE) ABSTRACT OF THE DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF THE RED BANNER OF LABOR INSTITUTE OF LAND MANAGEMENT ENGINEERS
The purpose of the study is to develop proposals for improving the anti-erosion organization of the territory based on the use of mathematical methods and BIR
This is explained by the high efficiency of mathematical methods that make it possible to find optimal<...>In the second chapter “Optimal cladding for the use of land in the anti-erosion system<...>In accordance with the calculations carried out for groups of farms in the region on ESH, the optimal<...>At the same time, with the optimal plan almost 2 times!<...>The criterion for optimal placement of suitable crop rotations should be considered net income C; mule: .
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The article reflects the history of the formation in Russia of legal norms regulating the regime for regulating the working hours of medical workers, and presents the legal acts of the USSR and the RSFSR that have legal force today.
The possibility of dismissing an employee for failure to fulfill job duties or “bad behavior” has been regulated
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Features of overcoming moral critical situations depending on the degree of adequacy of self-esteem
M.: PROMEDIA
Knowledge of these mechanisms can provide science and practice with a powerful means of predicting human behavior<...>V.V. Stolin/, represents a mismatch not of two cognitive elements, but of assessments of “knowledge” and “behavior<...>Are you eating like "shslizzstse behavior" while going rushing? why T Y?<...>/ behavior and adequacy is self-reflective and reflects the essence of the processes occurring in these situations<...>recognition by all authors of the influence of the degree of adequacy of self-esteem on the quality of behavior regulation
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TRANSFORMATION OF ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN CONDITIONS OF COOPERATION OF PRODUCTION IN A MULTI-STYLE ECONOMY IN AGRICULTURE ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
M.: ALL-RUSSIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS, LABOR AND MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE
The purpose of the study is to develop proposals for transforming intra- and inter-farm relations and creating conditions for the elective functioning of inter-farm formations.
preservation and development of economic entities at the present stage; , proposals have been developed for optimal<...>the role of intra-economic relations in the conditions of transformation of forms of ownership. , In the third chapter "Optimal<...>property not nominally, but in reality. During the study, conditions for optimal
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PLANNING PURCHASES OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION OF THE NON-BLACK EARTH ZONE OF THE RSFSR
The dissertation work aims to improve the methodology and system of economic and mathematical models for regulating the purchase of agricultural products in the conditions of inter-farm cooperation and agro-industrial integration based on an interconnected system of calculations for the formation and placement of the state procurement plan
The dissertation improves the methodology for optimal planning of public procurement of agriculture<...>basic principles of "\optimal placement of the procurement plan, features of the formation" of restrictions<...>Find the optimal plan i s Х,ч » о "" for which ь * nrtifZZ Ц %,\-Xjt ?<...>Justification of prices for the optimal plan.<...>Issues of optimal placement of capital investments in water reclamation.
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THE INFLUENCE OF NITROGEN FERTILIZERS ON THE PRODUCTIVITY OF IRRIGATED CULTURED PASTURES AND THE QUALITY OF FOOD WITH VARIABLE MOWING AND PASTURE USE OF GRASS STAND ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
The main goal of the dissertation work was to determine the possibility of combining grazing and mowing methods of using the grass of irrigated cultivated pastures in a single technological process
Optimal timing has been established and practical methods for using grass have been developed, .... promoting<...>Optimal .moistening conditions and* preferential use of nitrogen on., the creation of crops contribute<...>On options with ^freshing-YZBO-4SO.B pasture feed with. maintains the "optimal amount of fiber,<...>alternate grazing by mowing *for) grass meal or green fodder, dividing the pasture into two areas.^ Optimal
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The author taught for several years in a colony for juvenile delinquents, about which he wrote the story “Pedagogical Comedy.” His students adored him - instead of dry lessons using standard textbooks, the unusual teacher inspiredly read poems by heart, including those of banned poets, taught them to understand and analyze literary works, and literally infected everyone with his passion for reading.
<...> <...>studying pathological disorders150 Copyright JSC Central Clinical Hospital BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency of behavior
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Psychological mechanisms of motivation development
M.: PROMEDIA
Another specific feature of human mental processes and behavior that is important for understanding<...>In real behavior, both forms of motivation usually appear together and complement each other.<...>Specific goals of life that are assessed by him as optimally satisfying needs and in relation to<...>Intentions adopted as a result of searching for ways to optimally satisfy basic needs<...>The method, program and specific goals of life that are assessed by him as optimally satisfying needs
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EFFECTIVE FERTILITY OF PODZOL SOILS, YIELD AND QUALITY OF FORAGE GRASSES IN THE CONDITIONS OF THE KOLA NORTH ABSTRACT OF DIS. ... DOCTORS OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
ST. PETERSBURG STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
The characteristics of the fertility of cultivated alpha-humus podzols, the possibilities of its production and increase in order to obtain high and. full yields of forage grasses
The quality of plant products was assessed using the table “Optimal Nutrient Content<...>The basis should be optimal intensive farming, in which the production of crop products<...>nitrogen, nitrates, amino acids and digestible protein. From the point of view of plant quality, the most optimal<...>It has been established that the optimal irrigation rate is 400 m3/ha, at which the<...>The application of organic and mineral fertilizers when using irrigation creates optimal water
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FEATURES OF FORMATION AND WAYS OF INCREASING MEAT PRODUCTIVITY OF CATTLE KHOLMOGORY BREED ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTORS OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AND ORDER OF THE RED BANNER OF LABOR AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV
Purpose and objectives of the research. The scientific novelty of the work lies in the fact that the study of quantitative and qualitative indicators of animal productivity, as well as morphological, histological; biochemical and other parameters of the body’s vital activity at each stage of individual development (at birth, at 6; 9; 12; 15 and 18 months) depending on various factors made it possible: for the first time to scientifically substantiate the processes of formation of meat productivity in young animals of the Kholmogory breed and its crosses with bulls of early maturing meat breeds...
Kholmogory breed at high feeding rates up to 15-18 months ensures the production of heavy carcasses with optimal<...>showed that high level feeding of young animals of groups I and II during all periods of growth - favors optimal<...>Hence the establishment of a deadline for obtaining the optimal 23 Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency<...>Therefore, “the optimal and most desirable amount of fat in the fat of young animals of groups III and IV is obtained
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No. 1 [Marine Biology, 2018]
The journal Marine Biology publishes articles on fundamental and applied problems of marine biology. The journal publishes reviews, original research, short messages, as well as chronicles, reviews, book reviews, materials on the history of marine biology and the activities of marine biological institutions and scientists.
Under optimal conditions, the maximum efficiency of the PS2 RC reached highest values in Prochlorophyta<...>In these areas, Prochlorococcus dominated in abundance, with Fv / Fm values at optimal<...>The optimal temperature for auxosporation in H. karadagensis was slightly lower than in H. ostrearia<...>The TN93+I model (Tamura–Nei with uneven<...>Territorial behavior.
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The story reflects the times of Stalinist repressions in Russia.
“For good success and exemplary behavior” means there is justice in the world!
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Communicative Skills. Part 2 textbook. allowance Communication skills. Part 2
The study guide presents tasks and exercises necessary for the successful mastery of the sections “Free time”, “The role of music in our life” and “ English education». Tutorial intended for classes in the discipline “Practical course of the first foreign language” to provide classroom and independent work full-time students in the direction 035700.62 Linguistics, profile “Theory and Methods of Teaching foreign languages and cultures."
Sound vibrations of a certain frequency (the optimal frequency depends on the diameter and length of the capillaries, properties<...>stomach and duodenum, hypertension is more common in people who are intolerant of mistakes and “wrong” behavior<...>The aggression of someone else's rhythm can destroy a person's stereotype of behavior, deprive him of self-identification and harmony<...>It is capable of either ennobling or acting disintegrating on our behavior" (De Institutione Musica<...>Bogdan Titomir, popular among Russian teenagers in the early 1990s due to his goofy demeanor
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Library life in Kuzbass: information and advertising newsletter. Vol. 4 (9)
Everyone, having carefully considered various situations, must learn to make the optimal decision.<...>Life ties everything together: “philosophy”, “Time Manager”, and “service behavior” in “financial<...>MOTIVATION is the behavior of an individual due to a motivating reason, a reason for some action;<...>behavior ; way of behavior that you adhere to with the help of verbal patterns, words addressed<...>Your behavior is stable, and you do not consider it necessary to change it depending on the situation.
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Business Russian language guide to Russian. language for foreigners trainees
M.: FLINTA
The content of the manual meets the requirements for the formation of communicative and speech competence of foreign citizens in Russian in the field of administrative and legal activities. The manual includes 5 sections: “Introduction”, “Communicative situation”, “Written business speech", "Oral business speech", "Materials for teachers." The application contains samples of business paperwork that comply with GOST.
In modern Russia, the types of speech behavior have changed.<...>Do not make comments to your partner about his speech behavior. 4.<...>Finding the optimal way to solve a problem or issue. 6. Decision making. 7.<...>Such strategies, as a rule, lead to a dead end or give an advantage to only one of the parties, although the optimal one<...>The speed of your speech should be comfortable for the interlocutor (for Russian speakers, the optimal speed is
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No. 9 [Problems of economics and management of the oil and gas complex, 2013]
A search-oriented approach to choosing the optimal cargo transportation scheme when carrying out transport<...>completeness of coverage of types of work and equipment/facilities with determination of the maximum (optimal) cost<...>implementing gas complex projects, but also a system characterized by the stochastic nature of its behavior<...>personnel reserve: “You cannot appoint people from outside to key positions”, “it is better to select from those whose behavior<...>measures to adapt to a new position, changing status and resulting organizational behavior
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No. 4 [Problems of economics and management of the oil and gas complex, 2013]
Economic problems of all areas of activity of the oil and gas complex, issues of corporate governance, analysis of the state and development trends of the oil market.
John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern "Game Theory and Economic Behavior".<...>"Conflict strategy" examines the various "strategies" of behavior of the participants in the conflict.<...>It is assumed that players choose behavior that maximizes their total benefit (behavior model<...>, the use of the Nash equilibrium concept to select behavior seems reasonable.<...>Game Theory and Economic Behavior. - M.: Nauka, 1970. - 983 p. 4. Tikhomirov S.A.
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Selection of the main design characteristics and structural appearance of launch vehicles using a solid-state modeling system [textbook. allowance]
Publishing house SSAU
Selection of the main design characteristics and structural appearance of launch vehicles using a solid-state modeling system. Programs used: Adobe Acrobat. Works of SSAU employees (electronic version)
The results (the values of the variables corresponding to the optimal value of the objective function) can be seen<...>Formatting the report Complete the report with the appropriate heading: “Optimal mass distribution<...>Give the main constraint function for the problem of choosing the optimal masses of rocket units. 4.<...>As a result, the optimal values of the parameters ()* 1,ix i N= are determined.<...>(B5.8) The resulting masses will be optimal.
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No. 8 [Problems of economics and management of the oil and gas complex, 2015]
Economic problems of all areas of activity of the oil and gas complex, issues of corporate governance, analysis of the state and development trends of the oil market.
Within the framework of the problem of choosing an optimal development strategy, the urgent scientific problem of forming<...>turn, the system of tax regulation in the field of subsoil use should be focused on creating optimal<...>The practice of drilling horizontal wells shows that the given interval is also close to optimal<...>It should be noted that the FNIP "Safety Rules in the Oil and Gas Industry" provides: "optimal<...>turn, the system of tax regulation in the field of subsoil use should be focused on creating optimal
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Intentions of political discourse: theory and practice. Part 1 textbook. manual for students in education. higher education program education - training program for scientific and pedagogical personnel in graduate school 06.45.01 Linguistics and literary criticism
The textbook for the discipline “Theory of Intentionality of Speech Behavior” consists of two theoretical chapters that introduce students to the basic concepts of this interdisciplinary theory using the example of speech behavior of producers of political discourse in Great Britain. Key theoretical paragraphs of the textbook are accompanied by questions to control acquired knowledge and practical exercises that allow a deeper understanding of the intentional mechanisms of speech of producers.
ISBN 978-5-7410-1782-1 Textbook for the discipline "Theory of intentionality of speech behavior" consists<...>behavior of the individual himself [cit. according to Porshnev, http://lib.ru/HISTORY/PORSHNEW/paleopsy.txt].<...>Mikhaleva understands a communicative strategy as “a plan for the optimal implementation of communicative intentions<...>Some scientists highlight a special aspect of speech action, which is the speaker’s choice of optimal<...>Instinct and social behavior[Text] / A.I. Fet. – M.: Sova, 2005. – 652 p. Filinsky, A.A.
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No. 1 [Doctor, 2002]
Recently, the concept of “optimal blood pressure” has emerged, which emphasizes the need for primary prevention<...>Optimal reduction (by 30%) in the risk of all cardiovascular complications (fatal and non-fatal strokes<...>neurotic level, conversion and neurotic disorders, as well as personality and behavior disorders<...>In this regard, the question naturally arises about the optimal level of blood pressure against the background of antihypertensive therapy.<...>What guidelines for assessing the risk of death and MI are considered optimal?
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No. 2 [Doctor, 2005]
Scientific, practical and journalistic magazine for a wide range of specialists. Published since 1990. One of the most famous and prestigious publications for practicing doctors. The editor-in-chief of the journal is Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences I. N. Denisov. The editorial board of the journal includes recognized authorities in the world of medicine: N. A. Mukhin - Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, director of the Clinic of Therapy and Occupational Diseases named after. E. M. Tareeva; V.P. Fisenko - corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, (deputy editor-in-chief) and many others. By the decision of the Plenum of the Higher Attestation Commission, “Vrach” was included in the list of journals in which the publication of the results of dissertation research for the degree of Doctor of Science is recommended. Main sections: current topic; clinical review; lecture; problem; new in medicine; pharmacology; healthcare. The frequency of release is once a month. Target audience: attending physicians, chief doctors of hospitals and clinics, heads of medical institutions, heads of research institutes, medical centers, associations, heads of sanatoriums, pharmacies, libraries.
Most difficult task- selection of the optimal treatment strategy in patients with persistent AF.<...>Commonly accepted ideas about optimal treatment programs for sarcoidosis, taking into account the clinical form<...>In many countries, clinical guidelines have been created for the optimal treatment of nephrogenic anemia from the standpoint of<...>The adequacy of dialysis remains a necessary condition optimal treatment of anemia.<...>The range of antiplatelet drugs is extremely wide, which allows you to choose the optimal one for the patient.
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No. 12 [Problems of economics and management of the oil and gas complex, 2014]
Economic problems of all areas of activity of the oil and gas complex, issues of corporate governance, analysis of the state and development trends of the oil market.
When pursuing a regional energy policy, optimal<...>indicators of three groups of parameters: control of direct training (certification/non-certification), behavior change<...>In addition, it is difficult to predict labor behavior for objective and subjective reasons.<...>the largest number of “effective” ratings and the minimum number of “ineffective” ratings is optimal<...>Window for outputting data from the program for assessing and selecting the optimal method of APG utilization Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau
Preview: Problems of economics and management of the oil and gas complex No. 12 2014.pdf (0.7 Mb)30
Value aspects of selecting documents for the collection of a universal scientific library
Publishing house of the State Public Library for Science and Technology SB RAS
The monograph covers the theory and practice of selecting documents for the collection of the Universal Scientific Library (UNL). The evolution of views on the concept of document selection in domestic and foreign library science is traced. Based on the analysis of value transformation modern society The author builds a concept for the formation of criteria for selecting documents for the UNB fund. An algorithm has been developed for creating new and revising existing criteria for assessing document flow phenomena in accordance with the proposed selection concept.
The task of optimal combination in the acquisition of funds of the principles of completeness, safety and accessibility of information<...>In search of an optimal solution to the problem of completeness of the collection of a large library, foreign experts are increasingly<...>"acquisition plan" are used by the drafters of the document depending on whether it fixes the optimal<...> natural environment, in which education will function in the future, allows us to develop optimal<...>selection concept should be considered the development of a system of criteria that would allow maintaining optimal
Preview: Value aspects of selecting documents for the collection of the universal scientific library.pdf (0.3 Mb)31
FUNDAMENTALS OF FAMILY SOCIOLOGY
OrenSeal
This manual gives a holistic view of the sociology of the family as an independent branch of sociology, the subject and relationship with other humanitarian disciplines, and modern sociological concepts family, about the structure and functions of the family, the main types of family behavior, about the sociological analysis of the family as an evolving historical form of population reproduction and socialization of new generations. The educational manual includes material for mastering curriculum course, plans seminars, list of recommended literature, questions for independent work, topics of abstracts, essays, sample test tasks. Intended for bachelors studying in the field of study “040100.62 Sociology”, for university teachers, students of the system of advanced training of teaching staff, social work specialists, and everyone interested in the problems of family and marriage.
Marital behavior is behavior whose purpose is to satisfy the need for marriage, behavior<...>behavior .<...>There are scientists who refuse to recognize the legitimacy of using this criterion to develop the optimal<...>In the optimal family model, the best balance of two qualities of socialization should be found<...>teacher for organizing the study of the discipline Guidelines for the teacher allow optimal
Preview: FUNDAMENTALS OF FAMILY SOCIOLOGY.pdf (0.6 Mb)32
No. 2 [Sociology of medicine, 2012]
Founded in 2002. The editor-in-chief of the magazine is Andrey Veniaminovich Reshetnikov - Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Doctor of Sociological Sciences, Professor, Director of the Research Institute of Sociology of Medicine, Health Economics and Health Insurance First Moscow State University. THEM. Sechenov. The scientific and practical journal "Sociology of Medicine" is of interest to researchers, physicians and sociologists, employees of health authorities and institutions of all ranks, managers of all levels, teachers, as well as graduate students, residents and students of humanities universities. The pages of the journal present materials covering a wide range of scientific and practical issues: theoretical aspects of the sociology of medicine, the results of medical and sociological research related to the study of demographic processes and the structure of morbidity, patterns of formation and preservation of human health, taking into account the conditions of his work and life, with analysis conditions and factors influencing the health of various socio-demographic and professional groups of the population, as well as activities to protect public health. Within the framework of the journal, the rubrics “Theory and Methodology”, “Sociology of the Medical Profession”, “Sociology of the Patient”, “Sociological Aspects of Health Care Activity”, “Medical Sociological Research” and others were developed. Being, in essence, the first and only specialized publication in the scientific specialty 02/14/05 - sociology of medicine (medical and sociological sciences), the journal publishes materials and scientific results of dissertations for the academic degrees of Doctor and Candidate of Sciences in the specified specialty. Materials published in the journal must undergo internal review.
Today, the conceptual significance of this stage is seen in the fact that it prepared optimal conditions for<...>These rules regulate people's behavior and shape their attitude towards work.<...>society and the norms of its functioning falls into the category of asocial, deviant behavior.<...>The concepts of self-preservation, risky, deviant behavior are introduced.<...>Youth behavior: from demographic threats to national security. - Minsk, 2009. 11.
Preview: Sociology of Medicine No. 2 2012.pdf (0.6 Mb)33
No. 1 [Problems of social hygiene, health care and history of medicine, 2015]
Founded in 1994. The editor-in-chief of the journal is Oleg Prokopievich Shchepin - Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor, scientific adviser National Research Institute of Public Health of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences. The magazine covers theoretical issues of social hygiene, the main directions of formation of public health and medical and social assistance, economic issues, scientific organization labor, sanitary statistics, history of medicine and health care. Publishes articles on new forms and methods of work of medical and anti-epidemic health care institutions in organizing health care services for urban and rural populations. The journal publishes materials about the methods and results of the study social conditions life and health of the population. It reflects the state of health care, issues of organization and operation of medical institutions in foreign countries, and contains articles devoted to the design and equipment of medical institutions. The development of medical science and healthcare is widely covered, important historical dates, activities of scientific societies, information about various conferences and meetings is published.
Among men, the priority among the factors considered in detail in the field of eating behavior was the factor<...>Optimal treatment strategy for patients with hypertension and atherosclerosis: focus on olmesartan<...>Ordinal traits are best measured using the Licart scale. 4.<...>For optimal development of PPDiP, it is necessary to attract additional material, financial and labor<...>The possibility of dismissing an employee for failure to fulfill job duties or “bad behavior” has been regulated
Preview: Problems of social hygiene, healthcare and history of medicine No. 1 2015.pdf (2.4 Mb)34
Psychological counseling studies. allowance
Optimal ratio, balance of cognitive and emotional components of attitude towards oneself, based<...>Parents' nonverbal behavior can provide clues to their behavior and relationships with their teenagers.<...>on his behavior?<...>The consultant's response is inconsistent with the client's behavior?<...>GOAL: formation of optimal emotional tone, openness to external impressions, leveling
Preview: Psychological counseling.pdf (0.4 Mb)35
No. 1 [Bulletin of Perm University. Series Mathematics. "Mechanics. Informatics", 2019]
Identical specific consumption Let us study the behavior of the trajectory of the model Z, for which the total number<...>Calculating the minimum value of this function can be used to predict the behavior of so-called<...>Construction of an optimal guaranteeing strategy for an ally player Construction of an optimal guaranteeing strategy<...>However, in our opinion, insufficient attention has been paid to the study of the psychological behavior of groups of robots.<...>Qualitative behavior of the memory coefficient during harmonic emotions of the robot (along the abscissa axis is time,
Preview: Bulletin of Perm University. Series Mathematics. Mechanics. Informatics No. 1 2019.pdf (0.9 Mb)36
The place and role of the library in the infrastructure of the educational space: Siberia and the Far East
Publishing house of the State Public Library for Science and Technology SB RAS
The material in the collection reflects the results of scientific and applied research on the topics: “Library situation as a factor in the socio-economic and cultural development of the territory”, “Scientific and educational complex of Novosibirsk: an outpost of science in Siberia”, “Code of bibliographic aids on Siberia and the Far East (XIX– XX centuries) as a universal source base for studying the state and history of the development of fundamental sciences", carried out by the State Public Library for Science and Technology of the SB RAS together with scientific libraries territories. A number of articles are devoted to the study of other aspects of library activities in the Siberian region.
environment of their existence, and also, within the framework of the project, to solve these problems - by creating more optimal<...>Nesterovich that “the optimal solution to the problem is not to increase the volume of UNB subscriptions due to<...>A person’s behavior is dictated by his attitudes 4, 5, therefore, information behavior is determined<...>information intermediary); defining search strategies; determining linguistic means for optimal<...>seems today to be an effective means of fighting for the relevance of information, since it is optimal
Preview: The place and role of the library in the infrastructure of the educational space of Siberia and the Far East.pdf (0.2 Mb)37
No. 3 [Bulletin of Perm University. Series Mathematics. "Mechanics. Informatics", 2018]
The publication includes original research, review articles, scientific notes relating to all areas indicated in the title of the journal, and above all current problems and open questions. The journal is of interest to scientists working in these areas, as it provides an opportunity to exchange experiences, as well as for graduate students and students of physics and mathematics at universities. The founder of the magazine is the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education vocational education"Perm State National Research University" (formerly the State educational institution of higher professional education "Perm State University"), responsible for the publication is the Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics.
Extremum of a function As is known, knowledge of the derivative of a certain function allows us to draw conclusions about the behavior<...>You can identify points at which the function f can take extreme values based on the behavior<...>Moshev, studying a similar effect based on the results of tests of granular composites, showed that the behavior<...>The possibility of selecting such damaged model elements that are capable of describing the behavior is shown.<...>The position and shape of these two curves illustrate the behavior of damaged bonds at small deformations
Preview: Bulletin of Perm University. Series Mathematics. Mechanics. Informatics No. 3 2018.pdf (1.2 Mb)38
No. 2 [Posev, 1979]
Social and political magazine. Published since November 11, 1945, published by the publishing house of the same name. The motto of the magazine is “God is not in power, but in truth” (Alexander Nevsky). The frequency of the magazine has changed. Initially published as a weekly publication, for some time it was published twice a week, and from the beginning of 1968 (number 1128) the magazine became monthly.
The unusualness of his behavior in this situation was expressed in the fact that he behaved as always (and about this<...>department of the Kyiv studio documentaries, in the mid-70s Snegirev for “anti-party behavior”
Preview: Seeding No. 2 1979.pdf (0.6 Mb)39
Programming: typical tasks, algorithms, methods
M.: Knowledge Laboratory
This book is for those who want to learn to program. It presents a technique for solving typical programming problems that is not tied to a specific language. Explanations on the methodology for solving problems and programs are given in school algorithmic language. Russian syntax makes programs understandable and easily portable to any programming language.
But how to choose the optimal control at a particular step?<...>control, UOV - conditional optimal gain.<...>Let us find for each of them the conditional optimal control and the conditional optimal gain.<...>funds, and the corresponding conditional optimal payoff is 3.6.<...>It remains to determine the optimal control in subsequent steps.
Preview: Programming typical tasks, algorithms, methods. - 3rd ed. (el.).pdf (0.3 Mb)40
No. 2 [Ecumene. Regional studies, 2009]
Scientific and theoretical journal OIKUMEN regional studies. The subject of the journal is related to the general assessment of the current state of socio-humanitarian research Far East
After analyzing the behavior of the model, Turchin begins to empirically test it.<...>Historically, human interest in animal behavior was natural.<...>He put on a bear skin and copied the animal’s habits with his behavior.<...>Thus, the best option for modern world would be to preserve the experience accumulated by the UN<...>However, the behavior of the “politicians” is alarming: P.A. Pushchin and V.V.in the economic sphere, corresponding to the int<...>(The authors of the document further talk about such types of behavior as “demographic” - the timing of entry into<...>It became clear that to achieve optimal efficiency, it is also necessary here, as in the sphere
Preview: Seeding No. 10 1983.pdf (0.7 Mb)42
No. 1 [Hygiene and sanitation, 2013]
Founded in 1922. The editor-in-chief of the magazine is Yuri Anatolyevich Rakhmanin - Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Director of the Research Institute of Human Ecology and Environmental Hygiene named after. A.N. Sysin, Ministry of Health of Russia, Moscow. General Hygienic Journal. Prints articles on all sections of hygienic science and sanitary practice. The main focus is on environmental and human hygiene, human ecology, hygiene of children and adolescents and radiation hygiene, occupational health, nutrition and social hygiene. Publishes review articles that highlight modern scientific positions and practically important issues. The magazine publishes materials devoted to important scientific and practical issues of interest to employees of state sanitary and epidemiological supervision centers, and introduces readers to new methods of hygienic research. Provides materials on organization and planning of sanitary matters, scientific foundations sanitary legislation, training of sanitary doctors, sanitary statistics, sanitary education and the history of sanitary affairs in our country, the state of hygienic science and sanitary practice abroad. Promotes best practices in the work of state sanitary and epidemiological surveillance centers. Posts reports on the work of congresses, conferences and meetings on sanitary and hygienic issues, on the activities of the Scientific Medical Society of Hygienists, reviews of published monographs and textbooks on hygiene and sanitation.
other substances that pose a risk to human health. The European Commission has issued a voluntary code of conduct<...>Secondly, sampling methods should take into account the behavior of NPs/NMs in the environment, most<...>The evolutionarily fixed system of nonspecific defense of the body allows us to ensure the reliability of adaptive behavior<...>At the same time, an optimal sitting position with optimal biomechanical characteristics (slight tilt<...>metabolic disorders (hereinafter referred to as diseases of the endocrine system), mental disorders and behavioral disorders
Preview: Hygiene and Sanitation No. 1 2013.pdf (1.8 Mb)43
No. 113 [Grani, 1979]
JOURNAL OF LITERATURE, ARTS, SCIENCE AND SOCIAL THOUGHT. Among the authors of “Fringes” over the years were such writers and poets as A. Akhmatova, L. Borodin, I. Bunin, Z. Gippius, Yu. Dombrovsky, B. Zaitsev, N. Lossky, A. Kuprin, V. Soloukhin , M. Tsvetaeva, O. P. Ilyinsky.
For good behavior! - Lyubka suddenly shouted. - Shut up!<...>So this same Alik, a history teacher, poet and gravedigger, told me: - The optimal option for education<...>All this has recently received the name “delinquent behavior” (from the Latin word delinquens<...>studying pathological disorders150 Copyright JSC Central Clinical Hospital BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency of behavior<...>takes the position of an accuser, exposing our conformism and humiliation in the sphere of public behavior
Phraseologisms with a verbal component meaning “a person, his qualities and behavior”: (From the position<...>Peculiarities of communicative behavior of Englishmen and Russians in a separate communication situation “advice to a friend”<...>Emotional individual-style features of the speech behavior of communicants in romantic communication<...>languages Balkans 1021 Siberia 1022 Dialogue silence 458 replica German 661 Russian language 661 speech behavior <...>language 768 pragmatics English language 847 speech situation English 766 Russian 766 speech behavior
Preview: New literature on social sciences and humanities. Linguistics Bibliography. decree. No. 4 2011.pdf (1.9 Mb)45
Fundamentals of psychosocial work with the population. allowance
M.: FLINTA
Theoretical and applied aspects of psychosocial work with the population are presented from modern positions. The concept, structure, subjects, objects, socio-psychological phenomena in socially tense situations are considered, technologies of psychosocial work with the population are revealed.
The most optimal is the one related to development, including social work.<...>Requirements for radio and television performances. Colloquialism (optimal use<...>These 15 signs are divided into 3 groups: 1) optimal emotional contact; 2) excessive emotional<...>
What is the optimal pace and scale of this convergence?<...>The calculated consumer budget is not optimal.<...>Other principles can and should include the principles of real efficiency and optimality.<...>DEVIANT BEHAVIOR (DEVIANT BEHAVIOR) is a form of disorganization of an individual’s behavior that reveals<...>behavior
Preview: Theory, history and methodology of social work. Selected works.pdf (0.6 MB)47
No. 3 [Siberian Lights, 1923]
"SIBERIAN LIGHTS" is one of the oldest Russian literary regional magazines. It has been published in Novosibirsk since 1922. During this time, several generations of talented writers, known not only in Siberia, such as: Vyach. Shishkov and Vs. Ivanov, A. Koptelov and L. Seifullina, E. Permitin and P. Proskurin, A. Ivanov and A. Cherkasov, V. Shukshin, V. Astafiev and V. Rasputin and many others. Among the poets, the most famous are S. Markov and P. Vasiliev, I. Eroshin and L. Martynov, E. Stewart and V. Fedorov, S. Kunyaev and A. Plitchenko. Currently, the literary, artistic and socio-political magazine "Siberian Lights", awarded with certificates of honor from the administration Novosibirsk region(V.A. Tolokonsky), regional council (V.V. Leonov), MA "Siberian Agreement" (V. Ivankov), edited by V.I. Zelensky, worthily continues the traditions of his predecessors. The editors of the magazine are a team of well-known writers and poets in Siberia, members of the Writers' Union of Russia.
But I must say that Litovtsev himself chose an even more shameful and criminal line of behavior.<...>With their behavior they irritate the peasants and soldiers, they persecute us, and we protect their pulpits. - Yes<...>"mercies" by means of various restrictions and divisions of exiles into persons with good and bad behavior<...>“we cannot admit, since in this “behavior” we were guided only by our revolutionary<...>captured enemies; they also do not care about that Jesuit classification of revolutionaries into persons of “good behavior”
Preview: Siberian Lights No. 3 1923.pdf (0.4 Mb)48
No. 7 [New literature on social and human sciences. Jurisprudence. Political Science: Bibliography. decree, 2012]
The purpose of the index is information about domestic and foreign literature in jurisprudence and political science, entering the library of the Institute of Scientific Information for Social Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences (INION). Published monthly.
The problem of responsibility and guilt (collective and individual) in the political behavior of the BCP-BSP during the<...>On the issue of differentiating the content of the categories “political activity”, “political behavior” and<...>See: 502, 503, 525, 547, 646, 676, 764 POLITICAL BEHAVIOR. MOTIVATION FOR POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR.<...>Political leadership Israel 543 Iran 543 Turkey 543 Political education Russia 466 Political behavior<...>POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6 POLITICAL BEHAVIOR.
Preview: New literature on social sciences and humanities. Jurisprudence. Political Science Bibliography. decree. No. 7 2012.pdf (2.9 Mb)49
MODELS AND ALGORITHMS FOR FORMING AN OPTIMAL STRATEGY OF BEHAVIOR OF A REGIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM IN CONDITIONS OF COMPETITIVE INTERACTIONS [Electronic resource] / Shiyanov // Bulletin of Voronezh State University. Series: Economics and Management.- 2011.- No. 1.- P. 107-115.- Access mode: https://site/efd/518074
An analysis of problems related to the development of methods for optimizing extreme competitive interactions is carried out in order to ensure the stable functioning of regional economic systems. A methodological approach is proposed that ensures the selection of competitively sustainable strategies for the behavior of the regional economic system, taking into account the dynamics of the production process
. No. 1 UDC 519.17 519.85 658.512.6 MODELS AND ALGORITHMS FOR FORMING AN OPTIMAL REGIONAL BEHAVIOR STRATEGY<...>In addition, the lack of taking into account the optimal behavior of the AES (in terms of choosing an option for distributing available<...>Models and algorithms for the formation of an optimal strategy for the behavior of a regional economic system...<...>This approach allows us to obtain the best guaranteed result with optimal behavior<...>Models and algorithms for the formation of an optimal strategy for the behavior of a regional economic system...
50
Behavior strategy of volleyball players in the game process and methods for its improvement. abstract dis. ...cand. ped. sciences
M.: RGUFKSiT
The work is devoted to identifying patterns of behavior of volleyball players in the game process and, on this basis, optimizing the training process of players, aimed at improving their performance in the competitive struggle of the parties.
In this regard, the scientific development of the provisions of the optimal strategy for the behavior of players represents a significant<...>To identify patterns in the selection of the optimal behavior strategy for volleyball players in the conditions of information<...>Patterns of choosing the optimal behavior strategy and their types when implementing tactical decisions in<...>Selection of optimal strategy behavior based on laboratory experiment data.<...>Choosing the optimal behavior strategy in conflict situation according to the data of the modeling experiment.
Preview: Strategy for the behavior of volleyball players in the game process and methods for improving it..pdf (0.2 Mb)DNE5NGRADSUY ORDER OF LENIN AND ORDER OF LABOR RED HASHNI STATE UNIVERSITY
As a manuscript
ZAKHAROV Viktor Vasilievich
OPTIMAL BEHAVIOR IN
hierarchical systems
01.01.II - System analysis and automatic control.
dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences
Leningrad - 1990
The work was carried out at the Faculty of Applied Mathematics-Control Processes of Leningrad State University
Official opponents: Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences KSHONENKO A.Yo. Doctor of Technical Sciences VOROBYEV A.M.
Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences TOMSKY G.V.
Leading organization - Irkutsk Computing Center of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences
The defense will take place "_"_1990 at_hour. on
meeting of the specialized council D.063.57.33 at the Leningrad Order of Lenin and the Order of the Red Banner of Labor State University at the address: I9S004 Leningrad, V.O., 10 line, D.33.
The dissertation can be found in the Leningradsky Fundamental Library named after A.M. Gorky state university(University embankment, 7/9).
Scientific secretary of the specialized council, associate professor
Kharitonov B.JI.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK
Relevance of the problem. One of the characteristic trends of the current stage of development of science is the formation of new directions that unite various fields scientific knowledge. Research in the field of system analysis related to decision-making problems belongs to these areas. As academician N.N. Moiseev notes, system analysis is a discipline that deals with decision-making problems in conditions where the choice of an alternative requires the analysis of a variety of complex information. Therefore, methodological concepts and hardware methods for implementing system analysis are based on general theory systems and in disciplines dealing with decision-making problems - operations research theory, general management theory and game theory.
When constructing mathematical models of the functioning or development of even relatively small real systems, researchers are faced with the need to take into account the complex interrelations of the model components that have a real impact on the implementation of development alternatives and the achievement of set goals. A significant number of complex management systems are characterized by conflict in the decision-making process, which is a consequence of the presence of a number of management subjects with a system of different ideas about both the global goal of the system’s development and the local goals and criteria for the development of its elements.
Another characteristic feature of complex systems is their hierarchical structure, which is expressed both in the presence of vertically subordinate subsystems in the system, and in the hierarchy of the management process.
The hierarchical management structure in a complex system is a sequence of management levels following each other in order of a certain priority. One of the reasons for the appearance of a hierarchical structure in control and decision-making systems is the large amount of information about controlled processes in the system and the impossibility of processing this information about controlled processes by one control center. Another reason is the decentralization of the decision-making process that exists in real systems, when
You, subordinate to the center, develop control actions based on the decisions of the center and taking into account their own interests.
To date, two-level static and dynamic systems, as well as some classes of systems with a hierarchical structure of a particular type, have been best studied.
Management problems in conflict two-level systems, first formulated in the 30s in connection with research in the field of economics, were then developed and studied by many Soviet and foreign researchers.
The foundations of the information theory of hierarchical systems were developed by N.N. Moiseev, J.B. Germeyer, A.O. Kononenko and their students. One of the main tasks of modeling conflict systems, as N.N. Vorobyov notes, is the design and analysis of optimality principles. The question of the principles of optimality, various modifications of equilibrium continues to attract the attention of specialists and is widely discussed in the literature, for example, in the works of E.I. Vilkas, N.N. Vorobyov, V.S. Bubelis, E. Damme, D.M. Kreps and others.
The development of the problems of conflict dynamic systems with a hierarchical structure is based on fundamental results in the theory of differential games obtained in the late 60s - early 70s by L.S. Pontryagin and N.N. Kraeovsky and developed in the works of A.F. Kononenko, V.N. Lagunov, M.S. Nikolsky, Yu.S. Osipov, N.N. Petrov, L.A. Petrosyan, B.N. Pshenichny, N.Yu. Satiov, A.I. Subbotin, G. V. Tomsky and many other Soviet and foreign mathematicians.
The need to study hierarchical differential games was emphasized in the works of A.F. Kononenko, A.F. Kleimenov, N.S. Kukushkin, A. Bapchk, T. Bazar, who made a significant contribution to the development of the problems arising here.
The fundamental problem that last years has attracted the attention of many specialists in the theory of conflict dynamic systems, is the problem of dynamic stability of solutions. This is due to the fact that dynamic stability is the most important factor in the feasibility in time of the chosen principles of optimality. The formulation of this problem was first carried out by L.A. Petrosyan in the late 70s and was further developed in the works of N.N. Danilov, S.V. Chistyakov, V.V. Zakharov and other researchers. It should be noted
Also refer to the later works of foreign scientists D. Kras, S. Holly, V. Hiller, in which the problem of “temporary consistency” of optimal solutions, similar to the problem of dynamic stability, is studied. Analysis of this problem for various classes of differential games shows the urgent need to obtain conditions under which dynamic stability takes place. Considering that almost all optimality principles used in conflict hierarchical control systems do not have this property, the urgent problem is to develop methods for regularizing solutions of hierarchical differential games that ensure dynamic stability of solutions.
In the proposed work, a significant place is given to these problems. From an applied point of view, the value of any approach is determined by the practical value of the developed methods. That's why I'm at work theoretical results are used in the study of specific hierarchical decision-making models.
The purpose of the work is to develop control theory and rolled out solutions in conflict hierarchical systems general view;
Application of traditional and construction and research of new principles of optimality in static and dynamic conflict control systems with a hierarchical structure;
Studying the properties of solutions to hierarchical games of a general form, comparing the principles of optimality, identifying patterns in the implementation of solutions for an arbitrary optimality principle;
Studying the problem of dynamic stability of optimality principles and solutions in hierarchical differential games and developing methods for regularizing solutions on various classes of strategies;
Construction of specific models of hierarchical systems and application of the results obtained for analysis and finding optimal solutions.
Scientific novelty. For the first time, the problem of control in conflict hierarchical systems of a general form is formulated. Based on the proposed approaches, new principles of optimality and procedures for selecting optimal solutions in static and dynamic systems have been developed. A new concept was introduced and new results were obtained.
necessary and sufficient conditions for the hierarchical stability of solutions to games of general form for an arbitrary optimality principle.
The problem of dynamic stability of solutions of hierarchical differential games is formulated and theorems on necessary and sufficient conditions for dynamic stability of solutions for various classes of games are proved. For the first time, methods for regularizing solutions have been developed for hierarchical differential games, ensuring their dynamic, and also monotonically dynamic stability.
A class of hierarchical games with discontinuous payoff functions is considered, for which necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence and uniqueness of solutions are formulated, and constructive methods for finding solutions in these games are proposed.
Practical value. The methods and approaches developed in the dissertation, the conditions obtained for the existence and uniqueness of solutions to hierarchical games, and methods for regularizing solutions were used in the study of a number of game-theoretic models of decision-making in conflicting ecological-economic systems. The theoretical results obtained can be used for further development theory of hierarchical systems, research into the problem of dynamic stability of solutions and principles of optimality in hierarchical differential games.
Research methods. The work uses the methodology and hardware methods for implementing system analysis, based on the concepts and statements of the general theory of dynamic systems, control theory and game theory. The construction and analysis of a number of models of hierarchical control systems were based on methods of the theory of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations, linear programming.
Approbation of work. The main provisions and results of the work were reported and discussed at the 1st Leningrad Symposium on Game Theory (1978), at the 3rd All-Union Conference on Operations Research (Gorky, 1978), at the All-Union Seminar "Applied Aspects of Control of Complex Systems" ( Kemerovo, 19EZ), at the All-Union Conference "Problems of Theoretical Cybernetics" (Irkutsk, 1985), at the All-Union School "Optimal Control. Geometry and Analysis" (Kemerovo, 1986), at the All-Union School "Mathematical Methods in Ecology "
(Chita, 1986), at the All-Union School "Mathematical Problems of Biology" (Chita, 1988), at scientific seminars of the BC /L of the USSR, the Institute of Cybernetics /L of the Ukrainian SSR, the Institute of Socio-Economic Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Faculty of Computational Mathematics and cybernetics). State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, Irkutsk Computing Center of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Natural Resources of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Research Center for Environmental Safety of the Literary Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Computing Center of the Armenian Academy of Sciences CCI5, Department of Control Theory and Department of Mathematical Statistics, theory of reliability and queuing, Faculty of Applied Mathematics and Control Processes, Leningrad State University.
Work structure. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, nineteen paragraphs, a conclusion and a list of references. The total volume of the dissertation is 317 pages. The list of references includes 133 titles.
In its introduction, the relevance of the problem being solved is substantiated, the purpose, methods and directions of research are formulated, and a summary of the main results of the work is described.
Gdaha I. Knogokriteg."Ial and hierarchical systems
The first chapter gives a general formulation of the problem of choosing optimal retenii in multicriteria and hierarchical systems, describes the principles of optimality, studies diamond-shaped, tree-shaped, two-level and multi-level systems, proposes a method for constructing the characteristic function of a cooperative game with a non-empty C-core, introduces the concept of hierarchical stability of the solution of the game Г general form and the properties of stable optimal situations are studied.
In paragraph O.1, the problem of managing a complex system is formalized in the form of a finite graph G, the Eershin set of which is divided into two subsets - the main and accompanying components. In this case, the dependence of the quantitative
the states of the main component of the system from the states of the components of the set &\r), as well as from the poisoning parameter n; selected from the set M>y1" (r>), where
(O _ vectors describing the state of the main and accompanying components. For each main component, a utility function is introduced, which, taking into account the interrelationship of the system, is defined as a function of control parameters. If the control process involves so many different parties, selecting "control actions m-" accordingly, then we obtain a mathematical model of decision-making in conditions of divergent interests of participants. The peculiarity of the model is that the sets of strategies (controls) of players and ((x° ^depend on the quantitative states of the components,
affecting the component £. Therefore, it cannot be said here that players choose their strategies simultaneously and independently, as is customary in non-cooperative games.
Let us denote the set of elements of the hierarchical system 10 = (A0,Au...,Ab] ■ We will assume that at the top level of the hierarchy there is an element A0, which is called the center. We divide the set Г = 10\ (/40) into 1> disjoint subsets ¿ >2 such that and £¿ = 7. We denote
through 1Г, ..,^(0 sets of admissible actions (control
ies, strategies) elements A0> Al We will assume
assume that in the general case the sets of admissible actions depend on the controls chosen by elements of higher levels of the system and are not empty for any admissible values of these controls. We will define the criterion for any element £е I by some functional defined on the set 1/x x. ..l gse ^e^O), . Each of the elements is interested in maximizing its functionality.
We will model the decision-making process in such a system with a hierarchical multilevel game Г, which we will call a hierarchical game of general form.
In § 1.2, optimization problems in control and decision-making systems with a hierarchical structure are discussed, and the concept of a hierarchical control structure is formulated. A characteristic element used to select a solution in a hierarchical system is the set of optimal reactions of individual
noP system components or groups of components /?( ) on
selection of controls for subsystems at higher levels. This section discusses a number of specific: decision-making models in two-level control systems.
Section 1.3 is devoted to the principles of optimality used in game-theoretic models. Here we consider two-level, tree-like games and a general hierarchical game. Nash and Stackelberg equilibria are used as optimality principles in these games. It is shown that in a tree game, under the assumption of the uniqueness of the maximum points of the payoff functionals for all values of the parameters, the Stackelberg solution coincides with the set of equilibrium situations according to Neu.
For the game Г we introduce the concept of equilibrium hierarchical strategies of players.
Let us define the set of optimal reactions of players at this level as follows:
/G(>Y,...U~1b(rLg/£_ ^ H; (u, y,1 .u1~\
where is ir
vl¡\!^". - A control vector in which the £th component is replaced by r>/.
Definition. Mapping V n., u]..u^""1) » assigning to each admissible set u> y1,.. the only control of the k-th level belonging to
.”subject to optimal reactions, we will
call it an equilibrium hierarchical strategy of the Lth level
Are there many optimal reactions here?< -го уровня определяется так:
where V ( ),...(.) are, respectively, the equilibrium hierarchies
technical strategies of the &-I,..., b-th levels.
We will call the equilibrium hierarchical solution of the center the set R0 of all controls its ¿7 such that
Lemma 1 proves that any set of equilibrium hierarchical strategies forms a Nash equilibrium situation. For the special case of the game Г, when there is only one player at each level of the hierarchy, Theorem I is formulated on the existence of an e-equilibrium situation.
In § 1.4, the process of finding a Dtakelberg solution in diamond-shaped games is discussed in detail; multi-criteria diamond-shaped control systems that use the mixed optimality principle are also considered. To correspond to this diamond-shaped game system, the concept of an SP-solution is introduced, which has the properties of a Stackelberg solution and the requirements of Pareto optimality. To illustrate the decision-making processes in systems with a diamond-shaped structure, we consider the problem of constructing an optimal plan for a production unit C, subordinate to two administrative centers B1 and A, which in turn are also subordinate to the center A0, and such a problem of resource allocation in a hierarchical production system. "
The main feature of cooperative games with a hierarchical structure is that the characteristic functions in these games are built taking into account the information structure. In the works of L.A. Petrosyan, characteristic functions of diamond-shaped games are constructed using Nash equilibrium situations. Section 1.5 proposes a method for constructing the characteristic function of a cooperative hierarchical game of general form using the equilibrium hierarchical strategies of players in the non-cooperative game G. The superadditivity of the constructed characteristic function is proved. Theorem 4 establishes that the payoff vector in the equilibrium situation of the game Г is a division in a cooperative game and belongs to its C-core. At the end of the section, examples of constructing characteristic functions in diamond-shaped games are considered.
3 series of scientific publications by R.D. Auman, N.N. Vorobyov, P.P. Lewis, E. Dmmme, D. M. Kreps, N. Kuhn and other researchers
Various modifications of the concept of stability of equilibrium situations in games are considered in expanded form. In Section 1.6, a new concept of stability of a solution in a hierarchical game Г of general form is introduced. Let us denote by
M = (O, V,...,r>n); u.e/g°, vke ..k = \,r,...,b)
Solution of the hierarchical game Г, where is the set of optimal hierarchical solutions of the center, /?*( ] is the set of optimal reactions of players of the kth level, non-empty for all admissible values of the controls of players of higher levels.
Let us denote the hierarchical strategies of player r by Ε>-("), and the coalitions by
Let us consider a situation (and, y 1(-), ■ ■., such that
any -ue/?0, = u, A = 1,2,...,1-
Let M^ be a subset of M, including all alternatives with a fixed center strategy. For each k = 1,2,...,1, we introduce the set
m1m.... V1"") = ((g>?..., V1): . 1>1.y-"), 1-K..L
Definition. The alternative (and, V1,... is called
hierarchically stable with respect to the situation if for any k = ■(, 2,..., I
We will call a subset A/" of the set Mi hierarchically stable with respect to the situation (.u.uH"),...,Х10)) if any alternative from the set M^ is hierarchically stable with respect to this situation. The situation (and<рV-;,... ...»ф^С-)) будем называть абсолютно иерархически устойчивой, если относительно нее устойчиво множество М1о.
Let us formulate the following theorems on necessary and sufficient conditions for hierarchical stability, proven in the first chapter.
Theorem 6. In order for the alternative
was hierarchically stable relative to the situation (_ and, $4-),...
-»С-)), it is necessary and sufficient that for anyone
£ =1,2,",..,£ the condition was satisfied
P k-<1()у*"*;,
where У^ср1^,»1,..., V , £=
Theorem 7. In order for the optimal situation C, ^"O,--"/?^")) to be absolutely hierarchically stable, it is necessary and sufficient that for any alternative (u, r>1...>y1)&M1 the condition was met
for all A = (,2., ... ,1 .
Chapter 2. Dynamic conflict control systems
with hierarchical structure
This chapter formulates the problem of conflict management of a general dynamic system with a hierarchical structure. For hierarchical control systems, the dynamics of which are described by vector differential equations, and the payoff functionals contain integral and terminal terms, the problem of dynamic stability of solutions for various optimality principles is formulated, the conditions under which solutions turn out to be dynamically stable are studied, and for unstable optimality principles, regularization methods are proposed that ensure dynamic stability of solutions of hierarchical games.
Section 2.1 formulates the problem of conflict control in dynamic models with a hierarchical structure, discusses the conditions that ensure the existence and uniqueness of solutions to systems of differential equations for various classes of strategies and controls, and provides conditions under which the sets of all possible trajectories when using program and synthesizing controls coincide. At the end of the section, we consider two examples of finding equilibrium situations in two-level differential games with terminal
winnings. The considered examples are characterized by the fact that optimal strategies in one of them turn out to be dynamically unstable, and in the other they have the opposite property.
The dynamics of all conflict hierarchical systems discussed in the first paragraph and throughout the chapter are described by the vector differential equation
at initial conditions
I th T > control gs. e, r. e th at each moment of time are chosen from compact sets,..., Рп, £ = ■1,2,...,п The payoff functionals of the players are considered in the form
= ¿-0.1....p.
An essential point in constructing a game-theoretic model of decision-making in a conflict management system is the choice of the principle of optimality, as well as the type of strategies used by the players. This is discussed in paragraph 2.2. In accordance with the accepted terminology, we define a player’s strategy as a mapping of this player’s information set onto the set of his control parameters. In the general case, it is assumed that the strategy space of the 1st player is a set of mappings ^¿(¿,xO>), where for a fixed I, (p.(-) depends on
This is the case when, in a hierarchical differential game of two persons, strategies are used that include inviting the lower-level player to track, together with the upper-level player, a certain trajectory that is beneficial to both players. Such strategies were used, for example, in the works of A.F. Kleimenov.
In Section 2.2, similar strategies are considered for a two-level p-N person game with one center - a top-level player, when the center does not affect the dynamics of the system, but only the value of the payoff functionals of the game.
rocks of the lower level. A characteristic feature of the proposed solution designs is the presence of a UG strategy at the center; ea, which assumes that in case of deviation from the implementation of the proposed trajectory, the center will switch to a universal strategy, which can also be interpreted as a punishment strategy. The following paragraph discusses the application of the principle of optimal! Stackolberg type for two and three level differential games. At the end of the section, examples of finding o: Tical solutions according to Ltakelbsrg, as well as BR-solutions in two-level differential games are considered.
In Section 2.3 the problem of dynamic stability of solutions of hierarchical differential games is discussed. The solution M(10>x0) of the hierarchical differential game ГС^0,ар^м is called dynamically stable if for any set of strategies еМ(10,х0) and any ¿еЦ0>
just know the condition
where _ narrowing of optimal strategies On
interval Г] . А/((,х(ξ)) is the solution of the current game in which the point of the optimal trajectory at time b is used as the initial position. From this definition of the dynamic stability of the solution it follows that dynamically stable optimal strategies have the property? optimality throughout the entire period of the game's orbit along the optimal trajectory.
Further in this section, the dynamic stability of the Nohl equilibrium and the Pareto-optimal solution in the system of program strategies is proved. Discussed in detail here:< динамические свойства решения по Стапельбергу перархическо! даффереициальной игры двух лиц. Показано, что даже в том с. чае, когда множество оптимальных реакций игрока нижнего ур>nya consists of a single strategy, the Stackelbe solution; in the general case it turns out to be dynamically unstable both in all program and positional strategies. At the same time, there are hierarchical games in which the Stackelberg solution is dynamically stable. This is confirmed by a specific example placed at the end of the paragraph.
Section 2.4 is devoted to the method of regularization of two-level
differential games. The goal of the method is to ensure dynamic stability of the game solution. To do this, it is proposed that each player pay such a part of the integral winnings at the moment of time that at any time interval remaining until the end of the game, it would not be profitable for the player to deviate from the strategy chosen at the beginning of the game. The characteristic property of the Stackel'erg solution to a two-level game in the class of program strategies is summarized in the following lemma.
Lemma 2L. Let M(i0,x0) be the Stackelberg solution of a two-level game Г on the class of program strategies. For any situation (ü,v^,...,vn)
vil, P eRsCü.Li,T)),
where Rs(ñ TU) is the set of optimal reactions of lower-level players in the current game I. й-lГ]~ = (ß^iyT]).,., vn lít Г]) - narrowing of the optimal controls of players in the time interval.
A similar lemma in this section is formulated for the S P -solution of a two-level differential game.
Let us now consider the pencil of trajectories X?.(í) ¿0¡x0) Stackelberg optimal, giving which the control of the center il.(i) is fixed. Then, as shown in Theorem 2, the condition
N" °(ya,"P, vltj]) = max min
u-"eVCtSJ vt£R^ut) 0 *
where vb) is the functionality of the center in the current game,
xÍb xí(¿ í„, x\ is an arbitrary position of the beam section in the moment
O > > O" O"
nt time í is sufficient for the dynamic stability of the solution. A similar condition is established for the SP solution in Theorem 3. In these theorems, a condition of type (I) assumes that the optimal lower-level response in the case of a dynamically stable equilibrium situation (,ü,v) is also a punishment strategy. However, as shown in Theorem 2, this condition can be weakened by introducing the concept of some universal punishment strategy
and having already formulated condition (í) for this lower level strategy. Further, to implement the regularization method, it is assumed that the integral payoff a.At) of player i, which
he is paid at time íe[í0,T) , determined as follows:
u( (t) = ¡i¿ (b) I h; C^C-c;, ü(T), ü(T)) dr, i=0,i,...,n,
where p¿(í) are piecewise continuous functions taking values in the range from zero to one. Moreover, the values of the functions ji-(i), generally speaking, depend on "." from the chosen trajectory, therefore
This allows us to calculate the values of the players' payoff functionals for the contraction of optimal controls ¿¿, vLi, T3 taking into account the function Ji(-) , and for a set of strategies that do not match the chosen optimal one, in the usual way. We will call this process of redistribution of the payoff along the optimal trajectory the regularization of a hierarchical differential game, and a hierarchical differential game that admits regularization with transferable payoffs in time or ¿-transferable payoffs.
Let ü(_í) v(i),äi, when the algorithm of the control device of a closed-loop system is found analytically in accordance with a certain quality functional corresponding to a quadratic criterion of the form
Minimizing the functional (1.16) corresponds to the problem of a state controller, when it is important to keep all components of the state vector near zero. Other options are possible for keeping some error near zero, which is the difference between the desired and output signals in tracking tasks, but the semantic content of the criterion structure remains unchanged. The first term characterizes the terminal error at the final moment, the second term aims to ensure that the error is small when holding the system in a given position. The last term represents the “penalty for large controls” and estimates the energy spent on control.
Accordingly, the positive semidefinite matrices M, R and positive definite matrix R are selected taking into account the significance of the specified factors, mainly with non-zero diagonal elements, or, at the request of the designer, some of the matrices can be set to zero.
In this case, as a rule, a linear non-stationary object is considered, described by the equations
where no direct restrictions are imposed on management. In this regard, for an analytical solution, you can use both the calculus of variations and the maximum principle, but to obtain a closed-form solution, we will use the dynamic programming method. Taking into account the terminal term, the Bellman function S is the function
which at is not equal to zero.
Taking into account (1.16) and (1.17), the Bellman equation has the form
In the absence of restrictions on optimal control, we calculate the derivative of the expression in curly brackets and, equating it to zero, we obtain
Since the matrix D is positive definite, we can find, firstly, the optimal control
and, secondly, write the Bellman equation without the minimization operation:
Equation (3.20) can be solved under the condition. It can be shown that equation (3.20) has an exact analytical solution, which is the quadratic form
Where K(t) is a symmetrical non-stationary matrix with the required elements.
Having calculated the partial derivatives
Let's substitute them into equation (1.20):
Considering that, equation (1.22) can be transformed to the form
which corresponds to the equality to zero of the expression in square brackets, which has the form of a system of linear inhomogeneous differential equations with the boundary condition:
Equation (1.23) is called the matrix Riccati equation, the solution of which is usually found numerically on a computer before the system starts operating. In the general case, optimal control corresponds to a linear control law with a variable transfer coefficient
And again, a logical question arises --- under what conditions will the structure and parameters of the controller remain unchanged. Kalman’s works prove that for M = 0 and for stationary objects, i.e. with constant matrices A, B, K and P, the solution to the Riccati equation is the constant matrix K corresponding to the equation
In this case, the optimal closed-loop system is stationary
and asymptotically stable due to the steady-state behavior at, despite the fact that the control object may be unstable.
It is carried out on the basis of a structural-dynamic approach. The most important sections of ethology are:
- morphology of behavior - description and analysis of elements of behavior (postures and movements);
- functional analysis - analysis of external and internal factors of behavior;
- comparative studies - evolutionary genetic analysis of behavior [Deryagina, Butovskaya, 1992, p. 6].
Within the framework of the systems approach, behavior is defined as a system of interconnected components that provides an integrated optimal response of the body when interacting with the environment; this is a process that occurs in a certain period of time [Deryagina, Butovskaya 1992, p.7]. The components of the system are “external” motor reactions of the body that arise in response to changes in the environment. The object of ethological research is both instinctive forms of behavior and those associated with long-term learning processes (social traditions, tool activity, non-ritual forms of communication).
Modern behavior analysis is based on the following principles: 1) hierarchy; 2) dynamism; 3) quantitative accounting; 4) a systematic approach, taking into account that forms of behavior are closely interrelated.
Behavior is organized according to a hierarchical principle. Therefore, different levels of integration are distinguished in the behavioral system:
- elementary motor acts;
- postures and movements;
- sequences of interrelated poses and movements;
- ensembles represented by complexes of action chains;
- functional spheres are complexes of ensembles associated with a specific type of activity [Panov, 1978].
The central property of a behavioral system is the orderly interaction of its components to achieve the final goal. The relationship is ensured through chains of transitions between elements and can be considered as a specific ethological mechanism for the functioning of this system [Deryagina, Butovskaya, 1992, p. 9].
The basic concepts and methods of human ethology are borrowed from animal ethology, but they are adapted to take into account the unique position of man among other members of the animal kingdom. An important feature of ethology, in contrast to cultural anthropology, is the use of direct non-participant observation methods (although participant observation methods are also used). Observations are organized in such a way that the observed does not suspect it, or has no idea about the purpose of the observations. The traditional object of study by ethologists is behavior characteristic of humans as a species. Human ethology pays special attention to the analysis of universal manifestations of nonverbal behavior. The second aspect of research is the analysis of models of social behavior (aggression, altruism, social dominance, parental behavior).
An interesting question is about the boundaries of individual and cultural variability of behavior. Behavioral observations can also be made in the laboratory. But in this case, most often we are talking about applied ethology (the use of ethological methods in psychiatry, psychotherapy, or for experimental testing of a specific hypothesis). [Samokhvalov et al., 1990; Cashdan, 1998; Grummer et al, 1998].
If initially human ethology focused on questions about how and to what extent human actions and actions are programmed, which led to the opposition of phylogenetic adaptations to the processes of individual learning, now attention is paid to the study of behavioral patterns in different cultures (and subcultures), the analysis of processes formation of behavior in the process of individual development. Thus, at the present stage, this science studies not only behavior that has phylogenetic origin, but also takes into account how behavioral universals can be transformed within a culture. The latter circumstance contributed to the development of close cooperation between ethologists and art historians, architects, historians, sociologists and psychologists. As a result of such cooperation, it was shown that unique ethological data can be obtained through a thorough analysis of historical materials: chronicles, epics, chronicles, literature, press, painting, architecture and other objects of art [Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989; Dunbar et al, 1995; Dunbar, Spoors, 1995].
Levels of Social Complexity
In modern ethology, it is considered obvious that the behavior of individual individuals in social animals and humans largely depends on the social context [Hinde, 1990]. Social influence is complex. Therefore, R. Hind proposed to identify several levels of social complexity. In addition to the individual, the level of social interactions, relationships, the group level and the level of society are distinguished. All levels mutually influence each other and develop under the constant influence of the physical environment and culture. It should be clearly understood that the patterns of behavior functioning at a more complex social level are not reducible to the sum of behavior manifestations at a lower level of organization. A separate complementary concept is required to explain the behavioral phenomenon at each level. Thus, aggressive interactions between siblings are analyzed taking into account the immediate incentives underlying this behavior, while the aggressive nature of relationships between siblings can be considered from the point of view of the concept of “sibling competition”.
The behavior of an individual within the framework of this approach is considered as a consequence of his interaction with other members of the group. It is assumed that each of the interacting individuals has certain ideas about the probable command of the partner in a given situation. The individual receives the necessary ideas on the basis of previous experience of communication with other representatives of its species. Contacts between two unfamiliar individuals, which are clearly hostile in nature, are often limited to only a series of demonstrations. Such communication is often enough for one of the partners to admit defeat and demonstrate submission. If specific individuals interact many times, then certain relationships arise between them, taking place against the general background of social contacts. The social environment for both humans and animals is a kind of shell” that surrounds individuals and transforms the impact of the physical environment on them. Sociality in animals can be considered as a universal adaptation to the environment. The more complex and flexible the social organization, the greater the role it plays in protecting individuals of a given species. The plasticity of social organization could serve as a basic adaptation of our common ancestors with chimpanzees and bonobos, which provided the initial prerequisites for hominization [Butovskaya, Fainberg, 1993].
The most important problem of modern ethology is the search for the reasons why the social systems of animals and humans are always structured, most often along a hierarchical principle. The real role of the concept of dominance for understanding the essence of social connections in society is constantly debated. Networks of relationships between individuals are described in animals and humans in terms of kinship and reproductive ties, systems of dominance, and individual selectivity. They can overlap (for example, rank, kinship and reproductive relationships), but they can also exist independently of each other (for example, networks of relationships between a teenager in family and school with peers in modern human society).
Of course, one should be very careful when using direct parallels in a comparative analysis of animal and human behavior, because all levels of social complexity influence each other. Many types of human activity are specific and symbolic in nature, which can only be understood by having knowledge of the social experience of a given individual and the characteristics of the socio-cultural structure of society [Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989]. However, the undeniable advantage of the ethological approach when discussing problems of continuity of principles social organization is the unification of methods for assessing and describing the behavior of primates, including humans, which makes it possible to objectively assess the basic parameters of similarity and difference. R. Hinde's scheme allows us to eliminate the main misunderstandings between representatives of the biological and social sciences regarding the possibilities of comparative analysis of human and animal behavior and to predict at what levels of organization real similarities can be sought.
