Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation
University Russian Academy Education (Chelyabinsk Branch)
Faculty of Humanities
Department Foreign Languages
COURSE WORK
Language and society. Sociolinguistics
Completed:
student of group LP-218
Kurepin Kirill Valentinovich
Scientific director :
Gizatulin Sergey Leonidovich
Chelyabinsk, 2010
Introduction……………………………………………………………...………………3
Chapter 1. Language as a social factor……………………………..……………5
1.1. The originality of language as a social phenomenon………………....………6
1.2. Dependence of language development on the state of society…………….….…..9
1.2.1. Reflection in the language of social organization……………….….. 9
1.2.1.1. Social and special use of languages………………………………………………………………...10
1.2.1.2. Creation special languages………..……………………13
1.2.1.3. Social and professional differentiation is common native language…………..………………………………...….15
1.2.2. Reflection of demographic changes in the language………………17
1.2.3. Reflection in the language of cultural development………………………….19
Conclusions on the first chapter……………………………………………………………...…....22
Chapter 2. Sociolinguistics as the science of language in its social context..23
2.1. The origins of sociolinguistics…………………………………………………….23
2.2. Object and tasks of sociolinguistics……………………………………………………….25
2.3. National language policy………………………………………….29
2.3.1. Software-theoretical complex………………………….30
2.3.2. Legal status of languages…………………………………………..31
2.3.3. Economic measures……………………………..………………32
2.4. Methods of sociolinguistic research…………………………..33
Conclusions on the second chapter……………………………...………………………36
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….37
List of references………………………………………………………...…38
Introduction
Language arises, develops and exists as a social phenomenon. Its main purpose is to serve the needs human society and above all, to ensure communication between members of a particular social group.
The concept of society is one of the most difficult to define. Society is not just a set of human individuals, but a system of diverse relationships between people belonging to certain social, professional, gender and age, ethnic, ethnographic, religious groups, where each individual occupies his specific place and, therefore, acts as a bearer of a certain social status, social functions and roles. An individual as a member of society can be identified on the basis of large quantity relationships that connect him with other individuals. The peculiarities of an individual's linguistic behavior and his behavior in general are largely determined by social factors.
The problem of the relationship between language and society includes many aspects, for example, such as: social essence language, variation of language in society, interaction of languages in a multi-ethnic society, etc.
The study of such problems is carried out by such a science as sociolinguistics (social linguistics), which arose at the intersection of linguistics and sociology.
The study of the processes of interaction between language and society has a fairly long tradition in modern science. However, the multifaceted nature of this phenomenon, the interdisciplinary nature of sociolinguistics as the main science for the study of this problem determines the importance of systematization scientific knowledge on this topic, determines the relevance and topic of our research:
“Language and Society. Sociolinguistics".
Target Our research consists in a comprehensive description of the process of mutual influence of language and society from the perspective of modern sociolinguistics.
Realization of this goal requires solving a number of specific tasks :
1. identify the main areas of interaction of the phenomena being studied;
2. establish the degree of relationship between language and society and identify common factors influencing them;
3. determine the role of sociolinguistics as the science of language in its social context.
Object of study are the processes occurring during the interaction of language and society.
Subject of study constitutes the functioning of language as a social phenomenon.
Basic methods research:
1. analysis and systematization of literature on this topic;
2. study and comparison of various scientific points of view on the problem under study.
CHAPTER 1. LANGUAGE AS A SOCIAL FACTOR
The question of the connection between language and society still remains controversial in science. According to one point of view, there is no connection between language and society, because language develops and functions according to its own laws (Polish scientist E. Kurilovich), according to another, this connection is one-way, since the development and existence of a language is completely determined by the level of development of society (American scientists E. Sapir, B. Whorf). However, the most widespread point of view is that the connection between language and society is two-way.
In our work we will adhere to the opinion that language and society mutually influence each other. So, on the influence of language on the development of social relations This is evidenced, first of all, by the fact that language is one of the determining factors in the formation of a nation. It is, on the one hand, a prerequisite and condition for its occurrence, and on the other, the result of this process. In addition, this is evidenced by the role of language in educational and educational activities society, since language is a tool and means of transmitting knowledge, cultural, historical and other traditions from generation to generation. [Vendina 2001: 25]
Society's influence on language reflected, first of all, in the social differentiation of language. A striking example Such social differentiation is reflected in the changes that occurred in the Russian language after the October Revolution, when a huge number of new, socially charged words poured into the language, and there was a change in the traditions of the literary language, in particular, pronunciation norms. Another example, from modern reality: a change in the political situation in the country gave rise to such a word as perestroika, which previously had a completely different meaning. The influence of society on language is also manifested in the differentiation of many languages into territorial and social dialects (the language of the village is contrasted with the language of the city, the language of workers, as well as the literary language). [Vendina 2001: 26]
The connection between language and society is also evidenced by the fact of stylistic differentiation of language, the dependence of the use linguistic means on the social affiliation of native speakers (their profession, level of education, age) and on the needs of society as a whole (this is evidenced by the presence of various functional styles representing the language of science, office work, mass media and so on).
For a detailed description of language as a social phenomenon and to identify its specificity in this regard, it is necessary to consider language in different aspects. The main starting point is to state the dependence of language on society and recognize the specificity of its main function - to be a means of communication. In connection with the above, it seems appropriate to consider the following issues: 1) the specificity of language service to society, 2) the dependence of language development on the development and state of society, 3) the role of society in the creation and formation of language.
1.1. The uniqueness of language as a social phenomenon
Language, as a social phenomenon, occupies its own special place among other social phenomena and has its own specific features.
What language has in common with other social phenomena is that language is necessary condition existence and development of human society and that, being an element of spiritual culture, language, like all other social phenomena, is unthinkable in isolation from materiality. [Reformatsky 2001: 21]
However, language as a social phenomenon is not just unique - in a number of ways essential features it differs from all social phenomena:
1. Language, consciousness and the social nature of work activity are initially interconnected and form the foundation of human identity.
2. The presence of language is a necessary condition for the existence of society throughout the history of mankind. Any social phenomenon in its existence is limited in chronological terms: it is not originally in human society and is not eternal. Unlike non-primordial or transitory phenomena public life, language is primordial and will exist as long as society exists.
3. The presence of language is a necessary condition for material and spiritual existence in all spheres of social space. Any social phenomenon in its distribution is limited to a certain “place”, its own space. Language is global, omnipresent. The areas of language use cover all conceivable social space. Being the most important and basic means of communication, language is inseparable from all and any manifestations of human social existence.
4. Language is dependent and independent of society. The globality of language, its inclusion in all forms of social existence and social consciousness give rise to its supra-group and supra-class character. However, the supra-class nature of a language does not mean that it is non-social. Society may be divided into classes, but it remains a society, that is, a certain unity of people. While the development of production leads to social differentiation of society, language acts as its most important integrator. At the same time, the social structure of society and the sociolinguistic differentiation of the speech practices of speakers are to a certain extent reflected in the language. The national language is socially heterogeneous. Its social structure, i.e. the composition and significance of the social variants of the language (professional speech, jargons, vernacular, caste languages, etc.), as well as the types of communicative situations in a given society are determined by the social structure of the society. However, despite the possible severity of class contradictions, social dialects of a language do not become special languages.
5. Language is a phenomenon of the spiritual culture of humanity, one of the forms of social consciousness (along with everyday consciousness, morality and law, religious consciousness and art, ideology, politics, science). The uniqueness of language as a form of social consciousness lies in the fact that, firstly, language, along with the psychophysiological ability to reflect the world, is a prerequisite for social consciousness; secondly, language is a semantic foundation and a universal shell of various forms of social consciousness. In its content, the semantic system of language is closest to ordinary consciousness. Through language it is carried out specifically human form transfer of social experience (cultural norms and traditions, natural science and technological knowledge).
6. Language does not relate to ideological or ideological forms of social consciousness (unlike law, morality, politics, philosophical, religious, artistic, everyday consciousness).
7. Language preserves the unity of the people in their history despite class barriers and social cataclysms.
8. The development of language, more than the development of law, ideology or art, is independent of the social history of society, although, ultimately, it is conditioned and directed precisely by social history. It is important, however, to characterize the extent of this independence. The connection between the history of language and the history of society is obvious: there are features of language and linguistic situations that correspond to certain stages of ethnic and social history. Thus, we can talk about the uniqueness of languages or linguistic situations in primitive societies, in the Middle Ages, and in modern times. The linguistic consequences of such social upheavals as revolutions, civil wars: the boundaries of dialect phenomena are shifting, the previous normative and stylistic structure of the language is being violated, political vocabulary and phraseology are being updated. However, at its core, the language remains the same, unified, which ensures the ethnic and cultural continuity of society throughout its history.
The uniqueness of language as a social phenomenon, in fact, is rooted in its two features: firstly, in the universality of language as a means of communication and, secondly, in the fact that language is a means, not the content and not the goal of communication; the semantic shell of social consciousness, but not the content of consciousness itself. A language in relation to the spiritual culture of a society is comparable to a dictionary in relation to the whole variety of texts built on the basis of this dictionary. The same language can be a means of expressing polar ideologies, contradictory philosophical concepts, and countless versions of worldly wisdom. [Mechkovskaya 2001: 27]
So, language acts as a universal means of communication between people. It preserves the unity of the people in the historical change of generations and social formations, despite social barriers, thereby uniting the people in time, in geographical and social space.
1.2. Dependence of language development on the state of society
When characterizing language as a social phenomenon, one should also take into account its dependence on changes in the state of human society. Language is capable of reflecting changes in the life of society on a broader scale, in all its spheres, which significantly distinguishes it from all other social phenomena.
1.2.1. Reflection in the language of the social organization of society
Language cannot be indifferent to the fundamentally social divisions that arise within the society served by a given language. “Where separate classes and groups are distinguished in the structure of society,” writes R. Shor in this regard, “serving various production purposes, the language of this society breaks down into corresponding social dialects. Wherever there is a division of labor (and such a division is observed everywhere, coinciding among the peoples of primitive culture with the differentiation of the sexes, hence the emergence of special “female languages”), each branch of production is forced to create its own special reserve “ technical terms“- names of tools and work processes related to its role in production and incomprehensible to members of another production group.” [Shore 1986: 100]
Linguistic phenomena generated by the social differentiation of society are most naturally divided into the following three groups:
Each of these groups has its own characteristics and is associated with specific problems, which is why it requires separate consideration.
1.2.1.1. Social and Special Use of Languages
A characteristic feature of this group is that it consists independent languages, used in special functions along with some other (most often the main - national) language. This, for example, was the class-based use of French by the Norman conquerors in England.
All the historical data that we have indicates that in the conditions of English society and English statehood of that time (11-13 centuries) French of the Norman conquerors was a language that in a certain sense can be called a class language, and it was spoken not by the insignificant elite of the English feudal lords, but by the entire nobility in power for the simple reason that initially among the nobles and especially among the king’s immediate vassals there was soon not a single Englishman. So, for example, in 1072, out of 12 earls, only one was English, but he was executed in 1078. Later, when the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy began to gradually merge with the Norman barons in power, it adopted their language and precisely because he was classist. At the English court, even a rather extensive literature developed, which was French only in language, but English in content.
In other historical conditions, the same class use German language took place in Denmark in the 17th and 18th centuries. “The German language,” E. Wessen testifies in this regard, “was used at the Danish court, especially in the second half of the 17th century. It was also widespread as a spoken language in noble and burgher circles.” [Vessen 2007: 95]
According to Gabelents, among the Javanese, a superior in his social position addresses his inferior in the Nyoko language, and he must respond in the Kromo language. A peculiar reflection of the social status of languages is found in ancient Indian drama, where there was a rule that men spoke Sanskrit and women spoke Prakrits (folk dialects). But this difference actually had a deep social meaning. “The difference,” says O. Jespersen, “rests, however, not on sexual differentiation, but on social ranks, since Sanskrit is the language of gods, kings, princes, brahmins, statesmen, courtiers, dance masters and other men the upper class, and also partly women of special religious significance. Prakrit, on the contrary, was spoken by men of the lower classes - business people, small officials, bathhouse attendants, fishermen, policemen and almost all women. The difference between two languages is therefore a difference between social classes or castes.” In this latter case, the difference between the sexes is actually covered by differences in their social status. [Zvegintsev www. gumer.info]
This group should also include special languages that are used by individual social groups for certain (not common to the entire people) purposes. In one case, these are languages that serve the purposes of international communication for people of a particular profession. In the Middle Ages, such a language was Latin - the international language of scientists. In the Near and Middle East, Arabic and Persian languages performed a similar function. The language of the pandits, that is, educated people in India, has become the now dead language of Sanskrit. Its fate is to some extent shared in Arab countries by classical Arabic, which differs significantly from living Arabic dialects.
In another case, these are the so-called cult languages, which owe their existence to religious traditions and desires to distinguish the “sacred” from the “secular.” Dead languages are usually cultic. This is the language of Catholic worship - Latin, the Church Slavonic language of the Orthodox religion and Grabar (ancient Armenian) the language of the Gregorian Church. Coptic, Greek, Sanskrit, Arabic, etc. are also used as cult languages. Closely related to cult languages are special languages created for mystical purposes and which are especially widespread in primitive societies. Finally, special languages related to the division of the sexes should also be included here. This division itself often has a cultic character.
A. Samoilovich reports on the special female vocabulary of the Altai Turks, which (affecting mainly the everyday vocabulary) is built parallel to the male vocabulary. For example:
Women's vocabulary Men's vocabulary
"Wolf" Uluchi Poro
"Child" Uran Bala
"Chicken" Uchar Kush
"Teeth" Azu Tish
"Horse" Unaa At
[Samoilovich 1989: 222]
Cult, mystical and women's tongues are often created artificially, and this brings us to the next group.
1.2.1.2. Creation of special "languages"
“Languages” of this group, as a rule, are created with the aim of distinguishing themselves from people common language. Such delimitation is often associated with all kinds of “secret,” “secret,” or antisocial activities. The language itself is used as a unique means of covering such activities.
Among such “secret” languages in modern linguistics, argot, jargon, and slang are distinguished. These terms are often used interchangeably. However, it is advisable to distinguish between the concepts hidden by these names: argo- this, in contrast to jargon, is, to one degree or another, a secret language created specifically in order to make speech given social group incomprehensible to outsiders. Therefore, it is preferable to use the phrases “thieves’ slang”, “argo of the ofeni” - itinerant traders in Russia in the 19th century, rather than “thieves’ jargon”, “ofeni’s jargon”. According to the authors modern dictionary linguistic terms, “...jargon is dominated by the expression of belonging to [a given] group, and argot is a linguistic disguise of the content of communication.”
But such a contrast concerns, first of all, the history of the formation of jargons and argot. It should be noted that the “secrecy” of criminal argot is very relative. Those who fight crime, as a rule, speak this language quite well, and the idea of secretly agreeing on argot in the presence of the alleged victim of a crime seems generally naive. For this purpose, one-time codes of the same type are created within specific criminal communities. The “secrecy” of the language of criminals is often deliberate, ostentatious, designed primarily to preserve group identity, to contrast “us” and “not their own.” There are many words in the argot that, due to their slight differences from the normative ones, cannot claim secrecy (cf. hospital A-hospital, any medical institution, get married- have a cohabitant), in other cases, outwardly indistinguishable from normative units in argot have only differences in semantics that are insignificant for the average native speaker. It is no coincidence that in the argot the word people means only those who comply with the law of thieves; if, upon entering the cell, a thief asks: “Are there people?”, he means those belonging to the criminal world. Another reason for the existence of argo is the need to satisfy expression. In this regard, many vocabulary units are replaced in argot relatively often, while others, less emotionally charged, remain unchanged over the centuries. D. S. Likhachev points to another important reason for the emergence and existence of argot: a feature of thieves’ thinking is the presence of elements of a magical attitude towards the world. Primitive magical perception also affects the attitude towards language: an unsuccessfully spoken word at the wrong time can bring misfortune and fail the work begun. In this regard, in the criminal world, ordinary words are replaced by argot ones; there are also a number of taboo topics that are not customary to talk about even in argot. In this regard, criminal argot is reminiscent of the slang and professional speech of hunters, military personnel and other people involved in risky professions. [Belikov 2001: 49]
Borrowings from argot can significantly change meanings. For example, lower(in argot - “to give the lowest possible social status”) in the speech of modern journalists and politicians means “to put in place, to humiliate”; Gopnik(the original, from the 19th century, meaning in the argot was “ragamuffin”, then also “robber”) in modern youth slang, the main meaning is “uncultured aggressive teenager”. When criminal phraseology is transferred to a colloquial or jargonized version of a common language, the internal form is often lost, cf. give it to your paw -“to give a bribe” (from criminal law) give a paw where is the word itself paw means "bribe").
Term slang more typical of the Western linguistic tradition. In content it is close to what is denoted by the term jargon.[Belikov 2001: 52]
1.2.1.3. Social and professional differentiation of the national language
The social differentiation of the national language always makes itself felt - in some cases with greater force, in others with less force; everything depends on the specific historical conditions of the people’s existence.
The very social structure of society, the greater or lesser degree of delimitation of its social layers from each other also have a direct impact on the national language, contributing to its social differentiation.
Social differentiation of a language, as a rule, is carried out through vocabulary, semantics, stylistics and phraseology - and always on the basis of the common language. Therefore, it is quite legitimate to talk about social dialects as branches of the national language. The actual lexical differences between social dialects were meant by A.I. Herzen when he wrote: “A mere mortal wears a shirt, and a gentleman wears a shirt... one sleeps, and the other rests, one drinks tea, and the other deigns to eat it.” In relation to English society, W. Scott speaks about the same in the novel “Ivanhoe,” pointing out that as long as animals run in peasant fields, they are called ox (bull), calf (calf), sheep (ram), pig ( pig). But as soon as they get to the master’s table, they receive different, basically French, names: beef (beef), veal (veal), mutton (lamb), pork (pork).
The identification of professional groups in society contributes to the creation of so-called “professional languages”. Since in this case we're talking about exclusively about lexical features, then it is more correct to talk about professional vocabulary. Professional vocabulary usually does not recognize local differences and focuses exclusively on professional interests. To a large extent, it is composed of terms (often in international circulation and willingly using foreign vocabulary), but it also very widely resorts to the lexical resources of the national language, giving individual lexical elements a special meaning. It is clear that the very formation of professional “languages” is connected with the nature and significance of a particular professional group, its greater or lesser limitation within society, etc.
The very concept of professional language (or professional vocabulary) does not have a clear definition. This includes guild “languages”, and “languages” of individual professions, and various scientific and technical “languages”, and “languages” of groups that are difficult to fit into any specific category. Thus, in a chapter on special languages (Sondersprache) filled with enormous and interesting material, G. Hirt considers in the same row the “languages” of nannies, students, lawyers, offices, poetry, farmers, hunters, miners, typographers, beggars, merchants, soldiers, sailors , various sciences - philosophy, mathematics, grammar, etc.
“Professionalization” of a language is usually carried out in three ways: 1) through the creation of new words (also through borrowing), 2) through rethinking the words of the national language, 3) by preserving archaic elements.
R. Shor gives examples of the first group of words in his book. Printing workers use words that are incomprehensible to non-professionals, such as reglet, granny, veneer, spacing, tenacle, real, size, galley, cicero, case etc. In horse racing, horse breeders distinguish gait, grunt, trot, trot, trot, trot, grunt, trot, trot, camber, pass, swim, amble, interruption etc. Poultry farmers distinguish twelve tribes in nightingale singing: pulsing, fanging, shot, rolling, filming, Lesheva's pipe, cuckoo's flight, gander, Yulia's knocking, start, push, etc.[Shore 1986: 59]
1.2.2. Reflection of demographic changes in language
Demographic changes can be reflected in language in certain ways. For example, the strong increase in the urban population in our country compared to the pre-revolutionary period expanded the scope of use of urban koine, to a certain extent contributed to the expansion of the scope of use of the literary language and limited the use of dialect speech. At the same time, the influx of rural populations into cities due to the development of industry had a certain impact even on the literary language. Researchers of the history of the Russian literary language note that in the 50-60s there was again some looseness in the verbal use of non-literary words and phrases and, in particular, elements of vernacular. This is manifested in the wide inclusion of colloquial words (and colloquial meanings of commonly used words) in various genres of literary speech - and their stylistic foreignness in this case is clearly felt. [Serebrennikov 1970: 439]
The older population usually more easily retains the features of the dialect, while young people who have been on the outside always introduce various innovations. A reduction in the number of any ethnic group always leads to a reduction in the scope of language use and a reduction in its functions.
The linguistic state may be influenced by such factors as the multinational nature of the state. In all multinational states, almost as a rule, one language stands out, acting as the main means of communication. An example is the Russian language in our country, the Indonesian language in Indonesia, English and to a certain extent Hindi in India, etc.
Population movement, expressed in relocation to new places, can contribute to the mixing of dialects or increased dialect fragmentation. The well-known researcher of Russian dialects P. S. Kuznetsov notes that the border of the Russian and Belarusian languages cannot be determined precisely enough. In the territory occupied by the Russian language, adjacent to the territory of the Belarusian language, there is a large number of dialects containing well-known Belarusian features and forming, as it were, a gradual transition from the Russian language to the Belarusian language. This is explained by the fact that the territory west of Moscow (for example, Smolensk land) was constantly the subject of struggle between the Russian and Lithuanian principalities. These lands repeatedly changed hands; they were part of either the Principality of Lithuania or the Russian state. It can be assumed that each conquest of this territory entailed an influx of Russian or Belarusian population. As a result of linguistic mixing, the area of transitional dialects arose.
The relocation of the population to areas significantly remote from the main ethnic massif creates conditions of isolation, which leads to the creation of sharply different dialects and even special languages. The differences between individual dialects of the Khanty language are sometimes so great that their speakers do not understand each other at all. Particularly large differences are observed in the Eastern Khanty dialects, territorially isolated from other dialects.
The resettlement of the ancient Norwegians to the island of Iceland contributed to the emergence of a special Icelandic language, which in essence represents a form of the Old Norse language preserved with some innovations. The same factor contributed to the formation of the specific Brazilian Portuguese language, the Afrikaans language, etc. Intensive colonization of various countries of the world significantly contributed to the spread of languages such as English and Spanish.
The dialectological diversity of Siberia - the presence of Northern Great Russian and Southern Great Russian dialects in it - is also explained by the difference in colonization flows.
The invasion of large masses of conquerors and the seizure of territories with a foreign-speaking population may also be the reason language changes. The history of the Urdu language is very revealing in this regard. Its emergence is closely connected with the subjugation of India to Muslims. The bulk of Muslims who settled in Northern India spoke Persian and its dialects. Persian was the official language of the Muslim empires in India. The intersection of economic, political and administrative interests of the indigenous population of northern India and the Muslims who settled in its northern part led to the fact that over the course of several centuries, based on the dialects of the Punjabi language and Hindi, on the one hand, and Persian, on the other, the Hindustani language was developed (Urdu), which organically combined elements of Indian dialects with Persian ones. From the Persian language, which in turn already abounded at that time with a huge number of elements Arabic, Urdu includes a very large number of words.
Mass penetration of a foreign-speaking population into territory occupied by another people can lead to the loss of the Aboriginal language. The history of various peoples provides numerous examples of such cases, for example, the disappearance of the Gauls on the territory of France, the Celtiberians on the territory of Spain, the Thracians on the territory of Bulgaria, the Ob Ugrians on the territory of the Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, the Scythians on the territory of Ukraine, etc. [Serebrennikov 1970: 433]
1.2.3. Reflection in the language of cultural development
Development of the productive forces of society, technology, science and general culture usually associated with the emergence of a large number of new concepts requiring linguistic expression. The development of a society's culture inevitably creates gaps in the vocabulary of each language, which speakers of a given language try to fill in by all means available to them. New terms are created, some old terms receive new meanings, and the area of special vocabulary, varying depending on the conceptual content of each science separately, is unusually expanded. The influx of new terminology is at the same time accompanied by the disappearance or relegation to the periphery of some terms that no longer reflect the current level of development of sciences.
The general rise in the culture of the population contributes to the expansion of the sphere of use of the literary language, which is simultaneously accompanied by a narrowing of the sphere of use of territorial dialects and causes significant changes in the state of social dialects. “Together with the rapid rise of mass culture,” notes F. P. Filin, “the base of the old urban vernacular, which is a kind of fusion of professionalisms, vocabulary stylistic and other neologisms with territorial dialects, has been destroyed. The term “vernacular” has now come to mean non-normative and stylistically reduced means of language, which are used for certain purposes and in a certain situation.” [Filin 1969: 14]
General increase The cultural level of the population caused such an interesting phenomenon as the expansion of the layer of neutral vocabulary. The expansion of the layer of neutral vocabulary in our time is also due to book and special vocabulary. The neutralization of book vocabulary can also be explained by the interpenetration of bookish and colloquial elements in the everyday business style of speech. Therefore, in the language of our days, book vocabulary is distinguished not so much on the basis of its opposition to colloquial vocabulary, but rather on the basis of its opposition to the neutral, commonly used vocabulary of the language of the newspaper, resolutions, speeches and performances. Polysemantic words are the first to undergo the neutralization process. Of the unambiguous words, those words that do not have doublets and neutral colloquial synonyms are most often neutralized.
The growth of culture contributes to an increase in the functions of the literary language, simultaneously accompanied by its more intense stylistic differentiation, the emergence of new varieties of oral and written speech. The development of written language can have a noticeable effect even on the structure of the language. Various researchers, for example, have proven that complex sentences in all languages receive intensive development only with the emergence and development of written speech.
The role of unusually powerful means in the dissemination of a single literary language is played by the media.
The expansion of the functions of the literary language and its dissemination among the broad masses of the population necessitates the establishment of uniform spelling, spelling and grammatical norms. This factor has a preservative effect. The purposeful influence of society (and in particular, the state) on a language, designed to promote its effective functioning in various spheres, is called language policy (most often this is expressed in the creation of alphabets or improvement of spelling rules, special terminology, codification and other activities).
The emergence of an extensive system of linguistic styles and the establishment of linguistic norms contributes to the development of the so-called linguistic aesthetics, which is expressed in protecting the language or style from the penetration of everything that violates stylistic or linguistic norms. [Vendina 2001: 27]
The development of culture is naturally associated with increased contacts with various countries of the world, with the goal of exchanging experience in the most various areas science and technology. On this basis, international terminology arises. Translation of technical and scientific literature inevitably leads to the emergence of common stylistic features and features in the social spheres of the language. [Serebrennikov 1970: 439]
Conclusions on the first chapter
The question of the connection between language and society still remains controversial in science. However, the most widespread point of view is that the connection between language and society is two-way.
Language is capable of reflecting changes in the life of society in all its spheres, which significantly distinguishes it from all other social phenomena.
For a detailed description of language as a social phenomenon and to identify its specificity in this regard, it is necessary to consider language in the following aspects: 1) the specificity of language service to society, 2) the dependence of language development on the development and state of society, 3) the role of society in the creation and formation of language .
Language cannot be indifferent to the fundamentally social divisions that arise within the society served by a given language.
Linguistic phenomena generated by the social differentiation of society are divided into the following three groups:
1. social and special use of languages;
2. creation of special “languages”;
3. social and professional differentiation of the national language.
The influence of general culture on the development and functioning of language should not be underestimated. The development of the productive forces of society, technology, science and general culture is usually associated with the emergence of a large number of new concepts that require linguistic expression. The influx of new terminology is at the same time accompanied by the disappearance or relegation to the periphery of some terms that no longer reflect the current level of development of sciences.
CHAPTER 2. SOCIOLINGUISTICS AS THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE IN ITS SOCIAL CONTEXT
2.1. Origins of sociolinguistics
It has long been known that language is far from socially uniform. One of the first written observations indicating this dates back to the beginning of the 17th century, Gonzalo de Correas, a teacher at the University of Salamanca in Spain, quite clearly distinguished between the social varieties of the language: “It should be noted that the language has, in addition to the dialects found in the provinces, some varieties , associated with the age, position and property of the inhabitants of these provinces: there is a language of villagers, commoners, townspeople, noble gentlemen and courtiers, a scholar-historian, an elder, a preacher, women, men and even small children.” [Stepanov 1976: 22]
The term "sociolinguistics" was introduced by scientific circulation in 1952 American sociologist G. Curry. However, linguistic research, taking into account the conditionality of linguistic phenomena by social phenomena, began to be conducted with greater or less intensity already at the beginning of this century in France, Russia, and the Czech Republic. Scientific traditions different from those in the USA determined the situation in which the study of the connections of language with social institutions, with the evolution of society, was never fundamentally separated in these countries from “pure” linguistics. “Since language is possible only in human society,” wrote I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, “then, in addition to the mental side, we must always note the social side in it. Linguistics should be based not only individual psychology, but also sociology." [Baudouin de Courtenay 1963: 15].
Such outstanding scientists of the first half of the 20th century as I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, E. D. Polivanov, L. P. Yakubinsky, V. M. Zhirmunsky, B. A. Larin, A. M. Selishchev, G. O Vinokur in Russia, F. Bruno, A. Meilleux, P. Lafargue, M. Cohen in France, C. Bally and A. Seschee in Switzerland, J. Vandries in Belgium, B. Gavranek, A. Mathesius in Czechoslovakia and others , belongs to a number of ideas without which modern sociolinguistics could not exist. This is, for example, the idea that all means of language are distributed among spheres of communication, and the division of communication into spheres is largely socially conditioned (S. Bally); the idea of social differentiation of a single national language depending on the social status of its speakers (works of Russian and Czech linguists); the position according to which the pace of linguistic evolution depends on the pace of development of society, and in general, language always lags behind social changes in the changes taking place in it (E. D. Polivanov); extension of the methods used in the study of rural dialects to the study of the city language (B. A. Larin); justification of the need for social dialectology, along with territorial dialectology (E. D. Polivanov); the importance of studying jargons, argot and other uncodified areas of language for understanding the internal structure of the national language system (B. A. Larin, V. M. Zhirmunsky, D. S. Likhachev), etc.
Characteristic sociolinguistics of the second half of the 20th century - the transition from general work to experimental testing of put forward hypotheses, a mathematically verified description of specific facts. According to one of the representatives of American sociolinguistics, J. Fishman, modern stage The study of language from a social perspective is characterized by such features as systematicity, strict focus of data collection, quantitative and statistical analysis of facts, close intertwining of linguistic and sociological aspects of the study. [Belikov 2001:16]
2.2. Object and tasks of sociolinguistics
One of the founders of modern sociolinguistics
American researcher William Labov defines sociolinguistics as a science that studies “language in its social context.”
If we decipher this definition, then we must say that the attention of sociolinguists is not drawn to the language itself, not to its
internal organization, but on how the people who make up a particular society use language. In this case, all factors that can influence the use of language are taken into account - from various characteristics of the speakers themselves (their age, gender, level of education and culture, type of profession, etc.) to the characteristics of a specific speech act. [Labov 1975: 124]
"A thorough and precise scientific description specific language, noted R. Jacobson, “cannot do without grammatical and lexical rules regarding the presence or absence of differences between interlocutors in terms of their social status, gender or age; determining the place of such rules in the general description of language is a complex linguistic problem.” [Jacobson 1985: 382]
Unlike generative linguistics, presented, for example, in the works of N. Chomsky, sociolinguistics deals not with an ideal native speaker who generates only correct statements in a given language, but with real people who in their speech can violate norms, make mistakes, mix different language styles, etc. It is important to understand what explains all such features of the real use of language. [Chomsky 1972: 9]
It follows from this that with a sociolinguistic approach to language, the object of study is the functioning of language; its internal structure is taken as a given and is not subjected to special study.
So, the object of sociolinguistics is language in its functioning. And since language functions in a society that has a certain social structure, we can talk about sociolinguistics as a science that studies language in a social context.
Sociolinguistics studies the various influences of the social environment on language and on people's speech behavior. General linguistics analyzes the linguistic sign itself: its sound and written form, its meaning, compatibility with other signs, its changes over time. Sociolinguistics focuses on how people use a linguistic sign - is it all the same or differently, depending on their age, gender, social status, level and nature of education, the level of general culture, etc.?
Let's take for example the word production. Describing it from the point of view of general linguistics, it is necessary to indicate the following: a feminine noun, first declension, inanimate, not used in the plural form, three syllables, with emphasis on the second syllable in all case forms, denotes an action on the verb mine (coal mining) or the result of an action (Production amounted to one thousand tons or, in another meaning: The hunters returned with rich booty).
A sociolinguist will also note the following properties of this noun: in the language of miners it has stress on the first syllable: production and is used both in singular and in plural: several loots.
Such differences can be determined not only by profession, but also, for example, by the nature of education: it is one thing for a person who graduated from a technical institute, and another for a person with a humanities education. They have different linguistic inclinations, different speech preferences and skills. In modern Russian society, for example, the speech of the technical intelligentsia, to a greater extent than the speech of the humanitarian intelligentsia, is influenced by jargon: words and expressions like cool, goner, go crazy, screw up, stand on your ears, run into someone, download your license etc. [Belikov 2001: 10]
People of the same profession or the same narrow social circle often form rather closed groups that develop their own language. In the old days, the jargon of the ofeni was known - itinerant traders, who, with their incomprehensible manner of speech to the uninitiated, seemed to fence themselves off from the rest of the world, keeping the secrets of their trade secret. Nowadays, the language of programmers and all those who professionally deal with computers has also turned into a kind of jargon: monitor they call it eye , disk - pancakes , user - user and so on.
Elements of such jargons are words, phrases, syntactic constructions, features of pronunciation and inflection - play the role not only of means transmitting information, but also of original symbols: by them a person who is familiar to a given group is identified, and by their absence - a “stranger”. Studying group languages, speech behavior a person as a member of a certain group is one of the direct tasks of sociolinguistics.
Each language has different forms of addressing the interlocutor. There are two main forms in the Russian language: “ty” and “you”. An unfamiliar or unfamiliar adult should be addressed as “you” (the same applies to older people, even acquaintances), and addressing them with “you” is a sign of a closer, cordial relationship. The study of social conditions influencing the choice of forms of personal address (and, in addition, greetings, apologies, requests, farewells, etc.) is also an area of interest for sociolinguistics. Russian speech etiquette- just one, and relatively simple, example from this area. Other languages, such as Japanese and Korean, have much more complex rules polite address to the interlocutor.
According to the observations of one teacher, before the revolution on the Don, children at school used the adverb Here, at home we had to talk here : Here was perceived by indigenous speakers of the Don dialect as urban, alien, in contrast to their own here.
These are examples of speech differences depending on communication conditions. But in each situation a person can take a different position: to be an interlocutor “on an equal footing” or to feel his superiority over his communication partner (or, on the contrary, his subordination to him). When communicating with each other, people seem to play different roles: father, husband, son (in the family), boss, subordinate, colleague (in an official setting), passenger and conductor, buyer and seller, doctor and patient, etc. Type role is determined by the nature of speech and speech behavior: with a father they speak differently than with a peer, with a teacher at a university - differently than with a salesperson; imperative constructions in the mouth of a doctor are natural when he performs his official role (Breathe! Hold your breath! Take off your clothes!), and inappropriate when, for example, he is riding a bus, etc.
The idea of what situations, when playing what roles, what language should be used is formed as the child gradually turns into an adult. This process is called language socialization, i.e. language “entry” into a given society. And it is studied by sociolinguistics.
There are societies (states, countries, regions and territories) where not one language is used, but two or more. Often one of them is a state one and in this sense is generally obligatory: if you want to live normally in this society, communicating with other people, with the authorities, moving up the social ladder, you need to know official language. Other languages existing in a given society are usually the native languages of people united in certain ethnic groups or constituting entire nations (this is the situation, for example, in many countries of modern Africa). Functioning in close proximity to each other, different languages serving a particular community can mix and acquire various intermediate forms: pidgins, creole languages. In the process of formation and functioning of such languages, sociolinguistics is interested in the social and situational conditions in which they are used and interact with each other.
Sociolinguists also set themselves the following task: to regulate the development and functioning of language (languages), without relying entirely on the spontaneous flow of linguistic life. A useful and important aid in carrying out this task is the study of the assessments that people give to their own or someone else’s language, to individual linguistic elements. Speakers evaluate the same facts of speech differently: some people, for example, easily accept innovations, while others, on the contrary, defend traditional methods of expression; Some people like the rigor of foreign scientific terms, while their opponents advocate for the originality of special terminology. The study of differences in assessments of linguistic facts makes it possible to identify socially more prestigious and less prestigious forms of speech, and this is important from the point of view of the prospects for the development of the language norm and its renewal.
The development of linguistic problems aimed at managing language processes is called language policy; language policy is part of sociolinguistics, the entry of this science into speech practice. [Belikov 2001: 13]
2.3. National language policy
National language policy refers to the impact of society in a multinational and multilingual society on the functional relationships between individual languages. This influence is exercised, firstly, by the state and its competent bodies - such as legislative assemblies and commissions, including in some countries - special committees (for example, in India, the Central Directorate for Hindi Language, chaired by the Prime Minister). Secondly, the subjects are committees organizing school affairs, the press, mass communication, book publishing, theater, cinema, and libraries. Thirdly, linguistic research centers, translation services, “language culture” services. Finally, the subjects of national language policy are various public institutions and organizations: political parties, associations of teachers, writers, journalists, scientists, various voluntary “assistance societies”, “societies of native language enthusiasts”, for example, the Slavic Society of Slovenia, Conversation of Russian Lovers words, Fellowship of the Belarusian Language named after Frantishk Skaryna (since 1990). At the same time, it is not always the state and public organizations strive for the same goals. [Mechkovskaya 1996: 17]
2.3.1. Software-theoretical component
National language policy is based on a certain theoretical and ideological justification. Each state, social class or estate, party proceeds from a certain concept on the national question, that is, from its understanding of what a people, nation, nationality is; how people (ethnic group) and language, religion, culture, state are connected; how do ethnic and universal, ethnic (national) and class relate in culture, politics, ideology; what is justice and progress in interethnic relations.
In the practice of nation-language construction, there are many dead ends that have been led to by ill-conceived theoretical guidelines. Thus, in a number of countries in Asia and Africa, the identification of nation and state has led to the infringement of the national interests of small nations that do not have their own states. In some countries where Islam is the dominant religion, nationality and religion are identified. This tends to ignore existing national differences. Thus, the Pakistan Muslim League declared the entire population of the country to be a single nation, and Urdu as the state national language. However, in fact, Pakistan remains a multilingual and multinational country (the main peoples are Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns, Balochis). Urdu (the language of the Indian group of the Indo-European family), which is the mother tongue of only 10% of the population of Pakistan, is unable to provide inter-ethnic communication and is increasingly being marginalized English language. [Mechkovskaya 1996: 121]
2.3.2. Legal status of languages
Legal regulation of the relationship between languages can be significantly different both in content and in the degree of certainty.
Yes, not in all multilingual countries There are laws regulating the relationship between languages. Canadian researcher J. Turi, having examined 147 constitutions, found that only 110 of them have articles relating to language. The absence of language laws strengthens the position of the language of the majority of the population and leaves the languages of national minorities without state protection. [Gak 1989: 107]
IN different countries ah laws determine the status of languages in terms state, official, Sometimes National; In India, the 15 languages mentioned in the constitution are called constitutional. According to the laws on the language of the former Soviet republics of 1989-1990, the language of the people after whom the corresponding republic was named received the status state The Law “On the Languages of the Peoples of the USSR” defined the legal status of the Russian language as official language of the USSR.
In some multilingual society, the law may interpret existing languages as languages of either equal status or unequal status. Thus, the four main languages of Switzerland, Finnish and Swedish in Finland have equal status under the law. In fact, such a law obliges the state to maintain the equal status of languages and, therefore, create real guarantees for ethno-linguistic minorities.
Despite the importance of program and legislative measures, the activities of the state in their implementation are still decisive in national language policy. The more than once declared equality of languages and peoples remained equality only on paper. For example, according to the decree of the Sejm of Poland in 1925, secondary schools in Western Belarus could be in both Polish and Belarusian languages. The choice of language depended on the parents of the students. And yet, despite tens of thousands of statements about the desire to teach children in Belarusian schools and even the fact that the Polish Ministry of Education prepared sets of Belarusian textbooks, Belarusian schools were never opened. [Mechkovskaya 1996: 126]
2.3.3. Economic measures
Constructive national language policy programs that seek to expand the areas of use of a particular language require significant financial support.
Thus, the central government of India has taken a number of measures to promote Hindi as the official language of the state and a means of interethnic communication in the country. With federal funds, colleges to train Hindi teachers were established in non-Hindi-speaking states; the government has also borne the entire cost of paying Hindi teachers in these states. Under a special book publishing program funded by the government, hundreds of university-level books on various fields of knowledge were published in Hindi, including a 12-volume encyclopedia that was translated. Special funds were allocated to support Hindi-language newspapers and magazines, and for the circulation and distribution of films - films in Hindi. Various prizes were established for the best original and translated works in Hindi, not only fiction, but also specialized literature (for example, for the best publication on jurisprudence). Numerous scholarships were awarded to students from non-Hindi speaking states for their success in learning Hindi. To strengthen Hindi in the official sphere, a network of courses for employees to study Hindi, with an examination system, was created; it was also necessary to standardize the keyboards of typewriters, direct-printing telegraph devices, etc. [Gandhi 1982: 56]
At the same time, the government has taken a number of measures to ensure that Hindi does not become a tool of discrimination against the non-Hindi-speaking population. One of key measures- implementation in schools of the so-called “three-language formula”, according to which each student learns a regional language (if it is not Hindi), Hindi and English.
Thus, the possibilities for the state and public associations of citizens to influence the language situation are quite large. They are based on the fact that people are able to control the social status and functions of individual languages and change them according to in the right direction. The more widely and freely a language is used in its society, the more favorable the conditions for its development and improvement, the higher its prestige. On the contrary, the narrowness (or narrowing) of the social functions of a language (for example, a legal or actual ban on the use of a particular language in government institutions either in secondary or higher school) impoverishes the communicative capabilities of the language, dooms it to stagnation and impoverishment and, ultimately, complicates the life of society. [Mechkovskaya 1996: 127]
2.4. Methods of sociolinguistic research
V. A. Zvegintsev even wrote about the “methodological omnivorousness” of sociolinguistics and, in connection with this, found that the methodological apparatus represents “its weakest point.” However, at the same time it should be noted that in Lately in sociolinguistics, two interrelated processes are observed: the development of its own conceptual and methodological apparatus and the specification of the subject area, the rejection of an overly broad interpretation of the tasks of sociolinguistics (the latter is characteristic, for example, of the concept of the American sociolinguist D. Hymes). [Zvegintsev 1982: 255]
On this moment There are no special methods used to create sociolinguistic theories; here sociolinguistics is limited to general scientific methods. The methodological features of sociolinguistics lie in its empirical research. When collecting specific information, sociolinguistics largely relies on the methodological experience of sociology and social psychology, but the methods of these sciences here receive certain modifications in relation to the problems that are solved by this linguistic discipline. Thus, since many types of sociolinguistic work are associated with the collection and analysis of mass material, sociolinguistics uses methodological techniques that have long been used by sociologists: oral questioning, questionnaires, interviews and others, which undergo changes in accordance with the specifics of sociolinguistic analysis.
Currently, we can talk about a certain set of research methods used by sociolinguistics. In general, methods specific to sociolinguistics as a linguistic discipline can be divided into three groups: methods of collecting material, methods of processing it, and methods of assessing the reliability of the data obtained.
In the first group, methods borrowed from sociology, social psychology and partly from dialectology predominate; in the second and third, methods occupy a significant place mathematical statistics. There is also specificity in the presentation of sociolinguistic materials. In addition, the material obtained, processed and assessed using statistical criteria requires a sociolinguistic interpretation, which allows us to identify natural connections between language and social institutions.
An important feature of sociolinguistics is the need to clarify methodological details in relation to each specific task. Since the sociolinguist often has to deal with a large number of informants, preliminary abstract modeling of the interview situation cannot predict all the difficulties that often arise in direct contact with informants. In order to identify any complicating factors and minimize their impact on the results of the study, pilot studies are usually carried out to test the effectiveness of known methodological techniques in relation to a specific situation.
When collecting information, sociolinguists most often resort to observation and surveys; The general scientific method of analyzing written sources is also widely used. Of course, these methods are often combined: after a preliminary analysis of written sources, the researcher formulates a certain hypothesis, which he tests during the observation process; To verify the collected data, he can resort to a survey of a certain part of the social community of interest to him. At the very beginning of sociolinguistic research, the researcher is faced with the problem of choosing those specific individuals on whose linguistic behavior it is supposed to build hypotheses and test them. [Belikov 2001: 267]
Conclusions on the second chapter
It has long been known that language is far from socially uniform. Linguistic research, taking into account the dependence of linguistic phenomena on social phenomena, began to be conducted with greater or less intensity already at the beginning of this century in France, Russia, and the Czech Republic. In 1952, the American sociologist G. Curry introduced the term “sociolinguistics” into scientific circulation.
The object of sociolinguistics is language in its functioning. And since language functions in a society that has a certain social structure, we can talk about sociolinguistics as a science that studies language in a social context.
The development of linguistic problems aimed at managing language processes is called language policy; language policy is part of sociolinguistics, the entry of this science into speech practice.
National language policy includes the following components: 1) theoretical program and its propaganda; 2) legal status of languages; 3) economic measures.
Sociolinguistics is a young science. She has not yet had time to properly develop her own, unique methods of studying language. But due to the fact that it arose at the intersection of two sciences - sociology and linguistics, representatives of the new field of knowledge tried to perceive all the best that is characteristic of the methodology and technology of research in both sciences that “feed” it.
At the moment, there are no special methods used to create sociolinguistic theories; here sociolinguistics is limited to general scientific methods.
Conclusion
The multifaceted and multifunctional nature of language does not allow us to consider this complex phenomenon within the framework of traditional linguistics, devoting only a section to the issues of interaction between language and society. common system studying.
By the middle of the 20th century, research in the field of sociology of language intensified. The state of the science of language and trends in the development of society made it necessary for the emergence of interdisciplinary sciences, one of which was sociolinguistics. The term itself was used back in the late 50s, the first substantiated definitions appeared in the mid-60s, however, even today the status of sociolinguistics is not fully defined.
The most common concept of sociolinguistic research comes from various internal stimuli for the development of language associated with the characteristics of its system and social factors external to the language that influence the development of language.
To date, a certain terminological and methodological apparatus of sociolinguistics has been formed as an independent science, which makes it possible to achieve certain positive results in such an area of research as the interaction of language and society.
While working on this topic, we found that, similar to the research on the issue of “language-society”, which served to form such a science as sociolinguistics, research in the field of “language-culture” also resulted in the formation of interdisciplinary connections, primarily between linguistics and cultural studies, and found its reflection in such a science as linguoculturology.
Thus, we can talk about the possible study of the “language-society-culture” complex and assume the existence of interdisciplinary connections between sociolinguistics and linguoculturology.
List of used literature:
1. Belikov, V.I., Krysin, L.P. Sociolinguistics [Text] / V.I. Belikov, L.P. Krysin.- M., 2001.- 439 p.
2. Baudouin de Courtenay, Vinogradov, V.V. Selected works on general linguistics [Text] / Baudouin de Courtunay, V.V. Vinogradov.- M.: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1963.- T.1.- 384 p., T.2.- 391 p.
3. Vendina, N. Introduction to linguistics [Text] / T. N. Vendina. - M.: graduate School, 2001.- 288 p.
4. Wessen, E. Scandinavian languages [Text] / E. Wessen. - M.: KD Librocom, 2007. - 157 p.
5. Gak, V.G. On the typology of language policy forms [Text] / V.G. Hak // Questions of linguistics. Vol. 5.- M.: Nauka, 1989.- P. 104-133
6. Gandhi, K.L. Language policy in modern India [Text] / K.L. Gandhi.- M.: Nauka, 1982.- 184 p.
7. Zvegintsev, V. A. Thoughts on linguistics [Text] / V. A. Zvegintsev. -M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1996.-336 p.
8. Zvegintsev, V. A. Essays on general linguistics. Digital library philology [Internet resource] - www. gumer.info/ bibliotek_Buks/ Linguist/zveg/04.php
9. Labov, U. Study of language in its social context [Text] / U. Labov // New in linguistics. Vol. 7.- M.: Progress, 1975.- P. 152-216
10. Literary encyclopedic Dictionary[Text] / Ed. V.M. Kozhevnikova, P. A. Nikolaeva. - M.: Soviet encyclopedia, 1987.- 752 p.
11. Mechkovskaya, N.B. Social linguistics [Text] / N.B. Mechkovskaya.- M.: Aspect Press, 1996.- 207 p.
12. General linguistics: forms of existence, functions, history of language [Text] / Ed. B.A. Serebrennikova.- M.: Nauka, 1970.- 597 p.
13. Reformatsky, A.A. Introduction to linguistics [Text] / A.A. Reformatsky.- M.: Aspect Press, 2001.- 536 p.
14. Samoilovich, A.N. Women's words among the Altai Turks [Text] / A.N. Samoilovich.- M.: Russian literature, 1989.-T.3.- P. 222-223
15. Stepanov, Yu.S. Fundamentals of general linguistics [Text] / Yu.S. Stepanov.- M.: Education, 1975.- 272 p.
16. Filin, F.P. On the problem of social conditioning of language [Text] / F.P. Owl // Language and society: Sat. scientific Proceedings.- M., 1969.- P. 14
17. Chomsky, N. Language and thinking [Text] / N. Chomsky. - M.: Moscow Publishing House. University, 1972.- 122 p.
18. Shor, R. O. Language and society [Text] / R. O. Shor. - M.: Education worker, 1986. - 152 p.
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Modern linguistics recognizes the dependence of language on society in the process of its emergence and also determines the main function of language - to be a means of communication in society. In addition to language, social phenomena include the economic structure of society, the basis, political, legal, philosophical, aesthetic, religious views of society and the superstructure corresponding to them. This is due to the main function of language - to be a means of communication.
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Two-way (dialectical) connection between language and society
The idea of the connection between language and society arose a long time ago. Even ancient Greek philosophers talked about the social contract when naming objects. Modern linguistics recognizes the dependence of language on society in the process of its emergence, and also determines the main function of language - to be a means of communication in society.
Language serves society and, therefore, can be classified as a social phenomenon. In addition to language, social phenomena include the economic structure of society (base), political, legal, philosophical, aesthetic, religious views of society and the institutions corresponding to them (superstructure). The language is used in all areas human activity in the sphere of production, culture, science, etc. This is due to the main function of language to be a means of communication. Language, being a product of society, at the same time turns into one of the main conditions for the existence of society itself.
Thus, the dialectical connection between language and society, i.e. social essence is determined by 2 factors:
1) the dependence of language on the life of society;
2) dependence of society on language.
The nature of historical changes in language is not related to the characteristics of the economic structure of society. But at the same time, one can note the dependence of language on the state of human society. This dependence is most clearly manifested in the dialect division of the language, associated with territorial and social fragmentation. A feature of the reflection of social organization in language is the preservation of modern language those features that record past social orders and social structures. For example, the territorial dialects of Tver and Rostov regions reflect old feudal boundaries. When the social structure changes, dialects are preserved, but at the same time their role as a means of communication becomes different.
The national variety of the language developed on the basis of the dialect of the region or city that was more developed economically and culturally. For example, the Russian literary language was formed on the basis of the Moscow dialect.
Conclusions:
The social nature of the language is reflected in the history of the formation of literary languages, as well as in the dialect division of the language, in the history of the formation of literary languages and other facts.
Language arises, exists and develops, performing certain functions. The functioning of a language is possible only in a group of speakers, and, therefore, it is possible to consider the functional side of a language only by taking into account social factors.
The problem of the relationship between language and society is one of the fundamental problems of linguistics. Everything created by man would be impossible without language. Language reflects the life of the people; it becomes a kind of cultural monument.
The study of history is impossible without turning to language, which extremely faithfully and figuratively reflects the entire historical path traversed by the people. The idea of an inextricable connection between the history of society and language has long been confirmed by many scientists.
Each language has not only territorial differences. The language is heterogeneous and socially. In this regard, it varies in a variety of directions. For example, there may be age-related characteristics of the language: the speech of a child will always differ from the speech of an adult, the speech of the older generation often differs from the speech of the younger generation, there are languages in which the language of women in the area of pronunciation differs to a certain extent from the language of men. The variability of speech may depend on the general educational level. An educated person speaks differently than a poorly educated person. A certain imprint on the speech characteristics of people can be left by their occupation, range of interests, etc. Belonging to a certain class, social origin, and the environment in which a person constantly moves also contribute to the appearance of certain speech characteristics
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| Novosibirsk The size of the shadow economy in countries around the world and changes in energy prices: is there a connection? The presented work is in line with publications devoted to the analysis of the conditions and factors for the development of the shadow economy and its role in the overall economic system. Compared to similar works, we also take into account the price factor, namely the impact of energy prices on the size of the shadow sector of the economy. This should increase the size of the shadow economy. 2000 describing the behavior of a firm that decides how much of its income it... | |||
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| In a family environment in society, in the dialogue of different generations, the real formation of the psyche of children takes place and at the same time the mental life of parents changes significantly. If a family has several children, then natural conditions appear for the formation of a full-fledged team. The most common of them are: humanity and mercy towards a growing person; involving children in the life of the family as its equal participants; openness and trust in relationships with children; optimism in family relationships; sequence in... | |||
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INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………3
1 RELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY…………………………………4
2 ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIETY……………………….6
3 INFLUENCE OF SOCIETY ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT…………..14
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST…………………………….25
INTRODUCTION
The Russian language is the language of the Russian people (about 140 million people), whose representatives currently live not only in Russia, but also in many other countries of the world.
Language is the main means of human communication: without language, people cannot transmit and receive the necessary information and influence others.
Language is a form of existence of national culture, a manifestation of the very spirit of the nation. In proverbs and sayings, songs and fairy tales that have survived to this day, in archaic words, the language contains references to the features of the past life of the people. The greatest works of literature are written in Russian.
Throughout its existence, from a moment of formation unknown to us, the language, of course, has undergone many changes, improving and developing under the influence of various factors: the influence of other languages; responded to current political and social events, succumbed to the influence of the so-called. professionalisms, neologisms, absorbed slang words from the youth environment, etc. But our language, this subtle and sensitive organism, was able to “grind” everything, subject it to its own rules, absorbing everything necessary, “digest” the verbal derivatives of the achievements of progress, science and technology, and has managed to remain the same “great and powerful” instrument until now communication and expression of any thoughts and emotions. Language is transformed in accordance with implicit but cruel laws, similar to the laws of development of living nature: a mass of mutations and continuous selection.
1 CONNECTION OF LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY
The idea of a close connection between language and society arose in the minds of people, apparently, a very long time ago. The main difficulty in studying this issue is that this idea, contained in many statements, is not formulated in the form of a thesis: language is a social phenomenon. An implicit expression of this idea can be found in the statement of some ancient Greek philosophers about the possibility of the emergence of the names of objects on the basis of an agreement between people, and in the statement of G. Leibniz about language as the best mirror of the human spirit, and in the well-known position of Wilhelm Humboldt, according to which language arose as a consequence the need for communication, and in the works of K. Vossler, A. Meillet, C. Bally, J. Vandries and a number of other researchers.
The spread of structuralism in world linguistics, associated with drawing attention to the problems of studying the internal linguistic structure, contributed to a certain relegation of linguasociological problems to the periphery. Nevertheless, interest in them never ceased. Particularly much attention in foreign linguistics is paid to the study of cultural and historical factors in the development of language and the problems of “linguistic existence”, the influence of the linguistic system on the peculiarities of perception and “vision of the world”.
To characterize language as a social phenomenon means to find such distinctive features and features that would clearly show that language belongs specifically to social phenomena. Quite a lot of special monographic studies have now been written on the topic “Language and Society”, however, unfortunately, it must be noted that almost all of them are characterized by one-sided presentation. So, for example, in the famous work of R. O. Shor “Language and Society,” the author’s entire attention is focused on showing and highlighting the social moment in the word.
Joyce Hertzler's special monograph "A sociology of language" is also essentially devoted to the consideration of various social factors that influence language. The correct Marxist understanding of the social nature of language, according to E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, is determined by: 1) a correct understanding of the dependence of language on the life and state of society and 2) a correct understanding of the meaning of language in the life of society.
The collection "Language and Society", published by the Institute of Linguistics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, examines such problems as the social conditioning of language, social differentiation of languages, functional development of languages, language policy, language construction, the function of language as an ethnic characteristic, the importance of the social factor in the development of language, the role of sociological factors in the development of language. In short, the emphasis is again placed on the ways in which language is dependent on society.
For more full characteristics language as a social phenomenon and identifying its specificity in this regard, it is necessary to consider language in different aspects. The main starting point is to state the dependence of language on society and recognize the specificity of its main function - to be a means of communication. In connection with the above, it seems appropriate to consider four issues: 1) the specificity of language serving society, 2) the expression of social consciousness by language, 3) the dependence of language development on the development and state of society, 4) the role of society in the creation and formation of language.
2 ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT
An essential feature of language as a social phenomenon is its ability to reflect and express social consciousness. At first glance, this sign may seem insignificant, since other phenomena serving society may also reflect public consciousness. Machines that serve society undoubtedly reflect social consciousness to a certain extent, since their creation is unthinkable without taking into account and using a certain amount of knowledge accumulated by society. The base and superstructure serving society also reflect social consciousness. However, the distinctive property of language is that it is essentially the only means of reflecting and expressing social consciousness in its full extent.
It should be noted that the problem of reflecting social consciousness in language is often addressed in special linguistic works, as well as in courses on general linguistics. Attempts to solve it in the history of linguistics often led to gross errors of a vulgar sociological nature. All this is explained by the vagueness of definitions of the essence of social consciousness, which is often found in popular textbooks on dialectical materialism and in popular works.
Marxism teaches that social consciousness is a reflection of social existence. “Materialism,” notes V.I. Lenin, “generally recognizes objectively real being (matter), regardless of consciousness, sensation, experience, etc. of humanity. Consciousness is only a reflection of being, at best approximately correct (adequate , perfectly accurate) reflection of it." It is not difficult to understand that Lenin used the term “consciousness” in the broad sense of the word as a reflection of being as a whole. In the same broad sense, Marx and Engels used the term “consciousness”: “Language is as ancient as consciousness; language is a practical consciousness that exists for other people, and only thereby does real consciousness also exist for myself.”
Despite the presence of clear definitions of the essence of social consciousness, which we find in the works of the classics of Marxism, in our special philosophical literature there are many vague definitions of this most important epistemological category. Social consciousness quite often it gets mixed up with ideology, with thinking, etc.
We can note with satisfaction that such vagueness of definitions in our special philosophical and historical literature is beginning to be overcome. In a broader sense, social consciousness includes not only ideological forms, but also natural sciences - all knowledge (both social and natural). This interpretation of the content of social consciousness is justified by the fact that ideas about the life of nature and ideas about the life of society are not ideas of some isolated individuals, but social ideas, since knowledge of nature and society is comprehended through the collective efforts of many generations. So, for example, V.F. Zybkovets in his book “The Pre-Religious Epoch” gives the following definitions of consciousness in general and social consciousness in particular: “Consciousness is the content of thinking. Consciousness is the social and personal practice of people in an indirect, generalized reflected form, i.e. e. in the form of concepts. Social consciousness - living reflection social life, general characteristics level of everything spiritual development human society at a historically specific moment." "Worldview is a general understanding of existence."
“The social consciousness, notes V.V. Zhuravlev, contains parts that differ in their relation to the ideological superstructure of society. Some elements of social consciousness are included in the superstructure (political, legal, philosophical, religious and other views), others are not included (the sciences of nature and Technical science). Viewed from this side, social consciousness is the unity of superstructural and non-superstructural aspects, class and non-class elements."
The collection “Forms of Social Consciousness” provides a special explanation of the role of various ideas in their relation to the base and superstructure: “Public consciousness, being divided along one line into social psychology and ideology, is divided along another line into a number of forms. These include: political ideas , legal, moral, artistic, religious, philosophical. These forms of consciousness are ideological forms and are included in the superstructure. But not all ideas in general are included in the superstructure. Of course, all ideas without exception have their roots in the development of productive forces. But, for example, technical ideas reflect changes in productive forces differently than, say, legal ideas. While the former reflect these changes directly, the latter reflect them indirectly, through changes in economic relations, and are therefore superstructural.
Having made the division various forms consciousness into superstructural and non-superstructural, one should always keep in mind a certain convention of this division. In fact, all forms of consciousness can, to some extent, contain superstructural and non-superstructural elements. Natural Sciences in their most general conclusions they become an integral part of the worldview.
Further, all forms of social consciousness carry out not only social-class, but also cognitive functions. This means that they include a set of previously developed research skills, techniques, and methods of processing factual material. Finally, any form of social consciousness has a system of already established concepts and categories. Considered as forms of thought, these categories also cannot be attributed to the class aspect of social consciousness.
Moreover, some philosophers argue that the system of scientific knowledge and various kinds of ideological forms does not exhaust the entire content of social consciousness. Its structure is more complex. Social consciousness also includes the consciousness of people that arises in the process of their ordinary, everyday practice - the so-called ordinary consciousness.
In order to create a complete understanding of the essence of social consciousness, it would also be useful to consider the interpretation of the essence of consciousness in psychology.
Psychology considers consciousness as a higher function of the brain, unique to humans and associated with speech, consisting in a generalized and abstract generalization of reality, in the preliminary mental construction of actions and anticipation of the results of activity, in self-control and reasonable regulation of human behavior.
In psychology, consciousness is understood as the entire spiritual world of a person, from elementary sensations to higher motives and complex intellectual activity. The psychological approach to consciousness is characterized by understanding it as a process. The content of this process lies in a person’s awareness of the external world and himself. As a result of interaction with the surrounding reality in the process of ontogenetic development, in the course of communication with other people, a person reflects this reality and gains knowledge about it. Unlike animals, in which knowledge merges with their life activity, man separates knowledge from what is reflected in it and from the one who reflects it. This separation is possible due to the fact that the results of human cognitive activity are objectified in language.
The totality of knowledge about the environment, obtained by a person directly and as a result of assimilation of what has been accumulated by mankind and enshrined in language, constitutes a necessary prerequisite for the awareness of objective reality and the emergence of consciousness as a certain specific formation. Thus, knowledge constitutes the core of consciousness, its core.
Objective reality is not realized through sensations. Psychological phenomena perform this function only by being included in the system of accumulated knowledge, acquired experience, in correlation with what a person’s interaction with objective reality was like.
Consciousness is a new quality psychological processes, which arises in a person in connection with the socially organized activities of people, with their labor. A person’s ability to make theoretical generalizations expressed in language makes it possible to a large extent to replace individual human experience with “the experience of the race” - the experience of previous generations of people.
Due to the public nature of the language created by society, human thinking also acquires a social character. Each person thinks in the same categories as the people around him think, uses the same concepts that all speakers of a given language use. Language thereby turns into one of the primary conditions for the existence of society.
It should be emphasized that not all the content of human experience becomes public domain. For cognition and progressive practice, the most important results of thinking are those that correctly reflect objective reality. It can be assumed that throughout the centuries-old history of mankind, in the process of man’s struggle for existence, what was vitally necessary and practically useful was consciously, and often completely spontaneously, selected and generalized.
The social nature of thinking manifests itself at every stage of social development, thanks to which a spiritual connection is also realized between different stages.
It would be wrong to say that in the social life of people there is only social consciousness, social thinking and there is nothing individual. In reality, social consciousness is created, developed and enriched by individuals. The spiritual wealth of society, art, everything that has been accumulated by science and technology, exists only through individual consciousness. The consciousness of society functions only through the consciousness of individual, specific living people. The entire system of ideal relationships between people is dead until it is experienced by a feeling, thinking individual. Only in the individual sensory-practical action of a person, only in his psyche, in his perceptions, ideas, in his visually immediate forms of reflection does the correlation of the entire social system of knowledge with objective reality occur. Through the individual existence of a person, society learns, understands and transforms the world.
Thinking reflects objective reality on the basis and through practice. The practice of society is inextricably linked with the activities of the individual, individual practice.
Practice mediates the connection between thinking and individual practice. Different types of thinking depend on various types practices - individual (individual thinking), social (universal thinking), practices of some group (group thinking). Individual, group and universal thinking are correlated as individual, special and universal. However, being inextricably linked, individual and social practice are relatively independent.
It would, of course, be naive to assume that the system of material means of language represents a mirror image of everything that is in the public consciousness. The conceptual sphere is always more mobile than the sphere of means of material expression. In different languages you can find many techniques, constructions, etc., which currently no longer have any logical basis, but nevertheless exist in the language. A well-known example is the fact that in Russian, as in many other languages, the category of grammatical gender for inanimate objects is preserved. At present, no one is able to explain why the river belongs to feminine, and the island or shore - to the male. It can be assumed that at one time these categories had a certain logical basis, but at present its meaning has already been lost.
First past vr. in the Mari language it has two varieties - a variety that does not have the indicator љ, and a variety with the indicator љ, for example ludym “I read” and onchi-sh-ym “I watched”. Once upon a time, the indicator љ apparently had some specific meaning, which was lost over time. Nevertheless, the indicator s remains to this day.
“Language...,” G. O. Vinokur rightly notes, “has the ability to preserve its once emerged material organization as a relic of a very for a long time after the stage of cultural development that gave rise to it has ended... Structures inherited from the past very easily adapt to new conditions.”
In connection with the problem of the relationship between language and social consciousness, it would be worth pointing out some methodological distortions in solving this problem.
One of these perversions is the hypostatization of the role of language. Language is portrayed as the creator of reality, shaping human consciousness. A typical representative of this theory is the famous German linguist of the first third of the 19th century. Wilhelm Humboldt.
Language, according to Humboldt, is inherent in the nature of people themselves and is necessary for the development of their spiritual powers and the formation of a worldview. Language is, as it were, an external manifestation of the spirit of the people, the language of the people is its spirit. The structure of languages different nations different because the spiritual characteristics of peoples are also different; language, no matter what form it takes, is always the spiritual embodiment of individual folk life. Both objects of the external world and activity excited by internal causes simultaneously influence a person with many of their signs. But the mind strives to identify the common in objects; it dismembers and connects, and sees its highest goal in the formation of more and more comprehensive unities. Through subjective activity in thinking, an object is formed. All language as a whole is between man and nature influencing him internally and externally. Since a person’s perception and activity depend on his ideas, his attitude towards objects is entirely determined by language.
Proponents of the theory of classism of language do not take into account that language is not an ideological product, but a way of expressing thoughts of any content. The categories underlying the system of material means of expressing connections between words are absolutely neutral in relation to any class. The meaning of the absolutely predominant number of words included in the vocabulary of any language is ideologically neutral. It is for this reason that language finds itself in to the same degree suitable both for expressing judgments of a purely ideological nature, and for expressing judgments devoid of an ideological character. This property follows entirely from the peculiarity of the communicative function of language - to be a universal means of communication. Language by its nature is not class-based and cannot be class-based. There are cases when individual dialects seem to be assigned to classes.
3 INFLUENCE OF SOCIETY ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Among the most characteristic features language as a social phenomenon also includes the fact that society creates language, controls what is created and consolidates it in the system of communicative means.
It has already been said above that every word and every form is created first by some individual. This happens because the creation of a certain word or form requires the manifestation of initiative, which, due to a number of psychological reasons, cannot be demonstrated by all members of a given society. However, the initiative of an individual, if considered from a purely epistemological point of view, is not alien to other members of society. The commonality of the psychophysiological organization of all people as a whole, the presence of social consciousness, community of associations, etc. creates the so-called social potential, i.e. the possibility of manifesting the same initiative, going in a similar direction. This is the answer to the question why what is created by an individual can be accepted and approved by society.
Let's clarify this idea by specific examples. IN Bulgarian language there is a word mountain "forest". Its etymological connection with the Russian word gora is obvious. This means that the individual who first created the Bulgarian word gora associated it with a mountain covered with forest, since it can be assumed that the word gora in the meaning of the corresponding word in Russian also once existed in the Bulgarian language. The word mountain in the meaning of “forest” was not rejected by other members of this team, since a similar association could arise in everyone’s head. A similar phenomenon occurred in the history of the Greek language, bouleo in Greek means "to help." The original idea is to “run to the cry of a person calling for help.” The new word has become entrenched in the language, since everyone has a picture in their head of a typical situation when a cry signals the need for help. Everyone could create a new word in the same way. Something similar also happens when creating grammatical forms and their analogues. It can be assumed that some individual first created in the Norwegian language an analytical formation with the preposition af, which turned into a semantic analogue of the ancient Germanic genitive case with -s, for example, sunn af R. Nilsen "son of P. Nilsen." Here, essentially the idea of separation from something has been used to express belonging. The new education took root in the language because it did not contradict the social potential for creating a similar education. Potentially anyone could do this. Observations show that if the initiative of the individual who created a new word or form is in accordance with the social potential for creating the same form, then the new word or form is accepted by society and becomes fixed in the language.
The simplest cases of society approving new words and forms were discussed above. In the vast majority of cases, the approbation of something newly created by society depends on the combined action of various external and internal linguistic factors.
The authors of the monograph "Vocabulary of the Modern Literary Russian Language" rightly point out the shortcomings of many works of the 20-40s devoted to the study of the development of the Russian language in the conditions of Soviet society. Changes in the Russian language of the revolutionary era were not considered as a result of the interaction of internal and external, social laws themselves, which gave rise to a cultural and sociological bias in linguistic research.
Society in its entirety, sometimes consciously, but most often intuitively, feels very well whether a newly created word is suitable or not. Anything that is created unsuccessfully usually fails.
In the 16th century, the word kopeika arose, which remains in the Russian language to this day. A number of favorable factors contributed to the approval of this word. Firstly, the presence of a certain visual image. It has been established that kopeks were the name given to the coins on which, by order of Prince Ivan Vasilyevich, in 1535 they began to mint the image of a horseman with a spear in his hand. Initially, this name represented the combination of kopek money. The transformation of this combination put it in the same word-formation row with words like kozhanka, castor oil, sissy, etc. Secondly, the verb to save up could play a certain role in strengthening the word kopek in speech. The word hoard was most often applied specifically to money, and therefore the consonance of the monetary name kopek with this verb provided great support from within. Simultaneously with the kopeck, other monetary names appeared in the Russian language, formed in the same way: moskovka (from Moscow denga) and novgorodka (from Novgorod denga).
In connection with the process of unification of Russian lands and the elimination feudal fragmentation the word kopek, being geographically neutral, turned out to be more competitive and supplanted its rivals. Thus, the word kopek was influenced by other elements of the lexical system in several directions. It was supported by words genetically associated with it, as well as consonant lexemes that were close in meaning. All this could not but contribute to the strengthening of this monetary denomination in the vocabulary of the Russian language, which has survived to this day.
IN Soviet period The word house management entered the Russian language and became firmly established. Due to the decrease in the share of private homeownership in cities and the provision of residential buildings under the jurisdiction of city councils, the appearance of such a term was vitally necessary. Its success is explained primarily by the fact that the word house management did not run counter to the phenomena occurring in the lexical system of the Russian language. It was in harmony with the general trend of creating complex words such as afforestation, shipbuilding, bakery, etc. There were certain prerequisites for the creation of this word, since the verb to manage and the word uprava, for example, zemstvo uprava, already existed in the Russian language. When creating the term, the tendency to expand the functions of the suffix -eni was used. The term house management would be clearly inappropriate, since the word uprava has already disappeared from the active vocabulary of the Russian language, while the word upravlenie clearly expanded its scope of use during the Soviet period. The confluence of all these favorable circumstances ensured the special vitality of the new word house management.
With the development of mountain tourism and sports in our country, the term mountain rescuer entered the Russian language. Its success is explained not only by the fact that it became necessary, but also by the fact that it was not in conflict with some features of the lexical system of the Russian language. The suffix -tel is a common means of forming nouns denoting profession, position, etc., cf. such entities as teacher, writer, minister, organizer, etc. If the new term were expressed in one word, rescuer, then it would be in danger of receiving a mockingly ironic connotation, since a whole series of words with the suffix -tel actually have this connotation, cf. . a developer of a theory (in a bad sense), a prospector, a layman, etc. However, this did not happen, since the first part of the addition of the mountain protected the new term from a possible shift in meaning. The term turned out to be apt, not to mention vitally necessary.
But there may also be cases when a newly created word does not find support in the language. IN late XIX V. Finance Minister Witte proposed replacing the name ruble with the word rus (modeled on the French franc). By his order, coins with this denomination were minted. However, the word composed by the minister was not destined to survive in the language, because it did not find support either in popular speech or in traditional monetary terminology.
In the history of the creation of Russian terminology in the field of physics, terms were often created that could not establish themselves in the language. It was suggested, for example, that the term “theory” should be translated into the Russian word umstvovanie; To convey the term "figure" the word image was proposed. The semantic scope of the equivalent was so wide that the narrower meaning was dissolved and drowned in it. To convey the term “elastic” they tried to introduce the word “jumping”. In this case, the semantic scope of the proposed word was so narrow that a broad scientific generalization could not be based on it.
In the initial period of the development of aviation in our country, the need arose to have some kind of Russian term to designate an aviator (that’s what a pilot was called at that time. - B.S.). There were proposals to introduce the word liter (cf. the word reader from the verb to read). However, this proposal was not successful, since the proposed word met resistance from the lexical system of the Russian language. The suffix -ets combines a whole series of emotionally charged words of a reduced style: liar, scoundrel, fool, bastard, insolent, etc. The proposed word liar was in no way suitable for the name of a new and honorable profession. The word pilot caught on. This word had no evaluative connotation. In addition, the suffix -chik existed in many other words denoting profession, cf. fixer, bookbinder, plumber, etc.
There was a time in the history of our country when new terminology was intensively created in the national languages that received writing after the October Revolution. Some reformers, advocating for the “purity” of their language, tried to express all new concepts only in the words of their native language. So, for example, it was proposed to convey the predicate in Mari with the word oh poch, receipt - with the word oyyrchyk, electricity - with the word tuleer. To convey the Russian word nature in the Komi-Zyryan language, the word yvlavyv was used. These terms were completely unfortunate. The term oh poch "predicate" literally meant "end of thought." It should be taken into account that the predicate in the Mari language is not always placed at the end of the sentence; oyyrchyk meant “something torn off”, tuleer - “fiery river”. Komi-Zyryan yvlavyv meant “everything that is outside the house.” These terms were imprecise, inexpressive and completely artificial. They had no success.
In the 1920s, the word shkrab (school worker) appeared in the Russian language and became an official term. This term should denote, in contrast to a discredited teacher, or a teacher of the old formation, or even a teacher - words that have already become blurred and overgrown with many associations - a school worker of a new type who not only teaches, but also educates in a new way. It was difficult to think of anything more unfortunate. This word evoked associations with words such as slave and crab; the combination of consonants shk at the beginning of the word contributed to its association with a number of words of thieves' jargon - shkari, shket, etc. According to A.V. Lunacharsky ("One of Lenin's cultural testaments." Evening Moscow, January 21, 1929), when he showed V.I. Lenin a telegram that began with the words the shkrabs are starving, and when, at Lenin’s request, he explained to him what shkrabs meant, Lenin replied with great displeasure: “And I thought that some crabs in some aquarium. What an outrage to call a teacher such a disgusting word! He has an honorable title - people's teacher, and it should be reserved for him."
During the first period of radio introduction in our country, the term broadcasting arose, representing the translation of English broadcasting. However, this new term was met with the monosounding but odious word broadcast. The term broadcasting, as having caused undesirable associations, did not take root.
Recently, the verb to take a holiday has appeared in common parlance, for example: It’s time to go back - I’ve taken a holiday. You can be sure that this word will never go beyond the limits of rude and familiar jargon, since it violates the norms of language. The prefix na- in Russian is almost never combined with verbs of foreign language origin, the verb resort is created on the model of the slang verb samovarnitchat, the word resort does not form a derived verb in Russian, the prefix na- in this case gives the verb a rude and familiar connotation.
It is interesting to note that various evaluative criteria for the approval of a particular word may be different in different languages y spheres, styles, etc. People who use vernacular language can evaluate a word differently than people who use literary language evaluate it. The history of the word buza, which penetrated into the Russian colloquial language, is very indicative in this regard. According to L. Ya. Borovoy, this word was often found in the works of “Caucasian writers” early XIX century and was considered Tatar. In the Azerbaijani language, this word has the meaning of “a special intoxicating drink”, hence: With these Asians, everything is like this, tensions tightened, and a massacre began (Lermontov, “Bela”); As the buzas get drunk at weddings or funerals, so the cutting begins (ibid.).
In the first years of the revolution, as L. Ya. Borovoy notes, buza with many derivatives widely enters the language, reveals a semantic expansion and replaces many concepts. The word buza begins to be widely used in the literature of that time in its most diverse genres.
How can we explain the extraordinary success of this word? This success is explained by the combined effect of many factors. First of all, the semantic factor should be noted. Drinking the buza drink in the Caucasus was often accompanied by various noisy events, fights, landfills, creating chaos, etc. This created favorable conditions for metonymy, for this word to acquire the meaning “something stupid, disorderly and useless, no matter what it is.” For this reason, the verb buzz, buzz, was derived from the noun buza, which also became very widespread in popular speech. The expressiveness of this word was increased by the insensitivity of its internal form due to its foreign language origin, which sharply distinguished it from the background of the original Russian synonymous words disorder, confusion, confusion, etc.
Not connected by associations with this or that drink, or with anything at all, it became very fond of our youth for some time, as a very broad and universal word in meaning and funny in its very sound. Now it is just a slang word, finally expelled from the literary language.
An unsuccessful word, contrary to the laws of language, can to some extent be supported by temporarily operating factors. Interesting in this regard is the history of the words advanced and study, which were once quite widely used in the Russian literary language. The need for the word promoter arose in that era of the existence of our state, when the slogan was thrown out about the advisability of promoting workers and employees who had especially proven themselves to leadership positions. It was under these conditions that the word nominee was created. It was created, of course, unsuccessfully, since the suffix -enets almost always reduces, ironically or sadly processes the word (compare such formations with this suffix as defeatist, deprived, non-resistance, degenerate, renegade, etc.). In addition, this new formation was to a certain extent based on some previously quite rare formations of the non-reduced style, for example, supplier, settler, etc. As soon as the period of specially announced promotion ended, this word relatively quickly disappeared from the Russian language.
The word study was found in Russian literature as a word in the peasant colloquial language, without any special local attachment. After the revolution, study for the first time became a literary word and was included in the official formula of sending people to study. It is asserted persistently and fundamentally instead of too quiet and general teaching and enlightenment and directly against enlightenment, which is associated with bad historical memories and, in its very form and even sound, seems arrogant and charitable. Thus, a temporarily operating extralinguistic factor - the desire to contrast the new form of teaching with the training practiced in the old pre-revolutionary school - contributed to the approval of this word. But the choice of this word cannot be considered successful. Firstly, in the peasant language itself, the word study had a reduced meaning, as some kind of activity different from peasant work. Secondly, it was consonant with a number of words of a reduced style, such as: hvoroba, sweetheart, person, etc. This consonance naturally gave the word study a connotation of something too colloquial. Currently it is disappearing from the literary language.
Sometimes the factors that support a word or push it out of the language appear in a rather contradictory plexus. A slang word of low style can become the property of the literary language if one group of factors turns out to be more effective in this struggle. The history of the word hack is interesting in this regard. The etymology of the word hack is not clear. There have been attempts to connect it with the verb grab "to take greedily." Most likely it has a connection with the church term khartularai, or khartular “book guardian in a monastery or church”; Haltular is registered in documents of the 11th - 14th centuries, especially in the southwest. In church life, there was also a verb to hack - “to perform services (especially the funeral service for the deceased) at home, to do it quickly and somehow, in order to have time to visit more houses and get more money.” Then this word found a kind of refraction in another sphere. In the jargon of criminals, "thieves' music", hackwork was also associated primarily with the dead: hackworker "a thief who works where there is a dead man." This is “work,” so to speak, made easier and even obscene for a skilled thief. In this jargon, the dead man himself was also called a hack. On this basis, the word hack gets the meaning " easy job"and is widely distributed in the popular language. It was expressive as a word of foreign origin with an unclear internal form and even acquired a new meaning of “work on the side” or “work to the left.” It was not possible to oust this word from the literary language. It remains, as L notes ". Ya. Borovoy, in the language, hack is a high-sounding and vile in essence word, full of humor. The vitality of this word can also be explained by the fact that, in its external sound, it has entered a number of stylistically lofty words, such as literature, nature, prosecutor's office , registry, etc. This circumstance to a certain extent neutralized its slang affiliation.
External linguistic factors in some cases can have a very strong influence on the fate of a word. If we compare the vocabulary of the Turkish literary language of the 30s with its current state, then its vocabulary has been updated by at least 30-35%. Many Arabic and Persian loanwords that previously existed in the Turkish language have been replaced by new ones in Turkish words. One cannot but agree that not everything in this mass word creation was successful. However, purist tendencies turned out to be much stronger than various linguistic inconveniences and the proposed new words became established in the Turkish language.
CONCLUSION
When characterizing language as a social phenomenon, one should also take into account its dependence on changes in the state of human society. True, other phenomena serving society also have this property. For example, cars also reflect changes taking place in society. The superstructure also undergoes some changes due to changes in the state of human society. However, all these phenomena reflect changes in the state of society only in a certain respect. Language is capable of reflecting changes in the life of society on a broader scale, in all its spheres, which significantly distinguishes it from all other social phenomena.
Various specific cases of influence on language development from outside surrounding tongue external environment were described in the chapter “Language as a Historically Developing Phenomenon”. In this chapter, it is more appropriate to focus on those reasons for language changes that are directly related to changes in the state of society, since this type of change better characterizes the essence of language as a social phenomenon.
Human society does not represent an absolutely homogeneous group. There is differentiation caused by various reasons. This may be differentiation along class, estate, property and professional grounds, which is naturally reflected in language. The differentiation of language is especially intensified due to the increasing complexity of production and the division of labor that occurs on this basis, which is expressed mainly in the emergence of special terminology.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST:
1M. M. Gukhman. Linguistic theory of L. Weisgerber. - In the collection: "Issues of the theory of language in modern foreign linguistics." M., 1961.
2. V. F. 3ybkovets. Pre-religious era. M., 1959.
3.B. M. Zhirmunsky. The problem of social differentiation of languages. - In the collection: “Language and Society”. M., 1968.
4. V. V. Zhuravlev. Marxism-Leninism is about the relative independence of social consciousness. M., 1961.
5. V. J. Kelle, N. Ya. Kovalzon. Social consciousness. M., 1966.
6.A. Twisted. Seifullina's abstruse language, Sun. Ivanov, Leonov, Babel, I. Selvinsky, A. Vesely and others. M., 1925.
7.M. E. Kurdiani. Changes in the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language (Author's abstract of candidate's dissertation). Tbilisi, 1966.
8.Vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language. M., 1968.
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At all stages of the existence of a language, it is inextricably linked with society. This connection is two-way: language does not exist outside of society, but society cannot exist without language. "There is a language the most important means human communication,” wrote V. I. Lenin in the article “On the Right of Nations to Self-Determination”, emphasizing both the dependence of language on society (this is a means of “human communication”), and its importance for society (this is the “most important means” communication).
*(Lenin V.I. Complete. collection cit., vol. 25, p. 258.)
Language has been associated with society since its inception. It “arises only out of need, out of the urgent need to communicate with other people”*. As society develops, forms of social life become more complex, consciousness becomes enriched and developed, forms and types of communication develop and become more complex, and consequently, language develops and becomes more complex. Along with oral communication, written communication develops, along with direct everyday communication - business, official, scientific, along with communication within one’s collective - tribe, people, nation - intertribal, and gradually interethnic communication becomes necessary.
*(Marx K., Engels F. Soch., vol. 3, p. 29.)
The development and complexity of a language is especially clearly manifested in the development of special functional and communicative systems within its composition, serving different groups of native speakers, which leads to the identification of territorial and social dialects, a literary language and other forms of implementation of the national language. All these forms are far from identical in different historical periods development of human society and in various specific socio-historical conditions of the existence of a particular language. The relationships between them, their functions, and their internal structure are also not the same.
A particularly important stage in the development of the social structure of a language, i.e., the development of its constituent functional and communicative systems, is the transition from a capitalist society to a socialist one. The growth of the culture of the popular masses, the development of universal literacy, and then compulsory secondary education, unusually expand the circle of speakers of the literary language, affecting its composition and relationships with other components (components) of the national language. These components also change significantly.
Features of social development are also reflected in the prevalence of languages.
Languages with a small number of speakers are very characteristic of developing countries, only recently liberated from colonial dependence. Large quantity of small languages in such countries is a legacy not only of the distant past with small tribal languages, but also of the colonial period, when, along with the extinction of peoples, languages also died out. Thus, the Bongo language, widespread in the Nile Valley, was spoken by about 100 thousand people in 1870, and only about 5 thousand in 1931. The languages of the peoples of America became extremely rare.
The spread of some languages is associated with colonial conquests and the displacement of indigenous languages. Thus, the languages of the indigenous population are replaced in Brazil by Portuguese, in other countries of South and Central America by Spanish, in the USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand by English. In Europe, in the old territory of the spread of English and Spanish languages, only about 20% of the total number of speakers of these languages live.
In the history of human society, we know both the disappearance of languages and their transformation into dead languages, preserved only in written monuments and disappeared from living use. Such are ancient Greek, Latin, Sumerian and Aramaic in Western Asia, Gothic in Europe, etc.
The influence of society, its development, and the specific historical conditions of life of peoples also affects the relations between languages. In a feudal society, the connection between languages is weak; cases of mass bilingualism, that is, the use of two (or more) languages by a people or a significant part of them, are observed relatively rarely, mainly as clashes between the languages of the victors and the vanquished. In a capitalist society, connections between speakers of different languages are becoming closer, facts of the penetration of words from one language into another are widely noted, and cases of mass bilingualism are becoming more frequent. “At the same time, during this period, the inequality of languages is clearly manifested, especially in multinational states, where advantages are specifically created for the language of the dominant nation.
And in this regard, fundamental changes are taking place under the conditions of a socialist society. Thus, in our country, Lenin’s position on the equality of all languages, which determined the decision national question in the USSR, provided the opportunity for the development of the languages of all peoples of the USSR.
The nature of bilingualism has also changed significantly. It has become more widespread, and bilateral bilingualism has widely developed, especially in national republics, where not only native speakers of local languages speak Russian, but also native speakers of Russian know and use local languages.
Formation of a new historical community - Soviet people- determined the development of broad interethnic ties and the use of the Russian language as a language of interethnic communication. Hence the widespread development of national-Russian bilingualism, which has differences in the characteristics of its manifestation, but is characteristic of all the peoples of the USSR.
New conditions also affect the development of established literary languages. New words appear in them to denote new concepts, the meanings of old words change (cf. pioneer link, social burden, amateur art, public review, etc.). The development of science and technology determines the growth of special terminology and increases the share of special vocabulary in the vocabulary of the language.
All these facts are very important for understanding the dependence of language development on the development of society. But the connection between language and society is more diverse, more complex, and can also manifest itself in the influence of language on society.
language culture linguistics society
The connection between language and society, the direction of the connection, and the forms of its expression constitute the main range of issues that are studied within the framework of this problem. Even ancient scientists were convinced that there is a connection between human society and language: “Of all living creatures, only man is gifted with speech” (Aristotle). Language is inherent not just to the individual, but to man as a member of society, since the main purpose of language is to serve as a means of communication between people. The connection between language and society is manifested mainly in the influence of society on language, and the conditionality of the “vision of the world” inherent in a given society by language is less expressed and is confirmed by a significantly smaller number of facts. The influence of society on language manifests itself in various forms. The main ones are: the connection between the origin of language and the emergence of human society; social conditioning of language development; social stratification of language; social components in the structure of linguistic units; conscious influence of society and public institutions on language and its functioning.
The origin of language in connection with the emergence of society. There are many theories about the origin of language. In Russian linguistics, the most widespread theory is that people’s need for communication arose in the process of labor. Joint, collective work could not be effective without communication between working people. The communicative function was, apparently, the first to characterize that set of still primitive signs that served as the language of primitive people. Over time, others have been added to this function. The most important milestones on the path to the development of the initial (according to the time of their emergence) means of communication and their transformation into full-fledged language systems were the process of linearization of the signs used (arranging them in a certain order during the utterance) and the associated process of improving the speech organs, which led to the fact that speech became articulate. The further development of language - the accumulation and complexity of the dictionary, the formation of certain ways of changing words and their connection with each other (grammar) - is also, to one degree or another, connected with various stages and forms of development of society.
Social conditioning of language development. The connection between the history of language and the history of the people, with the history of society is an axiom of modern linguistics. However, the changes taking place in society, including major social transformations, do not affect language directly: they can accelerate or slow down the pace of linguistic evolution, contribute to the restructuring of individual sections of the language system (the main example in vocabulary), but the content and mechanism linguistic evolution, the nature of evolutionary processes is determined by the internal laws inherent in language.
These patterns are called antinomies (from the Greek antinomia - contradiction in the law). The most important of the antinomies are the following: the antinomy of speaker and listener, the antinomy of system and norm, the antinomy of code and text, the antinomy of regularity and expressiveness. At each specific stage of language development, antinomies are resolved in favor of one or the other of the opposing principles, which leads to the emergence of new contradictions in the language - a final resolution of the antinomies is impossible: this would mean that the language has stopped in its development.
Antinomies are internal laws that determine the self-development of language (as opposed to social influences, which are external, but in relation to language). However, the effect of antinomy is not free from the influence of social factors. Thus, the conflict between the speaker and the listener is resolved either in favor of the first or in favor of the second: sometimes “reduced” methods of expression develop in the language - a process reflecting the interests of the speaker, then, in others social conditions, dissected forms and structures begin to predominate (which meets the interests of the listener). For example, in the Russian language of the first decades of the 20th century. there was a strong tendency to shorten names, to condense them into one word - an abbreviation (such as military specialist, commander-in-chief, land department, etc.). In modern language, along with abbreviations, dissected names like: safety engineer, deputy 659 director of personnel, animal protection society, department for combating organized crime, etc., are widespread, not reduced to syllabic or initial abbreviations.
The antinomy of the system and the norm is resolved either in favor of the system - and then forms and methods of expression are allowed into speech that correspond to the systemic capabilities of the language, but contradict the normative tradition - then in favor of the norm, and then the forms and methods of expression allowed by the system are “filtered out” by the norm ”, leaving some in use and prohibiting or limiting others. For example, in modern vernacular, two-type verbs undergo a process of imperfectification: from the verbs to use, attack, mobilize, organize, etc., the forms use, attack, mobilize, organize are formed. Some of these forms (for example, to organize) are allowed in literary use, but in general the literary norm actively resists such innovations. It is possible, however, that in the future, on the trail. stages of language development, the imperfect forms of bispecific verbs (the very formation of which does not contradict the capabilities of the Russian morphological system and indicates the action in the language of a tendency to establish unambiguous correspondences between the form and content of a linguistic unit) will come into widespread use and become normative. An example of resolving a contradiction between a system and a norm in favor of the system is the expansion of inflection -a (-i) in them. p.m. h. for an ever wider range of nouns husband. kind. However, in different areas of the Russian language this process is implemented in different ways: for professional speech, forms in -a (-я) are natural and organic (cf. platoon in the language of the military, bearing - among sailors, soup and cake - among cooks and confectioners, etc. .d.), they are no less common in common speech, where even forms such as queue, square, mother are possible (i.e., feminine nouns are also subject to the expansion of the indicated inflection), and lit. the language, firstly, carefully filters these forms, allowing some into use and eliminating others, and, secondly, it supplies a significant part of the forms already allowed by the norm with various kinds of restrictions (cf. dictionary marks such as professional, simple, colloquial and etc.).
The effect of the antinomy of “code” and “text” is also not indifferent to the language subsystem in which it manifests itself. As a rule, this antinomy is resolved in favor of the “code” (it increases) in socially closed groups of speakers (cf. a paradigmatically ramified and detailed vocabulary in professional and social jargons, the establishment of one-to-one correspondences between the signified and the signified in special terminologies, etc. .). On the contrary, in socially open, “fluid” groups, where the linguistic habits of speakers are constantly influenced by the speech characteristics of other groups that join the composition of the speakers of a given language subsystem, the “code” is shortened, and the “text” is lengthened. This is natural: only signs common to all members of the collective are preserved. The implementation of the antinomy of regularity and expressiveness is also determined by social factors. In some groups of speakers, the tendency towards regularity more easily prevails; under other social conditions and in other groups of speakers, the tendency towards expressiveness prevails. Thus, in developed literary languages, especially in the book variety of each of them, there is a tendency towards regularity, which contributes to the stability of the literary norm, and in group jargons and dialects there is a strong tendency towards expressiveness.
Thus, although antinomies are internal to language and characterize its own development, their action is socially conditioned. Social factors act as such a conditioning principle. They are different in their influence on the language and have different linguistic significance. Some of them, global, act on all levels of the language structure, while others, private, to one degree or another determine the development of only some levels. An example of a global social factor is a change in the composition of native speakers. It leads to changes in phonetics, in the lexical-semantic system, in syntax and, to a lesser extent, in the morphology of the language: at all these levels, changes occur due to the influence of the speech skills of people joining the composition of the native speakers of a given language and qualitatively changing this composition. An example of a private social factor is a change in the traditions of mastering a literary language. In Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries, when the main carrier of the literary language was the noble intelligentsia, the oral tradition prevailed - the literary language was learned in family communication. In the new social conditions (after the October Revolution of 1917), the form of familiarization with the literary language through the book began to spread and even prevail (especially among those from working and peasant backgrounds who had mastered literary norms). This factor influenced mainly the norms of pronunciation: along with traditional pronunciation patterns, new ones, closer to the spelling appearance, began to spread.
